Escape is an early ZX Spectrum video game developed and released by New Generation Software in 1982.

"Can you ESCAPE from the monsters? You must search through the maze to find the axe which will enable you to break down the door and ESCAPE. But it is not that easy - the Triceratops hides behind the hedges and the Pteranodon soars over the maze to swoop down upon you"^[1]

The game[link]

The player has to search a maze displayed in primitive 3D for an axe, which will allow him to break the exit, and escape. He is chased by initially a single monster - each successful escape increases the number of monsters roaming the maze, until level 6, which introduces a Pterosaur that will occasionally take off and fly over the hedges, not being restricted to the maze paths.^[2]

Upon finding the axe, which is randomly placed for each level, the player speed slows down allowing the monsters to catch up.

Reviews[link]

Reviews can be found in the following magazines....

Sinclair User "The game was written by the author of the J K Greye 3D Monster Maze and is one of the best and most original games we have seen for the Spectrum so far" ^[3]

ZX Computing "This is not, as it may sound a jump on the 'Pacman' bandwagon, but rather an original and absorbing game which can become extremely difficult and frustrating" ^[4]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Escape (video game) at World of Spectrum

This article about a video game released for 8-bit computers is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Look up escape in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Escape may refer to:

• Escapism, mental diversion by means of entertainment or recreation
• Escapology, the study and practice of escaping from physical restraints
• Prison escape, the act of breaking out of prison
• Escape response, instinctive behaviour in animals

In entertainment[link]

In literature[link]

• Escape (Carolyn Jessop and Laura Palmer book), a book describing a difficult upbringing in the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
• Escape (Choose Your Own Adventure), a "Choose Your Own Adventure" book
• Escape (David McMillan book), an autobiographical book by smuggler David McMillan
• Escape (magazine), a British comic strip magazine published between 1983 and 1989
• "Escape!", a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov

In film[link]

• Escape (1930 film), a 1930 film starring Austin Trevor and Edna Best
• Escape (1940 film), a 1940 film starring Robert Taylor and Norma Shearer
• Escape (1948 film), a 1948 film starring Rex Harrison
• Escape (1980 film), a 1980 television film starring Timothy Bottoms and Colleen Dewhurst

In radio[link]

• Escape (radio program), a radio drama series on CBS
• Escape (Sirius XM), a music channel on satellite radio

In music[link]

Albums

• Escape (Enrique Iglesias album), or the title song (see below)
• Escape (Journey album), or the title song
• Escape (Ram-Zet album)
• Escape (Whodini album), or the title song

Songs

• "Escape" (Enrique Iglesias song)
• "Escape" (Metallica song)
• "Escape" (Misia song)
• "Escape" (Rupert Holmes song), later known as "Escape (The Piña Colada Song)"
• "Escape", a song by Craig Armstrong
• "Escape", a song by Journey from the album Escape
• "Escape", a song by Matisyahu from Light
• "Escape", a song by Muse from Showbiz
• "Escapee", a song by Architecture in Helsinki from Moment Bends

In video games[link]

Video game titles

• Escape (video game), a ZX Spectrum video game developed and released by New Generation Software in 1982

Video game companies

• Westone Bit Entertainment, a video game company formerly known as Escape

Other uses[link]

• Ford Escape, a small sport utility vehicle
• Escape character, in document processing, a character which signifies that what follows takes an alternative interpretation
• Escape Cliffs, historic settlement site in the Northern Territory, Australia
• Escape key, the "Esc" key on a computer keyboard
• Escape sequence, a series of characters used to trigger some sort of command state in computers
• E-scape, a project at Goldsmiths University in London that has developed an approach to the assessment of creativity and collaboration based on open-ended but structured activities
• Escape (paraglider wing), a paraglider wing manufactured and marketed bu UP Europe 1997-2000.

See also[link]

• The Escape (disambiguation)
• Xscape (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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v t e

This article's references may not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for reliable sources. Please help by checking whether the references meet the criteria for reliable sources. (February 2012)

A video game is an electronic game that involves human interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device,^[1] but following popularization of the term "video game", it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use. Video games have gone on to become an art form and industry.

The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. For example, a controller might consist of only a button and a joystick, while another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal computer games often needed a keyboard for gameplay, or more commonly, required the user to buy a separate joystick with at least one button.^[2] Many modern computer games allow or require the player to use a keyboard and a mouse simultaneously. A few of the most common game controllers are gamepads, mice, keyboards, and joysticks.

Video games typically use additional means of providing interactivity and information to the player. Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones. Other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration or force feedback, with vibration sometimes used to simulate force feedback.

In the early days of cartridge consoles, they were sometimes called TV games.

History[link]

Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a "Cathode ray tube Amusement Device" was filed for a patent on January 25, 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on December 14, 1948, as U.S. Patent 2455992.^[3]

Inspired by radar display tech, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which were drawings fixed to the screen.^[4]

Other early examples include:

• The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain
• OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952
• Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958
• Spacewar!, written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961.

Each game used different means of display: NIMROD used a panel of lights to play the game of Nim,^[5] OXO used a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe ^[6] Tennis for Two used an oscilloscope to display a side view of a tennis court,^[4] and Spacewar! used the DEC PDP-1's vector display to have two spaceships battle each other.^[7]

Nolan Bushnell at the Game Developers Conference in 2011

In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips.^[8] The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green. Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the "Brown Box", it also used a standard television.^[4][9] These were followed by two versions of Atari's Pong; an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that dramatically increased video game popularity.^[10] The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, spawning the video game industry.^[11]

A flood of Pong clones eventually led to the video game crash of 1977, which came to an end with the mainstream success of Taito's 1978 shooter game Space Invaders,^[12] marking the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games and inspiring dozens of manufacturers to enter the market.^[12][13] The game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores.^[14] The game also became the subject of numerous articles and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines, establishing video gaming as a rapidly growing mainstream hobby.^[15][16] Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS (later known as Atari 2600), becoming the first "killer app" and quadrupling the console's sales.^[17] This helped Atari recover from their earlier losses,^[18] and in turn the Atari VCS revived the home video game market during the second generation of consoles, up until the North American video game crash of 1983.^[19] The home video game industry was revitalized shortly afterwards by the widespread success of the Nintendo Entertainment System,^[20] which marked a shift in the dominance of the video game industry from the United States to Japan during the third generation of consoles.^[21]

Overview[link]

Platforms[link]

The term "platform" refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate.^[22] The term "system" is also commonly used.

In common use a "PC game" refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a IBM PC compatible personal computer connected to a video monitor. A "console game" is played on a specialized electronic device that connects to a common television set or composite video monitor. A "handheld" gaming device is a self contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a user's hands. "Arcade game" generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that bridge one or more platforms. In addition to personal computers, there are multiple other devices which have the ability to play games but are not dedicated video game machines, such as mobile phones, PDAs and graphing calculators.

With the advent of social networking and other online applications hubs, the term "platform" started being used to refer to the online service within which the game is played, regardless of the actual hardware on which it is executed. A game's platform could simply be "Facebook", whether it is played on a Windows PC, Mac, Smart TV, or smartphone.

Genres[link]

A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres based on many factors such as method of game play, types of goals, art style and more. Because genres are dependent on content for definition, genres have changed and evolved as newer styles of video games have come into existence. Ever advancing technology and production values related to video game development have fostered more life-like and complex games which have in turn introduced or enhanced genre possibilities (e.g., virtual pets), pushed the boundaries of existing video gaming or in some cases add new possibilities in play (such as that seen with titles specifically designed for devices like Sony's EyeToy). Some genres represent combinations of others, such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games, or, more commonly, MMORPGs. It is also common to see higher level genre terms that are collective in nature across all other genres such as with action, music/rhythm or horror-themed video games.

Classifications[link]

Casual games[link]

Casual games derive their name from their ease of accessibility, simple to understand gameplay and quick to grasp rule sets. Additionally, casual games frequently support the ability to jump in and out of play on demand. Casual games as a format existed long before the term was coined and include video games such as Solitaire or Minesweeper which can commonly be found pre-installed with many versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system.

Examples of genres within this category are hidden object, match three, time management, tetris or many of the tower defense style games. Casual games are generally sold through online retailers such as PopCap, Zylom, Vans Video Games and GameHouse or provided for free play through web portals such as Newgrounds or AddictingGames.

While casual games are most commonly played on personal computers, cellphones or PDAs, they can also be found on many of the on-line console system download services (e.g., Xbox Live, PlayStation Network, or WiiWare).

Serious games[link]

Serious games are games that are designed primarily to convey information or a learning experience of some sort to the player. Some serious games may even fail to qualify as a video game in the traditional sense of the term. Educational software does not typically fall under this category (e.g., touch typing tutors, language learning, etc.) and the primary distinction would appear to be based on the title's primary goal as well as target age demographics. As with the other categories, this description is more of a guideline than a rule.

Serious games are games generally made for reasons beyond simple entertainment and as with the core and casual games may include works from any given genre, although some such as exergames, educational games, or propaganda games may have a higher representation in this group due to their subject matter. These games are typically designed to be played by professionals as part of a specific job or for skill set improvement. They can also be created to convey social-political awareness on a specific subject.

One of the longest running serious games franchises would be Microsoft Flight Simulator first published in 1982 under that name. The United States military uses virtual reality based simulations, such as VBS1 for training exercises,^[23] as do a growing number of first responder roles (e.g., police, fire fighter, EMT).^[24] One example of a non-game environment utilized as a platform for serious game development would be the virtual world of Second Life, which is currently used by several United States governmental departments (e.g., NOAA, NASA, JPL), Universities (e.g., Ohio University, MIT) for educational and remote learning programs^[25] and businesses (e.g., IBM, Cisco Systems) for meetings and training.^[26]

Tactical media in video games plays a crucial role in making a statement or conveying a message on important relevant issues. This form of media allows for a broader audience to be able to receive and gain access to certain information that otherwise may not have reached such people. An example of tactical media in video games would be newsgames. These are short games related to contemporary events designed to illustrate a point.^[27] For example, Take Action Games is a game studio collective that was co-founded by Susana Ruiz and has made successful serious games. Some of these games include Darfur is Dying, Finding Zoe, and In The Balance. All of these games bring awareness to important issues and events in an intelligent and well thought out manner.^[28]

Educational games[link]

On September 23, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama launched a campaign called "Educate to Innovate" aimed at improving the technological, mathematical, scientific and engineering abilities of American students. This campaign states that it plans to harness the power of interactive games to help achieve the goal of students excelling in these departments.^[29][30] This campaign has stemmed into many new and exciting opportunities for the video game realm and has contributed to many new competitions. Some of these competitions include the Stem National Video Game Competition and the Imagine Cup.^[31][32] Both of these examples are events that bring a focus to relevant and important current issues that are able to be addressed in the sense of video games to educate and spread knowledge in a new form of media. www.NobelPrize.org uses games to entice the user to learn about information pertaining to the Nobel prize achievements while engaging in a fun to play video game.^[33] There are many different types and styles of educational games all the way from counting to spelling to games for kids and games for adults. Some other games do not have any particular targeted audience in mind and intended to simply educate or inform whoever views or plays the game.

Development[link]

Developers use various tools to create video games, here an editor to fine tune the virtual camera system.

Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment, is frequently a cross-disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Over the years this has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in the creation of any movie or television program, including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; as well as skills that are specific to video games, such as the game designer. All of these are managed by producers.

In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art, programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is gone, as this is still sometimes found in the casual gaming and handheld markets,^[34] where smaller games are prevalent due to technical limitations such as limited RAM or lack of dedicated 3D graphics rendering capabilities on the target platform (e.g., some cellphones and PDAs).^{[citation needed]}

With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has increased. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly looking to keep costs down in order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. In May 2009, one game project was reported to have a development staff of 450.^[35] The growth of team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines and unfinished products.^{[citation needed]}

Downloadable content[link]

A newer phenomenon of withholding content from the game and then releasing it at a later date for additional funds not factored into the retail price began with digital video game distribution known as Downloadable Content (also known colloquially as 'DLC'). Studios may choose to utilize this to issue original content after the game is released, such as Rockstar Games with Grand Theft Auto IV, or Bethesda with Fallout 3, yet often opt instead to create content before the game is released to be intentionally withheld, such as Activision and Treyarch with Call of Duty (Despite knowing well public affection for a 'Zombies' game mode, it was shipped with only one map for this game mode, and periodically releases new ones with $10 DLC).^[36][37][38]

Modifications[link]

Many games produced for the PC are designed such that technically oriented consumers can modify the game. These mods can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest. Developers such as id Software, Valve Software, Crytek, Bethesda, Epic Games and Blizzard Entertainment ship their games with some of the development tools used to make the game, along with documentation to assist mod developers. The Internet provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they may be a factor in the commercial success of some games.^[39] This allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as the Half-Life mod Counter-Strike.

Cheating[link]

Cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game developers,^[40][41] modification of game code by third parties,^[42][43] or players exploiting a software glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer.^[42] Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example weapons, health, or ammunition; or perhaps the ability to walk through walls.^[41][42] Other cheats might give access to otherwise unplayable levels or provide unusual or amusing features, like altered game colors or other graphical appearances.

Glitches[link]

Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases publishers will release updates (referred to as patches) to repair glitches. Sometimes a glitch may be beneficial to the player, these are often referred to as exploits.

Easter eggs[link]

Easter eggs are hidden messages or jokes left in games by developers that are not part of the main game.

Theory[link]

Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls "Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck, a fictional piece of technology from Star Trek, arguing for the video game as a medium in which we get to become another person, and to act out in another world.^[44] This image of video games received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as Tron, eXistenZ and The Last Starfighter.

Ludologists break sharply and radically from this idea. They argue that a video game is first and foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example, Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the heroine of the game Tomb Raider, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it."^[45] Simply put, ludologists reject traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player.

While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player."^[46] However, emergent behavior is not limited to sophisticated games. In general, any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game.

Social aspects[link]

Demographics[link]

The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers, found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has expanded significantly in the 25–40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females. Females have also been found to show an attraction to online multi-player games where there is a communal experience.^{[citation needed]} More recently there has been a growing segment of female players engaged with the aggressive style of games historically considered to fall within traditionally male genres (e.g., first-person shooters). According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC gamers are women^[47] (see Girl gamer).

When comparing today's industry climate with that of 20 years ago, women and many adults are more inclined to be using products in the industry. While the market for teen and young adult men is still a strong market, it is the other demographics which are posting significant growth. The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) provides the following summary for 2011 based on a study of almost 1,200 American households carried out by Ipsos MediaCT:^[48]

• The average gamer is 37 years old and has been playing for 12 years. Eighty-two percent of gamers are 18 years of age or older.
• Forty-two percent of all players are women and women over 18 years of age are one of the industry's fastest growing demographics.
• Today, adult women represent a greater portion of the game-playing population (37 percent) than boys age 17 or younger (13 percent).
• Twenty-nine percent of game players are over the age of 50, an increase from nine percent in 1999.
• Sixty-five percent of gamers play games with other gamers in person.
• Fifty-five percent of gamers play games on their phones or handheld device.

A 2006 academic study, based on a survey answered by 10.000 gamers, identified the gaymers (gamers that identify as LGBT) as a significant demographic group. ^{[49] [50][51]} A followup survey in 2009 studied the purchase habits and content preferences of people in the group.^[52][53][54]

Based on the study by NPD group in 2011, about 91 percent of kids aged 2–17 play games.^[55]

Multiplayer[link]

Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. Multiplayer video games are those that can be played either competitively, sometimes in Electronic Sports, or cooperatively by using either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was a two player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs.

Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as 12 inputs with additional adapters, such as the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players, sometimes tilting the monitor on its back for a top-down viewing experience allowing players to sit opposite one another.

Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least two game ports. PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer options because of technical limitations. PCs typically had either one or no game ports at all. Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based adventures or MUDs that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it. However, with the advent of widespread local area networking technologies and Internet based online capabilities, the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text and/or voice chat. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; Eve Online set a record with 54,446 players on a single server in 2010.^[56]

Benefits[link]

It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers.^[57]

Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects. It has been suggested by a few studies that online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental health concerns.^[which?]

In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good for You, he argues that video games in fact demand far more from a player than traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game, the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant gratification, games actually delay gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such as film or even many books.^[58] Some research suggests video games may even increase players' attention capacities.^[59]

Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education system.^[60] It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they do not realize they are learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits.^[61] Students are found to be "learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking.^[62]

The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot and UAV vehicles, which make use of a game-style hand controller to make it more familiar for young people.^[63]

According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers' dexterity as well as their ability to problem-solve. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons (82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did not play the video games first.^[64]

Whilst many studies have detected superior mental aptitudes^[which?] amongst habitual gamers, research by Walter Boot at the University of Illinois found that non-gamers showed no improvement in memory or multitasking abilities after 20 hours of playing three different games. The researchers suggested that "individuals with superior abilities are more likely to choose video gaming as an activity in the first place".^[65]Unreliable - Discuss

Controversy[link]

Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming (a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games often include parents' groups, politicians, organized religious groups, and other advocacy groups. Various games have been accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior,^[66][67] though how much ground this holds is debatable.^[68][69] "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views.

Various national content rating organizations, such as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board or ESRB in North America, rate software for certain age groups and with certain content warnings. Some of these organizations are optional industry self-regulation (such as the ESRB), while others are part of national government censorship organizations. Most video games display their rating on the front side of their packaging. However, parents are not always aware of the existence of these ratings. Not all ratings are considered accurate. Organizations such as What They Play and Common Sense Media aim to provide guidance and advice for parents.^[70]

Ratings and censorship[link]

ESRB[link]

The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) gives videogames maturity ratings based on their content. For example, a game might be rated T for Teen if the game contained obscene words or violence. If a game contains explicit violence or sexual themes, it is likely to receive an M for Mature rating, which means that no one under 17 should play it. There is a rated "A/O" games for "Adults Only" these games have massive violence or nudity. There are no laws that prohibit children from purchasing "M" rated games in the United States. Laws attempting to prohibit minors from purchasing "M" rated games were established in California, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Louisiana, but all were overturned on the grounds that the establishment of such laws were in violation of a child's First Amendment rights^{[citation needed]}. However, many stores have opted to not sell such games to children anyway. Of course, video game laws vary from country to country. One of the most controversial games of all time, Manhunt 2 by Rockstar Studios, was denied a rating by the ESRB until Rockstar could make the content more suitable for a mature audience.

Video game manufacturers usually exercise tight control over the games that are made available on their systems, so unusual or special-interest games are more likely to appear as PC games. Free, casual, and browser-based games are usually played on available computers, mobile phones, or PDAs.

PEGI[link]

Pan European Game Information (PEGI) is a system that was developed to standardize the game ratings in all of Europe (not just European Union, although the majority are EU members), the current members are: all EU members, except Germany and the 10 accession states; Norway; Switzerland. Iceland is expected to join soon, as are the 10 EU accession states. For all PEGI members, they use it as their sole system, with the exception of the UK, where if a game contains certain material,^[71] it must be rated by BBFC. The PEGI ratings are legally binding in Vienna and it is a criminal offence to sell a game to someone if it is rated above their age.^[72]

Germany: BPjM and USK[link]

Stricter game rating laws mean that Germany does not operate within the PEGI. Instead, they adopt their own system of certification which is required by law. The Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK or Voluntary Certification of Entertainment Software) checks every game before release and assigns an age rating to it - either none (white), 6 years of age (yellow), 12 years of age (green), 16 years of age (blue) or 18 years of age (red). It is forbidden for anyone, retailers, friends or parents alike, to allow a child access to a game for which he or she is underage. If a game is particularly violent, it may be referred to the BPjM (Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien - Federal Verification Office for Child-Endangering Media) who may opt to place it on the Index upon which the game may not be sold openly or advertised in the open media. Unofficially, the titles are not "banned" - adult gamers are still technically free to obtain the titles by other means, although it is still considered a felony to supply these titles to a child.

Commercial aspects[link]

Game sales[link]

A typical retail display (in Geneva, Switzerland) with a large selection of games for several major consoles

The three largest producers of and markets for computer and video games (in order) are North America (US and Canada), Japan and the United Kingdom. Other significant markets include Australia, Spain, Germany, South Korea, Mexico, France and Italy.^[73] Both India and China are considered emerging markets in the video game industry and sales are expected to rise significantly in the coming years. Irish are the largest per capita consumers of video games.^[74]

Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences. Japanese consumers tend to purchase much more console games than computer games, with a strong preference for games catering to local tastes. Another key difference is that, despite the decline of arcades in the Western world (see Golden age of video arcade games), arcade games remain the largest sector of the Japanese gaming industry. As of 2009, the Japanese gaming industry is worth $20 billion, including $6 billion from arcades, $3.5 billion from console game sales, and $2 billion from mobile game sales.^[75] In South Korea, computer games are generally preferred over console games, especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. There are over 20,000 Internet cafés in South Korea where computer games can be played for an hourly charge. Computer games are also popular in China, which has a PC gaming industry worth $6 billion, the largest in the world.^[76] Arcade games are also still a thriving industry in China, though console games have been banned in the country since the early 2000s.^[77]

The NPD Group tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported in 2004 that:

• Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003^[78]
• Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003^[78]
• PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 15% from 2006^[79]

PC games that are digitally distributed either directly or by networks such as Steam are not tracked by the NPD, and Valve does not list sales numbers for games downloaded through their service. Unauthorized distribution is also rampant on the PC.^[80]

These figures are sales in dollars, not units, Unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, because more software and hardware was discounted than in 2003. But with the release of the next-generation consoles in 2006, these numbers increased dramatically. The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with companies like Sony having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time to share the marketing costs.

The global market for console games has seen an average of 6.9 percent compound annual growth rate and is expected to become a $34.7 billion market in 2012.Online game sales are expected to grow at a larger rate of 16.9 percent, escalating from $6.6 billion in 2008 to $14.4 billion by 2012. The largest channel for growth, however, is in mobile gaming with a growth rate of 19 percent; estimated to grow from $5.6 billion in 2008 to $13.5 billion in four years.^[81]

Criticism[link]

Video games have the problem of regional lockout. In Australia, while most DVD players are sold region-free to accommodate local consumer rights legislation,^[82] video game consoles are still sold fully region protected. Some effort has been made to increase awareness of the issue, specifically to Nintendo of Australia,^[83] in the form of a formal report outlining the issues, published by Aaron Rex Davies.^[84] The report has gone on to gain a lot of attention in the public media.^[85]

Museums[link]

There are many video game museums around the world, for example Museum of Soviet Arcade Machines in Moscow^[86] or Computer Game Museum in Berlin.^[87]

The Smithsonian American Art Museum is running an exhibition on "The Art of Video Games".^[88]

See also[link]

Video games portal

	Book: Video game
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• Outline of video games
• Video game etiquette

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Computer and video games on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Video Games at the Open Directory Project
• The Virtual Museum of Computing (VMoC)
• Tom Chatfield writes on the culture and future of video games for Prospect Magazine
• CBC Digital Archives: The Arcade Age
• An interactive video game history timeline
• Video Games Through the Ages - slideshow by Life magazine
• Computer games museum in Paris

Video is the technology of electronically capturing, recording, processing, storing, transmitting, and reconstructing a sequence of still images representing scenes in motion.

History[link]

Video technology was first developed for cathode ray tube (CRT) television systems, but several new technologies for video display devices have since been invented. Charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing the first practical video tape recorder (VTR). In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the camera's electrical impulses and saving the information onto magnetic video tape.

Video recorders sold for $50,000 in 1956, and videotape cost $300 per one-hour reel.^[1] However, prices steadily dropped over the years; in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder (VCR) tapes to the public. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape and tape equipment plummeted.

Later advances in computer technology allowed computers to capture, store, edit and transmit video clips.

Characteristics of video streams[link]

Number of frames per second[link]

Frame rate, the number of still pictures per unit of time of video, ranges from six or eight frames per second (frame/s) for old mechanical cameras to 120 or more frames per second for new professional cameras. PAL (Europe, Asia, Australia, etc.) and SECAM (France, Russia, parts of Africa etc.) standards specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC (USA, Canada, Japan, etc.) specifies 29.97 frame/s. Film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24photograms/s, which complicates slightly the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve the illusion of a moving image is about fifteen frames per second.

Interlaced vs progressive[link]

Video can be interlaced or progressive. Interlacing was invented as a way to reduce flicker in early mechanical and CRT video displays without increasing the number of complete frames per second, which would have required sacrificing image detail in order to remain within the limitations of a narrow bandwidth. The horizontal scan lines of each complete frame are treated as if numbered consecutively and captured as two fields: an odd field (upper field) consisting of the odd-numbered lines and an even field (lower field) consisting of the even-numbered lines.

Analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. When the image capture device acquires the fields one at a time, rather than dividing up a complete frame after it is captured, the frame rate for motion is effectively doubled as well, resulting in smoother, more life-like reproduction (although with halved detail) of rapidly moving parts of the image when viewed on an interlaced CRT display, but the display of such a signal on a progressive scan device is problematic.

NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats. Abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is often specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing, and 50 indicates 50 fields (half-frames) per second.

In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all of the scan lines of each frame in sequence. When displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. When displaying a natively interlaced signal, however, overall spatial resolution will be degraded by simple line doubling and artifacts such as flickering or "comb" effects in moving parts of the image will be seen unless special signal processing is applied to eliminate them. A procedure known as deinterlacing can be used to optimize the display of an interlaced video signal from an analog, DVD or satellite source on a progressive scan device such as an LCD Television, digital video projector or plasma panel. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material.

Aspect ratio[link]

Comparison of common cinematography and traditional television (green) aspect ratios

Aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height. The screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4:3, or about 1.33:1. High definition televisions use an aspect ratio of 16:9, or about 1.78:1. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack (also known as the Academy ratio) is 1.375:1.

Ratios where the height is taller than the width are uncommon in general everyday use, but do have application in computer systems where the screen may be better suited for a vertical layout. The most common tall aspect ratio of 3:4 is referred to as portrait mode and is created by physically rotating the display device 90 degrees from the normal position. Other tall aspect ratios such as 9:16 are technically possible but rarely used. (For a more detailed discussion of this topic please refer to the page orientation article.)

Pixels on computer monitors are usually square, but pixels used in digital video often have non-square aspect ratios, such as those used in the PAL and NTSC variants of the CCIR 601 digital video standard, and the corresponding anamorphic widescreen formats. Therefore, an NTSC DV image which is 720 pixels by 480 pixels is displayed with the aspect ratio of 4:3 (which is the traditional television standard) if the pixels are thin and displayed with the aspect ratio of 16:9 (which is the anamorphic widescreen format) if the pixels are fat.

Color space and bits per pixel[link]

Example of U-V color plane, Y value=0.5

Color model name describes the video color representation. YIQ was used in NTSC television. It corresponds closely to the YUV scheme used in NTSC and PAL television and the YDbDr scheme used by SECAM television.

The number of distinct colors that can be represented by a pixel depends on the number of bits per pixel (bpp). A common way to reduce the number of bits per pixel in digital video is by chroma subsampling (e.g. 4:4:4, 4:2:2, 4:2:0/4:1:1).

Video quality[link]

Video quality can be measured with formal metrics like PSNR or with subjective video quality using expert observation.

The subjective video quality of a video processing system may be evaluated as follows:

• Choose the video sequences (the SRC) to use for testing.
• Choose the settings of the system to evaluate (the HRC).
• Choose a test method for how to present video sequences to experts and to collect their ratings.
• Invite a sufficient number of experts, preferably not fewer than 15.
• Carry out testing.
• Calculate the average marks for each HRC based on the experts' ratings.

Many subjective video quality methods are described in the ITU-T recommendation BT.500. One of the standardized method is the Double Stimulus Impairment Scale (DSIS). In DSIS, each expert views an unimpaired reference video followed by an impaired version of the same video. The expert then rates the impaired video using a scale ranging from "impairments are imperceptible" to "impairments are very annoying".

Video compression method (digital only)[link]

A wide variety of methods are used to compress video streams. Video data contains spatial and temporal redundancy, making uncompressed video streams extremely inefficient. Broadly speaking, spatial redundancy is reduced by registering differences between parts of a single frame; this task is known as intraframe compression and is closely related to image compression. Likewise, temporal redundancy can be reduced by registering differences between frames; this task is known as interframe compression, including motion compensation and other techniques. The most common modern standards are MPEG-2, used for DVD, Blu-ray and satellite television, and MPEG-4, used for AVCHD, Mobile phones (3GP) and Internet.

Bit rate (digital only)[link]

Bit rate is a measure of the rate of information content in a video stream. It is quantified using the bit per second (bit/s or bps) unit or Megabits per second (Mbit/s). A higher bit rate allows better video quality. For example VideoCD, with a bit rate of about 1 Mbit/s, is lower quality than DVD, with maximum bit rate of 10.08 Mbit/s for video. HD (High Definition Digital Video and TV) has a still higher quality, with a bit rate of about 20 Mbit/s.

Variable bit rate (VBR) is a strategy to maximize the visual video quality and minimize the bit rate. On fast motion scenes, a variable bit rate uses more bits than it does on slow motion scenes of similar duration yet achieves a consistent visual quality. For real-time and non-buffered video streaming when the available bandwidth is fixed, e.g. in videoconferencing delivered on channels of fixed bandwidth, a constant bit rate (CBR) must be used.

Stereoscopic[link]

Stereoscopic video can be created using several different methods:

• two channels — a right channel for the right eye and a left channel for the left eye. Both channels may be viewed simultaneously by using light-polarizing filters 90 degrees off-axis from each other on two video projectors. These separately polarized channels are viewed wearing eyeglasses with matching polarization filters.
• one channel with two overlaid color coded layers. This left and right layer technique is occasionally used for network broadcast, or recent "anaglyph" releases of 3D movies on DVD. Simple Red/Cyan plastic glasses provide the means to view the images discretely to form a stereoscopic view of the content.
• One channel with alternating left/right frames for each eye, using LCD shutter glasses which read the frame sync from the VGA Display Data Channel to alternately cover each eye, so the appropriate eye sees the correct frame. This method is most common in computer virtual reality applications such as in a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment, but reduces the effective video framerate to one-half of normal (for example, from 120 Hz to 60 Hz).

Blu-ray Discs greatly improve the sharpness and detail of the two-color 3D effect in color coded stereo programs. See articles Stereoscopy and 3-D film.

Video formats[link]

There are different layers of video transmission and storage, each with its own set of formats to choose from.

For transmission, there is a physical connector and signal protocol ("video connection standard" below). A given physical link can carry certain "display standards" which specify a particular refresh rate, display resolution, and color space.

Many analog and digital recording formats are in use, and digital video clips can also be stored on a computer file system as files which have their own formats. In addition to the physical format used by the data storage device or transmission medium, the stream of ones and zeros that is sent must be in a particular digital "video encoding", of which a number are available.

Transport medium[link]

Video can be transmitted or transported in a variety of ways. Wireless broadcast as an analog or digital signal. Coaxial cable in a closed circuit system can be sent as analog interlaced 1 volt peak to peak with a maximum horizontal line resolution up to 480. Broadcast or studio cameras use a single or dual coaxial cable system using a progressive scan format known as SDI serial digital interface and HD-SDI for High Definition video. The distances of transmission are somewhat limited depending on the manufacturer the format may be proprietary. SDI has an negligible lag and is uncompressed. There are initiatives to use the SDI standards in closed circuit surveillance systems, for Higher Definition images, over longer distances on coax or twisted pair cable. Due to the nature of the higher bandwidth needed, the distance the signal can be effectively sent is a half to a third of what the older interlaced analog systems supported.^[2]

Video connectors, cables, and signal standards[link]

• See List of video connectors for information about physical connectors and related signal standards.

Video display standards[link]

Digital television[link]

New formats for digital television broadcasts use the MPEG-2 video codec and include:

• ATSC - USA, Canada, Korea
• Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) - Europe
• ISDB - Japan
  • ISDB-Tb - Uses the MPEG-4 video codec. Brazil, Argentina
• Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) - Korea

Analog television[link]

Analog television broadcast standards include:

• FCS - USA, Russia; obsolete
• MAC - Europe; obsolete
• MUSE - Japan
• NTSC - USA, Canada, Japan
• PAL - Europe, Asia, Oceania
  • PAL-M - PAL variation. Brazil, Argentina
  • PALplus - PAL extension, Europe
• RS-343 (military)
• SECAM - France, Former Soviet Union, Central Africa

An analog video format consists of more information than the visible content of the frame. Preceding and following the image are lines and pixels containing synchronization information or a time delay. This surrounding margin is known as a blanking interval or blanking region; the horizontal and vertical front porch and back porch are the building blocks of the blanking interval.

Many countries are planning a digital switchover soon.

Computer displays[link]

See Computer display standard for a list of standards used for computer monitors and comparison with those used for television.

Recording formats before video tape[link]

• Phonovision
• Kinescope

Analog tape formats[link]

• 1" Type B video tape (Robert Bosch GmbH)
• 1" Type C videotape (Ampex, Marconi and Sony)
• 2" Quadruplex videotape (Ampex)
• 2" Helical Scan Videotape (Rank Cintel)
• Betacam (Sony)
• Betacam SP (Sony)
• Betamax (Sony)
• S-VHS (JVC) (1987)
• W-VHS (JVC) (1994)
• U-matic 3/4" (Sony)
• VCR, VCR-LP, SVR
• VERA (BBC experimental format ca. 1958)
• VHS (JVC)
• VHS-C (JVC)
• Video 2000 (Philips)

(See List of video recording formats.)

Digital tape formats[link]

• Betacam IMX (Sony)
• D-VHS (JVC)
• D-Theater
• D1 (Sony)
• D2 (Sony)
• D3
• D5 HD
• Digital-S D9 (JVC)
• Digital Betacam (Sony)
• Digital8 (Sony)
• DV
• HDV
• ProHD (JVC)
• MicroMV
• MiniDV

Optical disc storage formats[link]

• Blu-ray Disc (Sony)
• China Blue High-definition Disc (CBHD)
• DVD (was Super Density Disc, DVD Forum)
• Professional Disc
• Universal Media Disc (UMD) (Sony)