A fire lane is a marked lane in a parking lot that is near a structure. Parking is prohibited in fire lanes to ensure the access of safety equipment to the structure in the event of an emergency^{[citation needed]}. Fire lanes are defined as passageways or access roads that allow fire apparatuses to pass through. They are not intended for normal vehicle traffic. There are certain requirements that must be met when designing a fire lane. Because fire trucks and other apparatuses are so large, there must be certain accommodations made for them. Though these can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, they are generally similar. Fire Lanes also provide clear space for egress from a burning building and should therefore be wider for larger occupancy buildings.

Measurement[link]

Fire lanes may be any width larger than 20 feet across. This gives enough room to maneuver the truck into position. They must also be at least ten feet away from any building or structure overhang to allow overhead clearance. If trees are near a fire lane, they must be trimmed to allow a 14-foot clearance over the fire lane. The fire lane must be within 150 feet of the ends of the buildings that it serves. If a fire lane goes around a curve or corner, it must have an outside turning radius of 54 feet, and an inside turning radius of 30 feet. These numbers can be a little different depending on the jurisdiction, but are usually roughly the same. The fire lanes must also be approved to carry at least 35 tons of weight.

Markings[link]

All fire lanes must be marked as such, although the manner of marking may be different. If the lane is 20 feet across, it must be marked on both sides with red paint on the curb. If the fire lane is between 20 and 24 feet, it may only be marked on one side of the roadway. If the access road is greater than 28 feet wide, no markings need to be present. Fire lanes in front of commercial buildings may have yellow paint to mark the fire lane. The curb should be painted yellow with the words "No Parking, Fire Lane" painted in black. On the pavement, yellow lines should be painted the width of the fire lane, with the words 12 inches tall and painted in yellow.

Dead Ends[link]

It is preferable for a fire lane to have access at both ends to a road. If that is not possible and a fire lane must be made into a dead end, a fire lane turnaround is put in. It must be large enough for a fire truck to turn around to head out the same way it came in. They can be made as a large circle, or in the shape of a Y, T or a sideways T. They must be marked with either paint striping, signs, or the use of both. Striping consists of a six-inch red stripe painted on the curb with four-inch white letters indicating that this is a fire lane. "No Parking, Fire Lane" is to be printed every 25 feet along the fire lane.

References[link]

• National Fire Protection Association
• Fire Lane Requirements

A fire lane is any area, marked or unmarked, that allows for emergency vehicle access.

External links[link]

• Example of municipal fire lane restrictions
• Example of fire lane marking

This law-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

An outdoor fire using wood, termed a bonfire.

The ignition and extinguishing of a pile of wood shavings.

Slow motion fire sequence 1000 frame/s

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.^[1] Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition.

The flame is the visible portion of the fire. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.^[2] Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.

Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems across the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat, signaling, and propulsion purposes. The negative effects of fire include water contamination, soil erosion, atmospheric pollution and hazard to human and animal life.^[3]

Physical properties[link]

Chemistry[link]

The fire tetrahedron

Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.

Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.

Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:

• turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
• covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO₂;
• application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or
• application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.

In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.

Flame[link]

A candle's flame

Photo of a fire taken with a 1/4000th of a second exposure

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.

The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has recently found that gravity also plays a role in flame formation. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.^[4] The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO₂ from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.^[5] Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.^[6] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.

Heat[link]

Fires give off heat, or the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal contact.

Typical temperatures of fires and flames[link]

• Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above (3600 °F)^[7]
• Bunsen burner flame: 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F)^[8]
• Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)^[9]
• Candle flame: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
• Smoldering cigarette:
  • Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585 °C (1,100 °F)
  • Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
  • Always hotter in the middle.

Temperatures of flames by appearance[link]

The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:^[10]

• Red
  • Just visible: 525 °C (980 °F)
  • Dull: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
  • Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1,500 °F)
  • Cherry, full: 900 °C (1,700 °F)
  • Cherry, clear: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
• Orange
  • Deep: 1,100 °C (2,000 °F)
  • Clear: 1,200 °C (2,200 °F)
• White
  • Whitish: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)
  • Bright: 1,400 °C (2,600 °F)
  • Dazzling: 1,500 °C (2,700 °F)

Fire ecology[link]

Every natural ecosystem has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession.^[11] Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape.

Fossil record[link]

The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago,^[12] permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire.^[13] Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants.^[14][15] Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since.^[15] The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.^[16] Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago;^[17] this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.^[16] These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.^[16]

Human control[link]

The fire miracle of Saint Peter Martyr by Antonio Vivarini.

The ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, increasing the variety and availability of nutrients. The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of cooked food is found from 1.9 million years ago, although fire was probably not used in a controlled fashion until 1,000,000 years ago.^[16] Early Human fire Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.^[16] The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, with its being used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from tens of thousands of years ago.^[16]

Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot, which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.

By the Neolithic Revolution,^{[citation needed]} during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires",^{[citation needed]} as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires", which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable. Another human use for fire in regards to landscape management is its use to clear land for agriculture. Slash-and-burn agriculture is still common across much of tropical Africa, Asia and South America. "For small farmers, it is a convenient way to clear overgrown areas and release nutrients from standing vegetation back into the soil," said Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez, an ecologist at the Earth Institute’s Center for Environmental Research and Conservation.^[18] However this useful strategy is also problematic. Growing population, fragmentation of forests and warming climate are making the earth's surface more prone to ever-larger escaped fires. These harm ecosystems and human infrastructure, cause health problems, and send up spirals of carbon and soot that may encourage even more warming of the atmosphere–and thus feed back into more fires. Globally today, as much as 5 million square kilometers–an area more than half the size of the United States–burns in a given year.^[18]

There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.

Hamburg after four fire-bombing raids in July, 1943, which killed an estimated 50,000 people.^[19]

The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek soldiers who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. In the First World War, the first modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War. In the latter war, incendiary bombs were used by Axis and Allies alike, notably on Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and, notoriously, at Dresden, in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city^{[citation needed]} was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. The use of napalm was employed in July 1944, towards the end of the Second World War;^[20] although its use did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War.^[20] Molotov cocktails were also used.

Use as fuel[link]

Disability-adjusted life year for fires per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.^[21]

  no data

  less than 50

  50-100

  100-150

  150-200

  200-250

  250-300

  300-350

  350-400

  400-450

  450-500

  500-600

  more than 600

Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources.^[22] The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly, in both external and internal combustion engines.

The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature.

Protection and prevention[link]

Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns.^[23][24][25] Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.^[26]

Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.

Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires.^[27] Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.

Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.

Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage, fire insurance can mitigate the financial impact.

Restoration[link]

Different restoration methods and measures are used depending on the type of fire damage that occurred. Fire damage can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional fire damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore fire damaged property due to their training and extensive experience.^[28] Most are usually listed under "Fire and Water Restoration" and they can help speed repairs, whether for individual homeowners or for the largest of institutions.^[29]

Fire and Water Restoration companies are regulated by the appropriate state's Department of Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.^[30] Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water and fire damage restoration." Hence, the Contractor's State License Board requires both an asbestos certification (ASB) as well as a demolition classification (C-21) in order to perform Fire and Water Restoration work.^[31]

See also[link]

Fire portal

Additional images[link]

• 

  Wildfire

• 

  Kuwaiti oil wells on fire, during the Gulf War.

• 

  School fire in Aberdeen, Washington

• 

  Bonfire in Lappeenranta, Finland

• 

  A structure fire

• 

  Structure fire in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina

• 

  Fire generated by a burning weed

• 

  A controlled wildfire in Canada

• 

  Making fire by rubbing two pieces of firewood together.

• 

  Fire from a match.

• 

  How a match gets ignited.

• 

  

  A match being ignited

• 

  Fire is affected by gravity. Left: Flame on Earth; Right: Flame on ISS (microgravity)

• 

  Fire breathing

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Karki, Sameer (2002) (PDF). Community Involvement in and Management of Forest Fires in South East Asia. Project FireFight South East Asia. http://www.asiaforests.org/doc/resources/fire/pffsea/Report_Community.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-13 ^{[dead link]}
• Haung, Kai. 2009. Population and Building Factors That Impact Residential Fire Rates in Large U.S. Cities. Applied Research Project. Texas State University. TXstate.edu
• Lentile, Leigh B.; Holden, Zachary A.; Smith, Alistair M. S.; Falkowski, Michael J.; Hudak, Andrew T.; Morgan, Penelope; Lewis, Sarah A.; Gessler, Paul E.; Benson, Nate C.. Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post-fire effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 2006;3(15):319-­345.
• Kosman, Admiel: Sacred fire. In: Thu, January 13, 2011.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fire

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Fire

• How Fire Works at HowStuffWorks
• What exactly is fire? from The Straight Dope
• On Fire, an Adobe Flash-based science tutorial from the NOVA (TV series)
• Early human fire mastery revealed BBC article on archaeological discoveries
• Flames in microgravity^{[dead link]}
• Spiral flames in microgravity
• moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering
• Smokey Bear - Prevent Wildfires
• Fun Uses with Fire with a Rubens' Tube

lez:ЦӀайvep:Lämoi

Through lanes indicated by arrows on Montague Expressway in Silicon Valley.

A lane is a part of the roadway (British: carriageway) within a road marked out for use by a single line of vehicles in such a way as to control and guide drivers for the purpose of reducing traffic conflicts. Most public roads (highways) have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction, separated by Lane markings. Major highways often have two roadways separated by a median, each with multiple lanes. A single-track road carries traffic in both directions within a single lane with passing places to allow vehicles to pass. In North America and Australia, the term also may refer to rear access roads which act as a secondary vehicular network in cities and towns. A minor rural road may be referred to as a country lane; some urban streets which began as country lanes are still called lanes, such as Drury Lane in London.

Types of traffic lane[link]

The Ontario Highway 401 in the Greater Toronto area, with 18 lanes in 6 separate carriageways visible in the foreground.

Turning lane on the Rodovia BR-101 (Brazil)

Changing lanes, Gothenburg, Sweden

• A traffic lane or travel lane is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, not including shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
• A through lane or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead.
• A carriageway (Great Britain), roadway (United States) is a group of two or more lanes on a single paved surface. A rural 2-lane highway is usually built on a single surface with traffic in both directions, while large highways can be built with two (sometimes more) of these separated by buffers such as medians and barriers. On such highways, the lanes in each group usually travel in the same direction.
• A deceleration lane is a paved or semi-paved lane adjacent to the primary road or street. It is used to improve traffic safety by allowing drivers to pull off the main road and decelerate safely in order to turn (e.g. right in the United States or left in Great Britain), so that the traffic behind the turning vehicle is not slowed or halted. Deceleration lanes are primarily found in suburban settings.
• A fire lane is the area next to a curb, which is reserved for firefighting equipment, ambulances, or other emergency vehicles. Parking in these areas, often marked by red lines, usually warrants a parking ticket.
• A loading lane (loading zone in the United States) is an area next to a curb, which is reserved for loading and unloading passengers and/or freight. It may be marked by a sign ("LOADING ONLY" or "LOADING ZONE") or by a yellow or white-painted curb.
• A passing lane is often provided on steep mountain grades, in order to allow smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones. This is sometimes called a climbing lane if on the uphill side. (See truck lane below). Passing lanes may also be provided on long stretches of other roadway. On two-lane roads, using the lane of oncoming traffic as a passing lane is sometimes allowed given a long enough straightaway. In many countries permission is indicated by a broken line on the same side of the centerline as the vehicle intending to pass.
• A collector lane of a road is used for slower moving traffic and has more access to exits/off ramps.
• An express lane of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. In other areas, an express lane may refer to a HOV lane (see below).
• A transfer lane of a road is used to move from express lanes to collector lanes, or vice-versa; it is somewhat similar to an auxiliary lane.
• A merge lane is a lane or onramp used to merge two flows of traffic into one, with the merge lane being the lane that disappears at the end of the merging area. Merge lane lengths depend mainly on the speed differential of the two merging flows, as the slower flow has to use the lane to accelerate.
• An auxiliary lane along a highway or motorway connects slip roads, with the entrance ramp or acceleration lane from one interchange leading to the exit ramp or deceleration lane of the next.
• The emergency lane of a road (also known as the breakdown lane, shoulder or hard shoulder) is reserved for breakdowns, and for emergency vehicles. The inner boundary of the lane often features rumble strips in order to physically warn drowsy or inattentive drivers that they are drifting off the roadway. This feature is seen especially often on highways and motorways, where the minimally-stimulating and monotonous nature of high-speed driving at night increases the chances for driver disorientation and serious injury or death if an accident does take place.
• An HOV lane or carpool lane is reserved for carpooling. In the US, they may be marked with a diamond icon every few hundred feet (hence the nickname "diamond lane"), or separated from other lanes by double broken white lines, a continuous pair of double yellow lines, or just a single broken white line.
• A High-occupancy toll lane is a combination of an HOV lane and toll collection technology that allows drivers without passengers to use the HOV lane by paying a premium price for the privilege
• A turn lane is set aside for slowing down and making a turn, so as not to disrupt traffic. At a full intersection with a traffic light, turn lanes are used more to hold traffic until the light changes.
• A designated bicycle lane is a portion of the roadway or shoulder designated for the exclusive or preferential use of bicyclists. This designation is indicated by special word and/or symbol markings on the pavement and "BIKE LANE" signs.
• A motorcycle lane is provided at certain roads and highways such as the Federal Highway in Malaysia to segregate the motorcycle traffic from the main roadways to reduce motorcycle-related accidents. The motorcycle lane may form a part of the hard shoulder, or may be built as completely separated lanes.
• A bus lane is reserved for buses providing public transportation on a fixed route, sometimes with overhead catenary for trolleybuses. In some countries, bus lanes may also be used by some other traffic, such as taxis, bicycles and motorbikes.
• A reversible lane (contraflow lane in Hawaii) uses overhead lane light markers, signs, poles or barriers to indicate the current direction of travel. They are used to accommodate periods of high traffic flow, especially rush hour where the flow is predominantly in one direction, on roads that cannot be easily widened. One or more lanes are removed from the opposing flow and added to the peak flow. Outside peak hours, the lanes revert to their normal configuration, perhaps with a center turn lane. To reduce the chance of head-on accidents, a resting period of an hour is often employed when reversing a lane; no traffic is allowed in the lane during this time. Some roads use portable barriers or plastic poles that are manually rearranged by work crews before and after the peak period, others use both lights and on-street markings (broken double-yellow line) or overhead lights. In some areas, the term suicide lane became a common slang description for this design because many people ignore the traffic control devices. Because of their history of numerous accidents and collisions, reversible lanes are rarely used.
• A tram lane is a lane reserved for the use of buses, trams and taxicabs. It is usually encountered in cities with curbside tram network, such as Zagreb.
• A truck lane (United States) or crawler lane (Great Britain) is a lane provided on long and steep uphill stretches of high-speed roads to enhance the ability of vehicles which can maintain speed up the incline to pass those vehicles (usually heavy trucks) which cannot. In addition, these lanes are intended to optimize pavement performance and minimize pavement fatigue. The lane is marked only on the uphill stretch and usually a short distance afterward (for regaining speed). A truckway often allows longer box length; for instance, the Florida Turnpike allows 29.3 meter double trailer combinations, in contrast to normal Florida highways' 16.2 meter limit. Since the major cost of trucking is the fixed cost of the same trailer with its driver the cost per ton of operating with truckway size and weight allowances is 35 to 40 percent below the cost of operations on the non-truckways.^[1]
• An operational lane or auxiliary lane is an extra lane on the entire length of highway between interchanges, giving drivers more time to merge in or out. The lane is created when an entrance ramp meets the highway, and drops out (with an "exit only" sign) to become the ramp at the next exit.^[2]
• An overtaking lane is the lane furthest from the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway/roadway (sometimes called the fast lane, although this is deprecated by the authorities).
• The slow lane is the lane nearest to the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway/roadway. This usage leads to the phrase Life in the Slow Lane, used as the title of various books and songs.
• A driving lane is an area in a parking lot/car park in between parking spaces so that vehicles can drive into and out of the spaces.
• A farm lane, which typically is the private property of one or more landowners, provides access to rural dwellings and agricultural buildings. It may be paved with concrete, asphalt, tar macadam, water bound macadam, gravel, or nothing more than earth, compressed with use.
• The term country lane, by contrast, typically denotes a public rural road. Farm lanes connect properties to country lanes (or to main roads).

Lane width and capacity[link]

The U.S. Interstate Highway System uses a 12-foot (3.7 m) standard for lane width. 11-foot (3.4 m) lanes are found to be acceptable by the Federal Highway Administration for automobile traffic, but as lane width decreases (9-foot (2.7 m) lanes are found in some areas) traffic capacity decreases.^[3] A full-width freeway lane typically has a capacity of 2,000 cars per hour.^[4]

In the United Kingdom, many lanes are found in the countryside, and most of these lanes are wide enough for one car at a time and often have a lay by for cars to pass. In general, European laws and road width vary per country, with the minimum widths of lanes being anywhere between 2.5 m to 3.25 m (thus comparable to US lanes).^[5]

Lane markings[link]

A typical rural American freeway (Interstate 5 in the Central Valley of California). Notice the yellow line on the left, the dashed white line in the middle, and the solid white line on the right. There is also a "rumble strip" on the shoulder, not easily seen in this view.

Painted lane markings vary widely from country to country. In the United States, Canada and Norway, yellow lines separate traffic going opposite directions and white separates lanes of traffic traveling the same direction, but this is not the case in many European countries.

Medians or central reservations[link]

Besides a painted line, lanes of traffic moving in opposing directions can also be separated by any of the following:

• Grass strip or ditch
• A central turning lane that allows vehicles to turn into driveways or streets on the opposite side of the road without stopping traffic
• A wide paved area with special paint markings indicating that it should never be crossed
• Metal guard rail (or guide rail) affixed to metal or wooden posts
• Cable barriers
• Concrete barriers such as Jersey barriers

Such separations between opposing traffic are referred to as a median in American English and as a central reservation in British English.

Numbering of freeway lanes in California[link]

Traffic reports in California often refer to accidents being "in the number X lane." The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) assigns the numbers from left to right.^[6] The far left passing lane is the number 1 lane. The number of the slow lane (closest to freeway onramps/offramps) depends on the total number of lanes, and could be anywhere from 2 to 6.

History[link]

For much of human history, roads did not need lane markings because most people walked or rode horses at relatively slow speeds. Another reason for not using lane markings is that they are expensive to maintain.

When automobiles, trucks, and buses came into widespread use during the first two decades of the 20th century, head-on collisions became more common.

Without the guidance provided by lane markings, drivers in the early days often erred in favor of keeping closer to the middle of the road, rather than risk going off-road into ditches or trees^{[citation needed]}. This practice often left inadequate room for opposing traffic.

There are two people who have been credited with the invention of lane markings. In 1911, Edward N. Hines, the chairman of the Road Commission of Wayne County, Michigan was trying to make roads safer. He supposedly came up with the idea of painting stripes to separate lanes of traffic after riding behind a milk truck that leaked milk onto the center of the road, leaving a stripe.

June McCarroll, a physician in Indio California started experimenting with painting lines on roads in 1917 after she was run off of a highway by a truck driver. In November 1924, after years of lobbying by Dr. McCarroll and her allies, California officially adopted a policy of painting lines on its highways. A portion of Interstate 10 near Indio has been named the Dr. June McCarroll Memorial Freeway in her honor.

By 1939, lane markings had become so popular that they were officially standardized throughout the United States, and they were soon copied worldwide.

See also[link]

References[link]

Samuel Lane (1780–1859) was an English portrait-painter.

Life[link]

The son of Samuel and Elizabeth Lane, he was born at King's Lynn on 26 July 1780. After a childhood accident he became deaf and partially dumb. He studied under Joseph Farington and then under Sir Thomas Lawrence who employed him as assistant.

Lane first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1804, secured a large practice, and was a constant contributor for more than fifty years, sending in all 217 works. He lived in London at 60 Greek Street, Soho until 1853, and then retired to Ipswich; he sent his last contribution to the Academy in 1857. He died at Ipswich on 29 July 1859.

Works[link]

His portraits included: Lord George Bentinck for the Lynn guildhall; James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez for the United Service Club; Sir George Pollock and Sir John Malcolm for the Oriental Club; Charles Gordon-Lennox, 5th Duke of Richmond; Charles Blomfield, bishop of London; Thomas Clarkson for Wisbech town-hall; Philip Broke for the East Suffolk Hospital; Thomas Coke, for the Norwich Corn Exchange; Luke Hansard for the Stationers' Company; Thomas Telford, Edmond Wodehouse, and other prominent persons. Lane was known for truthful likenesses; many of them were engraved by Charles Turner, Samuel William Reynolds, William Ward, and others.

References[link]

• Dictionary of National Biography, Lane, Samuel (1780–1859), portrait-painter, by F. M. O'Donoghue. Published 1892.

Attribution

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. 

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Allen "Al" Davis (July 4, 1929 – October 8, 2011) was an American football executive. He was the principal owner of the Oakland Raiders of the National Football League from 1972 to 2011. His motto for the team was "Just win, baby."^[1]

Early career[link]

Born to Rose and Louis Davis^[2] in a "relatively affluent" Jewish^[3] family in Brockton, Massachusetts, Davis spent his youth in the Flatbush neighborhood of Brooklyn and attended Erasmus Hall High School. In contrast to the outlaw image he would later take on, as a teenager Davis won an American Legion medal for "all-around kid."^[4]

He attended Wittenberg University and Syracuse University, where he earned a degree in English. Upon graduation, he began his coaching career as the line coach at Adelphi College from 1950 to 1951. From there Davis served as the head coach of the U.S. Army team at Ft. Belvoir, Virginia from 1952 to 1953. His next coaching assignment was as the line coach and chief recruiter for The Citadel. From 1957 to 1959 Davis was an offensive line coach at the University of Southern California.

Oakland Raiders coach and general manager[link]

Davis' first coaching experience in professional football came as the offensive end coach of the Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers from 1960 to 1962.

After the 1962 season, Raiders general partner F. Wayne Valley hired Davis as head coach and general manager. At 33, Davis was the youngest person in professional football history to hold the positions. It was at that time that he assumed the image that would define him for almost half a century—slicked-back hair, Brooklyn-tinged speech (the "Raiduhs"), dark glasses and an intense will to win.

Davis immediately began to implement what he termed the "vertical game," an aggressive offensive strategy based on the West Coast offense developed by Chargers head coach Sid Gillman. Under Davis the Raiders improved to 10–4, the first winning record in franchise history, and one more win than they had notched in their first three seasons combined. "Just win, baby" became his mantra and the Raiders' motto.^[1] He was named the AFL's Coach of the Year in 1963. Though the team slipped to 5–7–2 in 1964, it rebounded to an 8–5–1 record in 1965.

AFL Commissioner[link]

In April 1966 he was named the American Football League Commissioner. He immediately commenced an aggressive campaign against the NFL and signed several of the NFL's top players to AFL contracts. Other AFL owners, Davis not included, held secret meetings with the NFL, and in July the AFL and NFL announced that they were merging. Because of the compensation AFL teams were required to pay the NFL, and because he believed the AFL would be the superior league if allowed to remain separate, Davis was against the merger. On July 25, 1966, Davis resigned as commissioner rather than remain as commissioner until the end of the AFL in 1970.

Back with the Raiders[link]

After resigning as AFL commissioner, Davis formed a holding company, A.D. Football, Inc. and returned to his old club as one of three general partners, along with Wayne Valley and Ed McGah. He owned a 10% stake in the team, and was also named head of football operations. On the field, the team Davis had assembled and coached steadily improved. With John Rauch (Davis's hand-picked successor) as head coach, the Raiders won the 1967 AFL Championship, defeating the Houston Oilers 40–7. The win earned the team a trip to Super Bowl II, where they were beaten 33–14 by Vince Lombardi's Green Bay Packers. The following two years, the Raiders again won Western Division titles, only to lose the AFL Championship to the eventual Super Bowl winners—the New York Jets (1968) and Kansas City Chiefs (1969).

In 1969, John Madden became the team's sixth head coach, and under him, the Raiders became one of the most successful franchises in the NFL, winning six division titles during the 1970s. In 1970, the AFL-NFL merger took place and the Raiders joined the Western Division of the American Football Conference in the newly merged NFL. The first post-merger season saw the Raiders win the AFC West with an 8–4–2 record and go all the way to the conference championship, where they lost to the Colts. Despite another 8–4–2 season in 1971, the Raiders failed to win the division or achieve a playoff berth.

Raiders ownership[link]

In 1972, while managing general partner Valley was attending the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Davis drafted a revised partnership agreement that made him the new managing general partner, with near-absolute control over team operations. McGah signed the agreement. Since two of the team's three general partners had voted in favor of the agreement, it was binding under partnership law of the time. Valley sued to overturn the agreement once he returned to the country, but was unsuccessful. Valley sold his interest in 1976, and from that point onward none of the other partners had any role in the team's operations. This was despite the fact that Davis did not acquire a majority interest in the Raiders until 2005, when he bought the shares held by McGah's family. At his death he owned approximately 67 percent of the team.

In addition to serving as owner, Davis effectively served as his own general manager until his death—longer than any football operations chief in the league at the time. He was one of three NFL owners who had the title or powers of general manager, the others being the Dallas Cowboys' Jerry Jones and the Cincinnati Bengals' Mike Brown. He had long been reckoned as one of the most hands-on owners in professional sports, and reportedly had more authority over day-to-day operations than any other owner in the league.

With Davis in control, the Raiders became one of the most successful teams in all of professional sports. From 1967 to 1985 the team won 13 division championships, one AFL championship (1967), three Super Bowls (XI, XV, and XVIII) and made 15 playoff appearances. Though the Raiders had fallen on hard times in recent years, having gone 37–91 from 2003 to 2010, they are one of three teams to play in the Super Bowl in four different decades, with the other being the Pittsburgh Steelers and New York Giants.

In 1992 Davis was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a Team and League Administrator, and was presented by John Madden. Davis has been chosen by a record nine Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees to present them at the Canton, Ohio ceremony: Lance Alworth, Jim Otto, George Blanda, Willie Brown, Gene Upshaw, Fred Biletnikoff, Art Shell, Ted Hendricks, and Madden.

In 2007, Davis sold a minority stake in the Raiders for $150 million^[5] and said that he would not retire until he wins two more Super Bowls or died.^[6]

Davis' generosity was legendary when it came to helping former players in need, although he routinely did so without fanfare. His philosophy: Once a Raider, always a Raider.^[7]

Legal battles[link]

Davis was long considered one of the most controversial owners in the NFL and was involved in multiple lawsuits involving Los Angeles, Oakland, Irwindale and the NFL. In 1980 he attempted to move the Raiders to Los Angeles but was blocked by a court injunction. In response Davis filed an anti-trust lawsuit against the NFL. In June 1982 a federal district court ruled in Davis' favor and the team officially relocated to Los Angeles for the 1982 NFL season. When the upstart United States Football League filed its antitrust suit in 1986, Davis was the only NFL owner who sided with the USFL.

In 1995 Davis moved the team back to Oakland. Davis then sued the NFL, claiming the league sabotaged the team's effort to build a stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood by not doing enough to help the team move from the antiquated Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to a new stadium complete with luxury suites. The NFL won a 9–3 verdict in 2001, but Los Angeles County Superior Court Judge Richard Hubbell ordered a new trial amid accusations that one juror was biased against the team and Davis, and that another juror committed misconduct. A state appeals court later overturned that decision. The case was thrown out July 2, 2007 when the California Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the verdict against the Raiders stood. This was the last of several lawsuits the Raiders had outstanding against the league and its stadium landlords.^[8]

In the mid-1990s, Davis sued the NFL on behalf of the Raiders, claiming the Raiders had exclusive rights to the LA market, even though the Raiders were in Oakland. Davis and the Raiders lost the lawsuit.^{[citation needed]}

In 2007, NFL Films chose the feud between Davis and the NFL and Pete Rozelle as their number 1 greatest feud in NFL history on the NFL Network's Top Ten Feuds, citing almost a half century of animosity between Davis and the league. Some believe that the root of Davis' animosity towards the NFL and his former co-owners in the AFL was the surreptitious way they pushed the AFL-NFL merger behind his back.

Early moves[link]

Davis introduced the Raiders' signature logo in 1963 in a unilateral move as head coach and general manager.^[9] In the 1960s as AFL Commissioner, Davis initiated a bidding war with the NFL over players.^[10] But it was his return to Oakland in 1967 that allowed him to reach his true calling. That season Davis made a number of roster moves, including landing Buffalo Bills quarterback Daryle Lamonica, a back-up for starter Jack Kemp on two AFL champion Bills teams. Another move at first thought to be desperate was the signing of former Houston Oilers QB George Blanda, who was already 39 but was still a very solid placekicker, and had played on the first AFL champion teams with Houston, as well as for the Chicago Bears and Baltimore Colts before that. Davis correctly identified Blanda as a mentor for Lamonica as well as a solid special teams man despite his advanced age. That year he also drafted guard Gene Upshaw, the cornerstone of the Oakland offensive line well into the 1980s. Lamonica propelled the Raiders to a 13–1 won-loss record in the 1967–68 season, and they coasted to the league championship with a 40–7 victory over Houston, although they were defeated easily by the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl II. Oakland under Davis would go on to win the other two last AFL Western Division titles before the 1970 NFL-AFL merger.

During the first years of the new league format Oakland was a dominant franchise, winning the AFC West Division every year except 1971, and was kept out of the Super Bowls between 1970 and 1975 only by phenomenal Baltimore Colts, Miami Dolphins and Pittsburgh Steelers teams. Indeed, during the nine-year span from 1967 through 1975, the Raiders were eliminated by the team that won the Super Bowl on seven occasions (Green Bay in Super Bowl II at the end of the 1967 season, Super Bowl III champion New York in the 1968 AFL Championship Game, Super Bowl IV champion Kansas City in the 1969 AFL Championship Game, Super Bowl V champion Baltimore in the 1970 AFC Championship, Super Bowl VIII champion Miami in the 1973 AFC Championship Game, and Super Bowl IX and X champion Pittsburgh in the 1974 and 1975 AFC Championship Games). Finally, in 1976, the Raiders won their first title in Super Bowl XI under Davis's homegrown head coach John Madden. From 1970 to 1981 Oakland was able to reach the AFC Championship Game seven out of eleven years, and won two Super Bowls in that period. They also captured additional division titles during that period.

Trading Stabler[link]

In the 1980 offseason star QB Ken Stabler attempted to renegotiate his contract with the Raiders. A veteran gunslinging quarterback, Stabler had won the Raiders' only title until then and had been a mainstay since his 1968 signing with the team as a protegé of Lamonica. Davis angered much of the Raider community by dealing him to the Oilers for quarterback Dan Pastorini, a trade many regarded as selfishly seeking revenge while strengthening the team's top AFC rival. Although Pastorini was injured in week 5, the move paid off when replacement veteran Jim Plunkett led the Raiders to a first-place tie with San Diego for the best AFC West record and the wild card spot for their first playoff appearance since 1977. The Raiders subsequently became the third second-place team to play in the Super Bowl, joining the 1969 Kansas City Chiefs and the 1975 Dallas Cowboys, and they defeated the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl XV, enabling them to become the very first wild-card team to ever win the SB.^[11] Davis, a preseason goat in Oakland for the Stabler deal, was vindicated (the Raiders even defeated Stabler's Oilers in the wild-card round of the playoffs, 27–7).

Marcus Allen benching[link]

Marcus Allen, the most valuable player in the Raiders' Super Bowl XVIII victory, was ordered to be benched by Davis for two years following a contract dispute.^[12] Davis only commented, "He was a cancer on the team."^[1] Allen said that Davis "told me he was going to get me." He added that "I think he's tried to ruin the latter part of my career. He's trying to stop me from going to the Hall of Fame. They don't want me to play."^[13] Davis called Allen's charges "fraudulent," and then-Raiders coach Art Shell said only he decided who plays.^[13] The Raiders released Allen in 1992, and he played the last five years of his 16-year, Hall of Fame career with the Kansas City Chiefs.^[12]

Davis deals Gruden[link]

Davis dealt his head coach Jon Gruden to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in exchange for Tampa Bay's 2002 and 2003 first-round draft picks, 2002 and 2004 second-round draft picks, and $8 million in cash.^[14] His replacement, Bill Callahan, led Oakland to an 11–5 record and their third consecutive division championship. The Raiders reached Super Bowl XXXVII, where they faced Gruden, who led Tampa Bay to its first Super Bowl berth. The Buccaneers won 48–21 in a matchup that was termed the "Gruden Bowl".^[15]

Losing years[link]

Following their Super Bowl loss, the Raiders failed to make the playoffs in nine consecutive seasons from 2003–2011, with double-digit loss record seasons in seven consecutive years from 2003 to 2009. The team cycled through multiple head coaches. Their 2007 first overall draft pick, quarterback JaMarcus Russell, was called by FoxSports.com "the biggest draft flop in NFL history".^[16] Davis was largely blamed, and his motto of "Just win, baby!" was mocked.^[16]

The 2011 Raiders' record was 2–2 at Davis' death.^[16]

Civil rights and diversity[link]

Davis breached several civil rights and diversity barriers during his career with the Raiders. In 1963, the Raiders were scheduled to play a preseason game in Mobile, Alabama. In protest of Alabama's segregation laws, Davis refused to allow the game to be played there and demanded the game be moved to Oakland. He also refused to allow the players to travel to other cities to play games where the black and white players would have to stay in separate hotels.^[17]

Davis was the first NFL owner to hire an African American head coach, Art Shell, and a female chief executive, Amy Trask.^[1] He also hired Tom Flores, the second Latino head coach in the league.^{[18][note 1]}

Death[link]

Al Davis died at the age of 82 on October 8, 2011. The team said that Davis died at his home in Oakland early Saturday morning. Associated Press on October 28, 2011 disclosed, Raiders owner Al Davis died of heart failure. The death certificate issued by Alameda County says, "Davis died at age 82 at 2:45 am on Oct. 8 from an abnormal heart rhythm, congestive heart failure and a heart muscle disease."^{[21][18][22][23]} He is interred at Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland.^[24]

John Madden, who had remained close to Davis since their 1970s Raiders days together said, “You don’t replace a guy like that. No way. No damn way. You look at the things he’s done that no one ever did before, being a scout, assistant coach, head coach, general manager, commissioner and owner.”^[25]

The Sunday following his death, the Oakland Raiders wore a helmet sticker reading "Al" to commemorate Davis. Also, all teams in the NFL observed a moment of silence for Davis.^[26]

Despite the widespread remembrance of his accomplishments throughout popular sports media immediately following his death, Davis' position as a controversial figure lives on as part of his legacy. Rick Reilly was particularly adamant that the questionable personnel decisions he made later in his career and his arrogant, brash personality should not be forgotten amidst sportswriters' praise of him as an innovative owner.^[27]

Davis is survived by his wife, Carol, and their only child, Mark, a graduate of California State University, Chico.^[28][29] Carol and Mark inherited the Raiders from Davis.^[29][30][31] Mark assumed his father's old title of managing general partner of the Raiders.^[32] Carol in 1979 suffered a serious heart attack which placed her in the hospital for three weeks, but later recovered completely.^[33]

Davis's mother Rose had lived to age 103. She died in 2001, having outlived her husband Lou by 40 years.^[2]

The "11th man"[link]

A day after Davis' death, the Raiders played the Houston Texans. Oakland was leading the game 25–20 late in the fourth quarter. On the final play of the game, free safety Michael Huff intercepted quarterback Matt Schaub in the endzone to preserve the victory.^[34] The Raiders had only 10 defensive players on the field for the play.^[35] The play was referred to as the "Divine Interception"^[35] with media speculating that Davis was the 11th player on the field in spirit.^[36][37] Raiders coach Hue Jackson said Al Davis "had his hand on that ball."^[38]

See also[link]

• History of the Oakland Raiders

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Mark Ribowsky, Slick: The Silver and Black Life of Al Davis (biography) – Sept 1991
• Glenn Dickey, Just Win, Baby: Al Davis and His Raiders (biography) – Sept 1991
• Ira Simmons, Black Knight: Al Davis and His Raiders (biography) – Oct 1990

External links[link]

• Al Davis biography at the Pro Football Hall of Fame
• ESPN Classic bio
• Raiders coach under fire