Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]
Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including militant nationalism, fascism, racism, xenophobia, homophobia and anti-Semitism. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler. It is related to the white nationalist and white power skinhead movements in many countries.
Neo-Nazi activity appears to be a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. Some European and Latin American countries have laws prohibiting the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or anti-gay views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.
Far right parties are among the strongest political parties in Austria.[7] The success of the far right in Austria has not been the result of economic crisis or social conflict, but primarily of political factors, including the failure of denazification after World War II.[8]
The major postwar far right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[9] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In 1994, the FPÖ won 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna, showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote.[10]
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[11] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[12]
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[13]
Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[14] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[15]
The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[16]
A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[17] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[18] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian High Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[19]
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Land, Honour and Faithfulness), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, anti-semitism and negationism. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[20][21] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[22]
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[23][24][25][26][27][28]
The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in February 2010. Their model is the Handschar Division. They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[29] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern Brazil and Southeastern Brazil, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[37]
Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[38][35] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and — more frequently reported in the media — homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[34][39][40] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[41][42][43]
In Greater Rio de Janeiro, an ultra-nationalist para-fascist movement contemporaneous to European Nazism known as Brazilian Integralism has been historically strong (and is still alive but much less identified with the far right), and wealthier white people are segregated from poorer people of color.
Some neo-Nazis in Chile derive their ideology from the writings of Nicolás Palacios, while others follow an orthodox Nazi ideology influenced by Miguel Serrano and German Nazis who fled to the country after World War II.[citation needed] Traditional Nazism is more common among descendants of German or other European immigrants in southern Chile.[citation needed] Common targets of neo-Nazi hate crimes in Chile include Peruvians, Bolivians, Gypsies, homosexuals and prostitutes.[citation needed]
The approach influenced by Palacios elevates the Chilean Mestizo in status, since he considered the "Chilean race" a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche of Chile.[citation needed] He traced the origins of the Spanish component of the Chilean race to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden, one of the supposed homelands of the Goths.[44] Palacios claimed that both the blonde and the bronze coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy", and that both think and reason in an identical way.[citation needed] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued on medical grounds that Mestizos derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control", and are a social load.[citation needed]
Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[45] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists[46]) and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, African-Costa Ricans, communists, homosexuals and specially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of a underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[47].
Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and on Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[48][49][50] At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[51][52] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[53]
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[54] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[55]
There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("hang Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[56][57] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[58] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, many of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[59][60][61][62][63] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[64][65]
In Estonia, there have been parades celebrating the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS, which fought against the forces of the Soviet Union during World War II.[66] Efraim Zuroff of the United States-based Simon Wiesenthal Center commented on some of the attendees: "dozens of foreign neo-Nazis clearly [demonstrated] the danger that they will encourage the rebirth of fascism and racist extremism."[67]
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[68][dead link] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[69][dead link] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[70]
In 2007, parliamentary bodies of the member states of the Inter-Parliamentary Union's geopolitical group Eurasia (Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian Federation and Tajikistan)[71] passed a resolution — in response to the relocation of a Soviet World War II war memorial by the Estonian government — expressing their collective "deep concern over the neo-Nazi sentiments in Estonia."[72] The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia — particularly in Tartu — and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[73][dead link]
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[74] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![75] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others.
In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of new Nazi movements through a process known as denazification. The West German government had passed strict laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs, as well as barring them from politics. Displaying the swastika was an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. There was little overt neo-National Socialist activity in Europe until the 1960s, although some former National Socialist retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations. After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among disaffected teenagers in the former East Germany. These gangs were formed under the Communist regime which was founded after World War II and which collapsed in 1989. They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited. Much of their ideology was similar to Strasserism.
According to the preliminary version of the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2010,[76] at the time there were 25,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany,[77] including 5,600 neo-Nazis.[78] Neo-Nazi organizations, related and derivative symbols and Holocaust denial are outlawed in Germany according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).
The far right political party Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avyi) is often labeled as neo-Nazi, althought the group rejects this label. According to numerous journalist accounts, the Greek police do very little – if anything – to quell Chrysi Avyi's activities.[79] A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[80][81] Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the Strasserist "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6,97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives.
Israel has seen neo-Nazi activity, notably in the case of Patrol 35, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[82][83] The neo-Nazis are reported to operate in cities across Israel, and have been described as of being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe.[84][82][83] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[83]
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulan Bator, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[85] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[86] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongolian Empire and Genghis Khan. Observers have noted the irony of Neo-Nazi Mongols, because Nazi Germany killed Soviet prisoners of war with Mongolian features. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the second world war. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[85]
Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the German Nazi swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, anti-Semitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[87] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, Roma people and Muslims. Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.
Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[88] The National-Social Union, led by Viktor Yakushev, wants to establish a national state and an economy emphasizing Aryan values, and aims to stop Zionists from establishing global hegemony.
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two Muslim migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[89] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[90] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors.[91] Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[92] This organization is now banned in Serbia.[citation needed]
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[93] The main Neo-nazi party in Sweden is the "Party of the Swedes", with around 500 members, and the main neo-Nazi organization is the Swedish Resistance Movement.
There are a number of large neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The earliest example of this ideological tendency can be traced back to 1924 and the formation of the Free Society of Teutonia. This organization merged with the Friends of New Germany to form the German-American Bund. The German-American Bund and similar groups achieved limited popularity in the 1930s (at one point staging a rally with over 20,000 people), but rapidly faded with the onset of World War II. The groups either disbanded or were dismantled by force of law (such as the 1942 sedition trial)[clarification needed] during the war period. After the war, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the American southern states with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through their public demonstrations.[94]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic, homophobic, and Neo-Confederate views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in the Chicago area.
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack and harass Jews, African Americans, homosexuals, Asian Americans, Latinos, Arab Americans, Native Americans, and people with different political or religious opinions. American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[95]
- ^ The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. 2002. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551. http://books.google.com/books?id=EkInaWFrki4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA9,M1.
- ^ "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". http://www.döw.at/english/right/englre.html. "Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust."
- ^ "Neo Nazism". http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/neonazism1.html. "The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism or a form of Fascism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves."
- ^ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
- ^ "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 2002. http://www.holocaust-education.dk/eftertid/nynazisme.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism."
- ^ "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. 2002. http://czechkid.eu/si1310.html. Retrieved 2007-12-08. "Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism (“nothing but the nation”), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way."
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 5
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 117
- ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda (1997). "'Revisionism' in Germany and Austria: The Evolution of a Doctrine". In Hermann Kurthen, Werner Bergmann, & Rainer Erb. Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany After Unification. Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-19-510485-4.
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, pp. 80, 116, 117
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 117-118
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/world_lectures/mazrui_lect.shtml
- ^ "Austria's Haider dies in accident". BBC News. 2008-10-11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7664846.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
- ^ "Austria spooked by Nazi past in election". BBC News. 2010-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8634796.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
- ^ "Reich mother on the march in Hitler's homeland". The Independent (London). 2010-04-24. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/reich-mother-on-the-march-in-hitlers-homeland-1953005.html. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
- ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right – Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.
- ^ Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - Volkstreue außerparlamentarische Opposition (VAPO)
- ^ Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - VHandbuch des österreichischen Rechtsextremismus, Wien 1994
- ^ OGH - Geschäftszahl 13Os4/94
- ^ De nouvelles découvertes, La Libre Belgique, 8 September 2006 (French)
- ^ Mandats d'arrêts confirmés pour les néo-nazis, Le Soir, 13 September 2006 (French)
- ^ Les néonazis voulaient déstabiliser le pays, Le Soir, Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 (French)
- ^ Un groupe terroriste néonazi démantelé, Le Nouvel Observateur, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
- ^ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 (French)
- ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
- ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, September 8, 2006 (French)
- ^ La Belgique découvre, stupéfaite, un complot néonazi au sein de son armée, AFP, September 8, 2006. (French)
- ^ Un réseau terroriste de militaires néonazis démantelé en Belgique, Le Monde, September 8, 2006 (French)
- ^ http://www.bosanski-nacionalisti.com/. [1] (in Serbo-Croatian)
- ^ (Portuguese) To the shadow of the swastika: intolerance still ignites groups of young radicals who despise history, deny their own miscegenated race and threaten minorities
- ^ The growth of neo-Nazi movement in Brazil
- ^ Brazil thwarts neo-Nazi bomb plot
- ^ Brazil: Lethal infighting among neo-Nazis leads to Police raids, exposing megalomaniacal plans for "Neuland"
- ^ a b neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo
- ^ a b The Skinhead International: Brazil
- ^ Brazil sets anti-neo-Nazi commission
- ^ Grêmio neo-Nazi fans arrested for attempted murder after football match
- ^ (Portuguese) Neo-Nazis in São Paulo: Blacks and Northeasterners, we will kill you!
- ^ Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America
- ^ Brazil's surge in violence against gays is just getting worse
- ^ (Portuguese) Brazil: homophobia, religion and politics
- ^ (Portuguese) Shame of São Paulo is killing me
- ^ (Portuguese) Understanding the Brazilian chamber's draft law 122/2006 - NO to homophobia
- ^ Raza Chilena Nicolás Palacios
- ^ http://wvw.nacion.com/ln_ee/2003/noviembre/09/pais3.html
- ^ http://nationalsocialist.net/members.htm
- ^ http://www.nacion.com/2012-04-16/Sucesos/null.aspx
- ^ Yeomans, Rory, "Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia", in Turda, Marius and Paul Weindling, eds., "Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900–1940 Central European University Press, 2006)
- ^ Ognyanova, Irina, Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) [2]
- ^ Jonassohn, Kurt and Karin Solveig Björnson, Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations (Transaction Publishers 1998), p. 279
- ^ "jasenovac-info.com". http://www.jasenovac-info.com/cd/biblioteka/pavelicpapers/pavelic/ap0011.html.
- ^ "The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991‐1995". http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/DGB4V0MCGNFLU49E.pdf.
- ^ "War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity". Christusrex.org. http://www.christusrex.org/www1/news/haaretz-1-15-06a.html. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ [3]
- ^ "71 28.6.2006 Zakon o izmjenama i dopunama Kaznenog zakona". Nn.hr. 2006-06-28. http://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2006/1706.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ "Zbog srpskih tablica vandali Mađarima uništili kuću - Vijesti.net". Index.hr. http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=279919. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ http://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta
- ^ [4]
- ^ Mesiću, Zuroff, Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu [5] (Croatian)
- ^ Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta [6] (Croatian)
- ^ "Nazi hunters slam singer’s concert". Suntimes.co.za. 1970-01-01. http://www.suntimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=496261. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ Lefkovits, Etgar. "Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert". Jpost.com. http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813065577&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ "Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert". Ejpress.org. 2007-06-19. http://www.ejpress.org/article/17594. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering [7]
- ^ Austrija pokrenula istragu o ustaskim obiljezjima u Bleiburgu [8] (Croatian)
- ^ STRATFOR Global Intelligence, 27 August 2008, "Russia: Levers in the Baltic States" - Retrieved 3 September 2009.
- ^ "Jewish Group Criticizes Glorification by Estonia of its Support for Nazis in WWII". European Jewish Press. 8 August 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ^ UCSJ: Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union, 26 April 2006, "Estonian Police Criticized for Reaction to Antisemitic Incident" - Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ^ "Violence Based on Racism and Xenophobia: 2008 Hate Crime Survey". Human Rights First. 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ^ Jamestown Foundation 26 January 2007: Moscow stung by Estonian ban on totalitarianism's symbols by Vladimir Socor
- ^ "Geopolitical groups". Inter-Parliamentary Union. http://www.ipu.org/strct-e/geopol.htm#Eurasia. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
- ^ "Statement of the Member-States of 'Eurasia' Geopolitical Group in view of Estonia’s Adopting 'On Protection of Military Graves' Law". National Assembly of the Council of the Republic of Belarus. 30 April 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ^ "Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Doudou Diene, on His Mission to Estonia". 25–28 September 2008. Universal Human Rights Index. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
- ^ Henley, Jon (2005-02-03). "France says it will outlaw all neo-Nazi groups". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/feb/03/thefarright.france. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ Stratégies et pratiques du mouvement nationaliste-révolutionnaire français : départs, desseins et destin d'Unité Radicale (1989–2002), Le Banquet, n°19, 2004 (French)
- ^ Verfassungsschutzbericht 2010, Vorabfassung, Bundesministerium des Innern
- ^ name=SPON2011>Fischer, Sebastian (1 July 2011). "Verfassungsschutz warnt vor getarnten Neonazis". Spiegel Online. http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,771647,00.html. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
- ^ Verfassungsschutzbericht 2010, Vorabfassung, Bundesministerium des Innern, p. 54
- ^ Ιός της Ελευθεροτυπίας;"Αλλάξτε μυαλά, γιατί θα σας λιώσουμε σαν τα σκουλήκια", εφημερίδα Ελευθεροτυπία: Ασυλία από ΕΛ.ΑΣ. (article in Greek) [9]
- ^ Michas, Takis;"Unholy Alliance", Texas A&M University Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.) p. 22 [10]
- ^ 16/07/2005 article in Eleftherotypia. (Greek)
- ^ a b "Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested". BBC. 9 September 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6985808.stm.
- ^ a b c Martin Asser (10 September 2007). "Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6987848.stm.
- ^ "Middle East | Israeli neo-Nazi suspects charged". BBC News. 2007-09-11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6989776.stm. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ a b Sheilds, Kirril (2008-10-04). "The Naivety of Mongolia's Nazis". UB Post. http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
- ^ Branigan, Tania (2010-08-02). "Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuelds rise of ultra-nationalism". Ulan Bator: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/02/mongolia-far-right. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
- ^ 4 mei 2008. "Horrific Documentary on Russian Neo-Nazis part 1". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLUxuq-E9yA. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 189
- ^ "Russian held over 'deaths' video". BBC News. 2007-08-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ Luke Harding (2007-08-16). "Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,,2149611,00.html. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
- ^ Neonacizam, fašizam i desni ekstremizam u Nemačkoj i Srbiji: sličnosti i razlike (in Serbian), centar za nove medije_kuda.org
- ^ "Nacionalni stroj" pred sudom, BBC Serbian.com, January 9, 2006
- ^ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 120
- ^ Kaplan, Jeffrey, Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right (Rowman Altamira, 2000), pp. 1–3.
- ^ Michael, George, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006)
- Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
- The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi, (1958 (written 1948–56; ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
- White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
- This Time The World by George Lincoln Rockwell (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
- National Socialism: Vanguard of the Future, Selected Writings of Colin Jordan (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
- Merrie England– 2000 by Colin Jordan
- The Turner Diaries by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
- Siege: The Collected Writings of James Mason edited and introduced by Michael M. Jenkins (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
- Hunter by William Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
- Faith of the Future by Matt Koehl (New Order; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
- Serpent's Walk by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
- The Nexus periodical edited by Kerry Bolton
- Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane by David Lane, foreword by Ron McVan, preface by Katja Lane (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
- Resistance Magazine published by National Vanguard Books
- The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
- Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
- Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
- Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
- Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
- Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
- Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
- American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
- Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
- Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
- Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
- The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
- "White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
- Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
- Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
- A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
- The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
- Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
- Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
- The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
- The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
- The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
- Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
- The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
- Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
- Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
- The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
- Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. “Neo-Nazism.” Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
- Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas (2002). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4. OCLC 47665567.
- Blee, Kathleen (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, California; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24055-3. OCLC 52566455.
|
Links to related articles
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Works
|
|
|
Literature
|
|
|
|
Periodicals
|
|
|
|
Film
|
|
|
|
Sculpture
|
|
|
|
Related topics
|
|
|
|
|
|
Organizations
|
|
|
Institutional
|
|
|
|
Activist
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
International
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Organizations |
|
|
| History |
|
|
| Ideology |
|
|
| Race |
|
|
| Atrocities |
|
|
| Outside Germany |
|
|
| Lists |
|
|
| People |
|
|
| Related topics |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Core topics |
|
|
| Antisemitism and... |
|
|
| Related topics |
|
|
| Religious antisemitism |
|
|
Antisemitic laws, policies,
and government actions |
|
|
| Antisemitic websites |
|
|
Organizations working
against antisemitism |
|
|
| Locations |
|
|
|
|
|
| History of racism |
|
|
|
| Racist ideologies |
|
|
| Acts of racism |
|
|
| Racial violence |
|
|
| Racism against groups |
|
|
| Racist groups |
|
|
Anti-racist groups
and movements |
|
|
|
|
frelig
.svg)
