Vinh Long province Tỉnh Vĩnh Long
—  Province  —
Nickname(s): Eternal prosperity
Location of Vĩnh Long within Vietnam
Coordinates: 10°10′N 106°0′E / 10.167°N 106°E / 10.167; 106Coordinates: 10°10′N 106°0′E / 10.167°N 106°E / 10.167; 106
Country	Vietnam
Region	Mekong Delta
Capital	Vĩnh Long
Government
• People's Council Chair	Phạm Văn Đấu
• People's Committee Chair	Trương Văn Sáu
Area
• Total	1,475.2 km2 (569.6 sq mi)
Population (2004)
• Total	1,044,900
• Density	710/km2 (1,800/sq mi)
Demographics
• Ethnicities	Vietnamese, Khmer, Hoa, Gia Rai
Time zone	ICT (UTC+7)
Calling code	70
ISO 3166 code	VN-49
Website	vinhlong.gov.vn

Vĩnh Long ( listen) is a province located in the Mekong River Delta of southern Vietnam. Its capital is Vinh Long. Its population is 1,023,400 and its area is 1,475 km².

Administrative history[link]

Modern-day Vinh Long was part of Long Hồ dinh (barrack, 營) established by the Nguyễn Lords in 1732, comprising the provinces of Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, and parts of Cần Thơ. The area saw some of the heaviest fighting between the Tây Sơn brothers and the Nguyễn Lords in the late 18th century; in 1784 Nguyễn Huệ defeated Siamese forces aiding Nguyễn Ánh at the Mang Thít River.

In 1951, the Southern Resistance Administrative Committee of the newly-declared Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) merged Vinh Long and Tra Vinh provinces into Vinh Tra province. Vinh Tra existed until 1954 (however, as North Vietnam never administered the area for a significant period of time, this arrangement was not enforced). In 1957, the government of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) formed Vinh Long province, consisting of six districts: Châu Thành, Chợ Lách (now part of Ben Tre province), Tam Bình, Bình Minh, Sa Đéc, and Lấp Vò. In 1961, Cái Nhum District was split from Chợ Lách. Đức Tôn and Đức Thành Districts were added in 1962, but joined the newly-formed Sa Dec Province in 1966. As of 1975, the province had 7 districts: Châu Thành, Chợ Lách, Tam Bình, Bình Minh, Minh Đức, Trà Ôn, and Vũng Liêm.

After the fall of Saigon and South Vietnam was reunited with North Vietnam, the new government merged Vinh Long with Tra Vinh province, forming Cuu Long province in 1976. In 1991, Cửu Long was again split into Vinh Long and Tra Vinh. At the time of the split, Vĩnh Long Province consisted of one city (Vĩnh Long) and 5 districts: Long Hồ, Vũng Liêm, Bình Minh, Tam Bình, and Trà Ôn.

In 1992, Mang Thít District was re-split from Long Hồ District. In 2007, Bình Tân District was created.

Geography[link]

Lying between the Hau and Tien rivers in the center of the Mekong Delta, Vĩnh Long is a province well known for fishing.

Districts[link]

Vĩnh Long is divided into seven districts and one city (Vĩnh Long):

1. Bình Minh
2. Bình Tân
3. Long Hồ
4. Mang Thít
5. Tam Bình
6. Trà Ôn
7. Vũng Liêm

Economy[link]

Prawns and the Basa and Tra catfish are among the many types of fish that exist in abundance in the waters of Vĩnh Long. Its rich, fertile soil makes Vĩnh Long an ideal location for the growing of many exotic and delicious fruits, including the strange-looking mangosteen, the spikey rambutan and the pungently fragrant durian. Because of Vĩnh Long's extensive network of waterways, these fruits and many other items can be purchased for mere pennies from the huge water-based squadron of floating merchants.

Traveling by water is a common practice here for such mundane tasks as grocery shopping as well as getting to restaurants and tourist attractions located on small islets accessible only by boat. Tourist infrastructure is still in its infancy here, but comfortable lodging and great food can be had for very reasonable prices.

Transportation[link]

Located approximately 135 km southwest of Hồ Chí Minh City, Vĩnh Long is easily accessible by bus, van or car using National Road 1A and the Mỹ Thuận Bridge.

Notable Vĩnh Long residents[link]

• Võ Văn Kiệt
• Petrus Ký

External links[link]

• Official site of Vĩnh Long Government

	Dong Thap province	Tien Giang province
	Can Tho		Ben Tre province
		Vinh Long province    East
	Hau Giang province	Soc Trang province	Tra Vinh province

Vinh Long Thành phố Vĩnh Long
Cityscape of Vinh Long
Vinh Long Location of in Vietnam
Coordinates: 10°15′N 105°58′E / 10.25°N 105.967°E / 10.25; 105.967
Country	Vietnam
Province	Vĩnh Long Province

Vĩnh Long ( listen) is the capital of the province of Vĩnh Long in Vietnam's Mekong Delta. The name was spelled 永隆 ("eternal prosperity") in the former Hán Tự writing system.

Narrow bridge over canal on the island of An Binh.

Vĩnh Long is on the Cổ Chiên river, which branches out from the Mekong River at the narrows of Mỹ Thuận about 10 kilometers upstream, only to meet it later downstream. Across the Cổ Chiên river from Vĩnh Long are the An Binh and Bình Hòa Phước islands, some 15 kilometers across, with the Mekong River on the other side. A number of canals run through Vĩnh Long, with tall vehicular bridges crossing them. Transport by boat is possible, although parts of the town, particularly An Binh, become unreachable at low tide.

Fruit stalls along the street in Vĩnh Long market, selling ripe and green mangos, plums, and milk apples.

Vĩnh Long is about two hours from the large city of Cần Thơ in the adjacent Hậu Giang province, and about three hours from Saigon. The floating market town of Cái Bèi is on the other side of the An Binh island and is the frequent destination for tourist boats from Vĩnh Long.

Coordinates: 10°15′N 105°58′E / 10.25°N 105.967°E / 10.25; 105.967

v t e Cities in Vietnam Centrally-controlled cities Special-class Hanoi Ho Chi Minh 1st-class Can Tho Da Nang Hai Phong Provincial cities 1st-class Buon Ma Thuot Da Lat Huế Nam Dinh Nha Trang Qui Nhon Thai Nguyen Viet Tri Vinh 2nd-class Bien Hoa Ca Mau Ha Long Hai Duong Long Xuyen My Tho Phan Thiet Pleiku Thanh Hoa Vung Tau 3rd-class Bac Lieu Bac Giang Bac Ninh Bao Loc Ben Tre Cao Lanh Cam Ranh Dong Ha Dong Hoi Dien Bien Phu Ha Tinh Hoa Binh Hoi An Hung Yen Kon Tum Lang Son Lao Cai Mong Cai Ninh Binh Phan Rang-Thap Cham Phu Ly Quang Ngai Rach Gia Soc Trang Son La Tam Ky Tan An Thai Binh Tra Vinh Tuy Hoa Tuyen Quang Vi Thanh Vinh Long Vinh Yen Yen Bai

v t e Districts of the Mekong Delta Region Can Tho Binh Thuy Cai Rang Phong Dien Co Do Vinh Thanh Thot Not Thoi Lai An Giang province Long Xuyen An Phu Chau Phu Chau Thanh Cho Moi Phu Tan Tan Chau Thoai Son Tinh Bien Tri Ton Bac Lieu province Bac Lieu Dong Hai Gia Rai Hoa Binh Hong Dan Phuoc Long Vinh Loi Ben Tre province Ben Tre Ba Tri Binh Dai Chau Thanh Cho Lach Giong Trom Mo Cay Bac Mo Cay Nam Thanh Phu Ca Mau province Ca Mau Cai Nuoc Dam Doi Nam Can Ngoc Hien Phu Tan Thoi Binh Tran Van Thoi U Minh Dong Thap province Cao Lanh Sa Dec Chau Thanh Hong Ngu Town Hong Ngu District Lap Vo Tan Hong Tam Nong Thanh Binh Thap Muoi Hau Giang province Vi Thanh Chau Thanh Chau Thanh A Nga Bay Long My Phung Hiep Vi Thuy Kien Giang province Rach Gia An Bien Chau Thanh Giong Rieng Go Quao Giang Thanh Hon Dat Kien Hai Kien Luong Tan Hiep Vinh Thuan U Minh Thuong Long An province Tan An Ben Luc Can Duoc Can Giuoc Chau Thanh Duc Hoa Duc Hue Moc Hoa Tan Hung Tan Thanh Tan Tru Thanh Hoa Thu Thua Vinh Hung Soc Trang province Soc Trang Chau Thanh Ke Sach Long Phu Cu Lao Dung My Tu My Xuyen Thanh Tri Vinh Chau Nga Nam Tien Giang province My Tho Chau Thanh Cai Lay Cai Be Go Cong Cho Gao Go Cong Dong Go Cong Tay Tan Phuoc Tan Phu Dong Tra Vinh province Tra Vinh Cang Long Chau Thanh Cau Ke Tieu Can Cau Ngang Tra Cu Duyen Hai Vinh Long province Vinh Long Binh Minh Binh Tan Long Ho Mang Thit Tam Binh Tra On Vung Liem

This article about a location in Vĩnh Long Province, Vietnam is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)

Vinh Thành phố Vinh
—  Provincial city  —
Vinh city view from Quyet mountain
Location of the provincial city in Vietnam
Coordinates: 18°40′N 105°40′E / 18.667°N 105.667°E / 18.667; 105.667
Country	Vietnam
Province	Nghệ An Province
Area
• Total	105 km2 (41 sq mi)
Population
• Total	303,714

Vinh ( listen) is a city in Vietnam. It is located in the northern half of the country, and is the capital of Nghệ An Province. Politically, Vinh is a municipality within Nghệ An Province. On September 5th, 2008, it was upgraded from Grade-II city to Grade-I city, the fifth Grade-I city of Vietnam after Hai Phong, Đà Nẵng, Can Tho and Huế. It is the important city in the North Central Coastal region.

Statistics[link]

The population of Vinh was estimated in 2009 to be 435,208 people. The service sector comprises the largest part of Vinh's economy, with around 55% of the working population being employed in this area. This is followed by the industrial sector (around 30%) and the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors (around 15%). Vinh is an important transportation hub, having a key position on the route between the northern and southern parts of the country, and is also a notable port.

History[link]

Vinh was originally known as Ke Van. Later, this successively became Ke Vinh, Vinh Giang, Vinh Doanh, and then Vinh Thi. Eventually, in 1789, the official name became simply Vinh, probably under European influence. The name has remained the same ever since. At various times, Vinh has been of considerable military and political significance. The Vietnamese nation began in the north, and only gradually expanded to cover its current territories – as such, Vinh was sometimes seen as a "gateway to the south". The Tây Sơn dynasty (1788–1802) is believed to have considered Vinh as a possible capital of Vietnam, but the short duration of the dynasty meant that any plans did not come to fruition. Tây Sơn interest in the city did, however, result in considerable construction and development there. Under French rule of Vietnam, Vinh was further developed as an industrial centre, and became well known for its factories.

The city of Vinh was once the site of a number of significant historic sites, particularly an ancient citadel. Over the years, however, Vinh has been extensively damaged in a number of wars. In the 1950s, fighting between the French colonial powers and the Việt Minh resistance forces destroyed much of the city, and further damage was done by United States bombing in the Vietnam War. As such, little of the original city remains today. The reconstruction of Vinh borrowed heavily on Soviet and East German ideas about town planning – the city is noted for its wide streets and its rows of concrete apartment blocks.

Historically, Vinh and its surrounding areas have often been important centres of rebellion and revolutionary activity. In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the city was the centre of several prominent uprisings against the French. In addition, a number of notable revolutionary figures were born in or near the city of Vinh, including Nguyễn Du, Phan Bội Châu, Trần Trọng Kim, Nguyễn Thị Minh Khai, and Hồ Chí Minh himself. Hồ Chí Minh's birthplace, some 14 kilometres to the west of Vinh, is a significant tourist attraction.

Climate[link]

Notable sites[link]

A street in Vinh.

Other notable tourist attractions are the Hong Son Temple and Quyet Mountain. Hong Son Temple is one of the few large temples to escape the closures implemented by the Communist authorities after the war, and is the site of an important festival on the 20th day of the 8th lunar month. Quyet Mountain, on the edge of Vinh, is used as a peaceful retreat from the city, with visitors climbing four hundred steps to the summit. From the summit, the whole of Vinh may be seen, along with the river and farmland surrounding it. The mountain is covered with pine trees, although the forest is still not completely recovered from its destruction by bombing during the war. Other places of interest include the Nghệ Tĩnh Soviet Museum (commemorating the major Nghệ An uprising against the French in the 1930s) and the Cửa Lò beach resort (a popular destination for citizens of Hanoi).^{[citation needed]}

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vinh

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website

Coordinates: 18°40′N 105°40′E / 18.667°N 105.667°E / 18.667; 105.667

v t e Cities in Vietnam Centrally-controlled cities Special-class Hanoi Ho Chi Minh 1st-class Can Tho Da Nang Hai Phong Provincial cities 1st-class Buon Ma Thuot Da Lat Huế Nam Dinh Nha Trang Qui Nhon Thai Nguyen Viet Tri Vinh 2nd-class Bien Hoa Ca Mau Ha Long Hai Duong Long Xuyen My Tho Phan Thiet Pleiku Thanh Hoa Vung Tau 3rd-class Bac Lieu Bac Giang Bac Ninh Bao Loc Ben Tre Cao Lanh Cam Ranh Dong Ha Dong Hoi Dien Bien Phu Ha Tinh Hoa Binh Hoi An Hung Yen Kon Tum Lang Son Lao Cai Mong Cai Ninh Binh Phan Rang-Thap Cham Phu Ly Quang Ngai Rach Gia Soc Trang Son La Tam Ky Tan An Thai Binh Tra Vinh Tuy Hoa Tuyen Quang Vi Thanh Vinh Long Vinh Yen Yen Bai

v t e Districts of North Central Coast (Bac Trung Bo) Thanh Hoa province Thanh Hoa  · Sam Son  · Bim Son  · Dong Son  · Vinh Loc  · Yen Dinh Nghe An province Vinh  · Cua Lo  · Anh Son  · Con Cuong  · Dien Chau  · Do Luong  · Hung Nguyen  · Ky Son  · Nam Dan  · Nghi Loc  · Nghia Dan  · Que Phong  · Quy Chau  · Quy Hop  · Quynh Luu  · Tan Ky  · Thanh Chuong  · Tuong Duong  · Yen Thanh Ha Tinh province Ha Tinh  · Cam Xuyen  · Can Loc  · Duc Tho  · Hong Linh  · Huong Khe  · Huong Son  · Ky Anh  · Loc Ha  · Nghi Xuan  · Thach Ha  · Vu Quang Quang Binh province Dong Hoi  · Bo Trach  · Le Thuy  · Minh Hoa  · Quang Ninh  · Quang Trach  · Tuyen Hoa Quang Tri province Quang Tri  · Dong Ha  · Cam Lo  · Con Co  · Da Krong  · Gio Linh  · Hai Lang  · Huong Hoa  · Trieu Phong  · Vinh Linh Thua Thien – Hue province Hue  · A Luoi  · Huong Thuy  · Huong Tra  · Nam Dong  · Phong Dien  · Phu Loc  · Phu Vang  · Quang Dien

Vietnam War
Part of the Cold War and the Indochina Wars
A Bell UH-1D helicopter piloted by Major Bruce P. Crandall climbs skyward after discharging a load of U.S. infantrymen on a search and destroy mission
Date 1 November 1955 (1955-11-01)[A 1] – 30 April 1975 (1975-04-30) (&1000000000000001900000019 years, &10000000000000180000000180 days) Location South Vietnam, North Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos Result North Vietnamese victory Withdrawal of American forces from Indochina Dissolution of the Republic of Vietnam Communist governments take power in South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos Territorial changes Unification of North and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Belligerents
Anti-Communist forces: Republic of Vietnam  United States  Republic of Korea Australia  Philippines  New Zealand Thailand Khmer Republic Kingdom of Laos Supported by: Spain Republic of China[1]	Communist forces: Democratic Republic of Vietnam Viet Cong Khmer Rouge Pathet Lao Supported by: Democratic People's Republic of Korea People's Republic of China (to 1968) 22x20px Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Republic of Cuba
Commanders and leaders
Ngô Đình Diệm Nguyễn Văn Thiệu Nguyễn Cao Kỳ Cao Văn Viên Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon William Westmoreland Creighton Abrams ...and others	Hồ Chí Minh Lê Duẩn Võ Nguyên Giáp Hoàng Văn Thái Văn Tiến Dũng Trần Văn Trà Nguyễn Văn Linh Nguyễn Hữu Thọ ...and others
Strength
~1,830,000 (1968) Republic of Vietnam: 850,000 United States of America: 536,100 Free World Military Forces: 65,000[2][3] Republic of Korea: 50,000[4] Commonwealth of Australia: 7,672 Kingdom of Thailand, Philippines: 10,450 New Zealand: 552	461,000+ Democratic Republic of Vietnam: 287,465 (January 1968)[5] People's Republic of China: 170,000 (1969) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: 3,000 Democratic People's Republic of Korea: 300–600
Casualties and losses
Republic of Vietnam 361,000[6]-2,000,000 civilian dead;[7] military dead: 220,357 (lowest est.)[8] – 316,000 dead (highest est.);[6] 1,170,000 wounded United States 58,220 dead;[A 2] 303,644 wounded[A 2] Republic of Korea 5,099 dead; 10,962 wounded; 4 missing Commonwealth of Australia 521 dead; 3,000 wounded New Zealand 37 dead; 187 wounded Kingdom of Thailand 1,351 dead[8] Kingdom of Laos 30,000 killed, wounded unknown[13] Total dead: 426,228 – 2,381,228 (2,000,000 South civilians) Total wounded: ~1,490,000+	North Vietnam & NLF 50,000[6]-2,000,000 civilian dead;[7] 1,176,000 military dead or missing;[8] 600,000+ wounded[14] People's Republic of China 1,446 dead; 4,200 wounded 22x20px Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 16 dead[15] Total dead: 1,227,452-3,177,462 (50,000–2,000,000 North civilians) Military dead: ~1,177,462 ) Total wounded: ~604,200+
Vietnamese civilian dead: 411,000[6] – 4,000,000[16] Cambodian civilian dead: 200,000 – 300,000*[17][18][19] Laotian civilian dead: ~20,000 – 200,000* Total civilian dead: – 631,000 – 4,500,000 Total dead: – 1,653,740 - 5,558,690 * indicates approximations, see Casualties below For more information see Vietnam War casualties

The Vietnam War^{[A 3]} was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955^{[A 1]} to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other anti-communist countries.^[25] The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a lightly armed South Vietnamese communist-controlled common front, largely fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The Vietnam People's Army (North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes.

The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The North Vietnamese government and Viet Cong viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U.S. puppet state.^[26] American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962.^[27] U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned international borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were gradually withdrawn as part of a policy known as Vietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued.

U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 as a result of the Case–Church Amendment passed by the U.S. Congress.^[28] The capture of Saigon by the Vietnam People's Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from less than one million^[29] to more than five million.^[7][30] Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians,^[17][18][19] 20,000–200,000 Laotians,^{[31][32][33][34][35][36]} and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.^{[A 2]}

Names for the War[link]

Various names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War, and the Vietnam Conflict.

As there have been so many conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the name of their chief opponent to distinguish it from the others.^[37] Thus, in Vietnamese, the war is known as Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War), or as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America), loosely translated as the American War.^[38]

The main military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the U.S. military, and, on the other side, the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) (also known as the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA), and the Viet Cong, or National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force.

Background to 1949[link]

France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893.^[39][40][41] The Treaty of Huế, concluded in 1884, formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades. In spite of military resistance, most notably by the Can Vuong of Phan Dinh Phung, by 1888 the area of the current-day nations of Cambodia and Vietnam was made into the colony of French Indochina (Laos was added later).^[42] Various Vietnamese opposition movements to French rule existed during this period, such as the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang who staged the failed Yen Bai mutiny in 1930, but none were ultimately as successful as the Viet Minh common front, which was founded in 1941, controlled by the Indochinese Communist Party, and funded by the U.S. and the Chinese Nationalist Party in its fight against Japanese occupation.^{[43][A 4]}

During World War II, the French were defeated by the Germans in 1940. For French Indochina, this meant that the colonial authorities became Vichy French, allies of the German-Italian Axis powers. In turn this meant that the French collaborated with the Japanese forces after their invasion of French Indochina during 1940. The French continued to run affairs in the colony, but ultimate power resided in the hands of the Japanese.^[43]

The Viet Minh was founded as a league for independence from France, but also opposed Japanese occupation in 1945 for the same reason. The U.S. and Chinese Nationalist Party supported them in the fight against the Japanese.^[45] However, they did not have enough power to fight actual battles at first. Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh was suspected of being a communist and jailed for a year by the Chinese Nationalist Party.^[46]

Double occupation by France and Japan continued until the German forces were expelled from France and the French Indochina colonial authorities started holding secret talks with the Free French. Fearing that they could no longer trust the French authorities, the Japanese army interned them all on 9 March 1945 and assumed direct control themselves^[47] through their puppet state, the Empire of Vietnam, under Bảo Đại.

During 1944–1945, a deep famine struck northern Vietnam due to a combination of bad weather and French/Japanese exploitation. 1 million people died of starvation (out of a population of 10 million in the affected area).^[48] Exploiting the administrative gap^[49] that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes.^[50] Between 75 and 100 warehouses were consequently raided.^[51] This rebellion against the effects of the famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's popularity and they recruited many members during this period.^[49]

In August 1945, the Japanese had been defeated and surrendered unconditionally. In French Indochina this created a power vacuum, as the French were still interned and the Japanese forces stood down.^[51] The Viet Minh stepped into this vacuum and grasped power across Vietnam in the August Revolution,^[51] largely supported by the Vietnamese population.^[52] After their defeat in the war, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) gave weapons to the Vietnamese, and kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. The Việt Minh had recruited more than 600 Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.^[53][54]

Ho Chi Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam before a crowd of 500,000 in Hanoi on 2 September 1945.^[51] In an overture to the Americans, he began his speech by paraphrasing the United States Declaration of Independence: All men are created equal. The Creator has given us certain inviolable Rights: the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness.^[51]

However, the major allied victors of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, all agreed the area belonged to the French.^[51] As the French did not have the ships, weapons, or soldiers to immediately retake Vietnam, the major powers came to an agreement that British troops would occupy the south while Nationalist Chinese forces would move in from the north.^[51] Nationalist Chinese troops entered the country to disarm Japanese troops north of the 16th parallel on 14 September 1945.^[55] When the British landed in the south, they rearmed the interned French forces as well as parts of the surrendered Japanese forces to aid them in retaking southern Vietnam, as they did not have enough troops to do this themselves.^[51]

Following the party line from Moscow, Ho Chi Minh initially attempted to negotiate with the French, who were slowly re-establishing their control across the country.^[56] In January 1946, the Viet Minh won elections across central and northern Vietnam.^[57] On 6 March 1946, Ho signed an agreement allowing French forces to replace Nationalist Chinese forces, in exchange for French recognition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a "free" republic within the French Union, with the specifics of such recognition to be determined by future negotiation.^[58][59][60] The French landed in Hanoi by March 1946 and in November of that year they ousted the Viet Minh from the city.^[61] British forces departed on 26 March 1946, leaving Vietnam in the hands of the French.^[62] Soon thereafter, the Viet Minh began a guerrilla war against the French Union forces, beginning the First Indochina War.

The war spread to Laos and Cambodia, where Communists organized the Pathet Lao and the Khmer Serei, both of which were modeled on the Viet Minh.^[63] Globally, the Cold War began in earnest, which meant that the rapprochement that existed between the Western powers and the Soviet Union during World War II disintegrated. The Viet Minh fight was hampered by a lack of weapons; this situation changed by 1949 when the Chinese Communists had largely won the Chinese Civil War and were free to provide arms to their Vietnamese allies.^[63]

Exit of the French, 1950–1954[link]

In January 1950, the communist nations, led by the People's Republic of China (PRC), recognized the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the government of Vietnam, while non-communist nations recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the Vietnamese government the following month.^[64] The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Kremlin.^[65]

French soldiers fight off a Viet Minh ambush in 1952.

PRC military advisors began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950.^[66] PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army.^[67] In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.^[68] By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.^[69]

There were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory.^[70][71] One version of the plan for the proposed Operation Vulture envisioned sending 60 B-29s from U.S. bases in the region, supported by as many as 150 fighters launched from U.S. Seventh Fleet carriers, to bomb Viet Minh commander Vo Nguyen Giap's positions. The plan included an option to use up to three atomic weapons on the Viet Minh positions. Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave this nuclear option his backing. U.S. B-29s, B-36s, and B-47s could have executed a nuclear strike, as could carrier aircraft from the Seventh Fleet.^[72]

U.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, and reconnaissance flights over Dien Bien Phu were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French.^[70] Nixon, a so-called "hawk" on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to "put American boys in".^[73] U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but London was opposed to such a venture.^[73] In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention.^[74] As an experienced five-star general, Eisenhower was very wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia.

The Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.^[75]

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the French Union garrison surrendered. Of the 12,000 French prisoners taken by the Viet Minh, only 3,000 survived.^[76] At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.

Transition period[link]

The Geneva Conference, 1954

Vietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300-day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government.^[77] Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists^[78] following an American propaganda campaign using slogans such as "The Virgin Mary is heading south",^[79] and aided by a U.S. funded $93 million relocation program, which included ferrying refugees with the Seventh Fleet.^[80] It is estimated that as many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.^[81] The northern, mainly Catholic refugees were meant to give the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency.^[82] Diem later went on to staff his administration's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.

In addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 "Revolutionary Regroupees" went to the north for "regroupment," expecting to return to the south within two years.^[83] The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a "politico-military substructure within the object of its irredentism."^[84] The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956.^[67] The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time.^[66] Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north.^[85]

In the north, the Viet Minh ruled as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and engaged in a drastic land reform program in which more than 100,000 perceived "class enemies" were executed.^{[86][87][88][89]} In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to "excesses" in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners.^[90]

The south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. In June 1955, Diem announced that the scheduled 1956 elections would not be held, claiming South Vietnam had rejected the Geneva Accords from the beginning and was therefore not bound by them. "How can we expect 'free elections' to be held in the Communist North?" he asked. President Eisenhower echoed senior U.S. experts^[91] when he wrote that, in 1954, "80 per cent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh" over Emperor Bảo Đại.^[92][93]

From April to June 1955, Diem (against U.S. advice) eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against the Cao Dai religious sect, the Hoa Hao sect of Ba Cut, and the Binh Xuyen organized crime group (which was allied with members of the secret police and some military elements). As broad-based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diem increasingly sought to blame the communists.^[94]

In a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diem rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133% in Saigon. His American advisers had recommended a more modest winning margin of "60 to 70 percent." Diem, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.^[95] Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state known as the Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president.^[96]

The ROV was created largely because of the Eisenhower administration's desire for an anti-communist state in the region.^[94] The domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration.^[97] It was, and is still, commonly hypothesized that it applied to Vietnam. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: "Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam."^[98]

Diem era, 1955–1963[link]

U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles greet President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam in Washington, 8 May 1957.

Rule[link]

A devout Roman Catholic, Diem was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that "Diem represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism."^[99] As he was a wealthy Catholic, many ordinary Vietnamese viewed Diem as part of the elite who had helped the French rule Vietnam; Diem had been interior minister in the colonial government. The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diem's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.

Beginning in the summer of 1955, Diem launched the "Denounce the Communists" campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956.^[100] The regime branded its opponents Viet Cong ("Vietnamese communist") to degrade their nationalist credentials. As a measure of the level of political repression, about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diem were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed.^[101]

In May 1957, Diem undertook a ten-day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.^[102]

Future U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote that the new American patrons of the ROV were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country.^[64] There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, and Diem warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.^[64]

Insurgency in the South, 1954–1960[link]

President Eisenhower noted that had the Geneva Accords been held, "possibly 80 percent of the population would have voted for Communist Ho Chi Minh" and the government quickly became more repressive and unpopular. The Diem government had largely failed in implementing a land reform program for the peasants of South Vietnam (90% of the population) which along with "Peace, security, freedom, [and] their standard of living" was the peasants' prime concern according to specialist Philippe Devillers. Among the changes the government altered the tenant structure to competitive bidding which led to more tenant insecurity. Only 10% of the tenants benefited from the program and were oftentimes northerners, refugees, or Catholics which created more animosity among the Vietnamese. In 1959 the program became inoperative and by 1960, only 2% of the landowners owned 45% of the land.^[24]

The South government used widespread repression, between 1954 and 1960 it captured 50,000 prisoners and had put them into "political reeducation camps" as part of the Denunciation of Communists Campaign. In 1959 British specialist PJ Honey was invited to examine the camps and concluded after interviewing rural Vietnamese that "the consensus of the opinion expressed by these peoples is that...the majority of the detainees are neither communists nor pro-communists."^[24]

According to the Pentagon Papers the prisons were "little more than concentration camps for potential foes of the government" and used torture regardless of whether they were communist or not. The Diem government had also abolished elections for village councils out of fear of large amounts of Viet Minh candidates winning and replaced administrative village autonomy with government officials.^[24]

This had an effect, between 1954 and 1957 there was large scale random dissidence in the countryside which the Diem government managed to successfully quell. In early 1957 South Vietnam had its first peace in over a decade. However, by mid-1957 through 1959 incidents of violence increased but the government "did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN resources." By Early 1959 however, Diem had considered it a campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation.^[103] There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to "wildcat" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.^[24]

In December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF) was formally created consisting of all anti-GVN activists and included non-communists. According to the Pentagon Papers, the NLF "placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam." Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.^[24]

North Vietnam interference?[link]

Very little evidence points to organization or interference on the part of North Vietnam. As the Pentagon Papers point out, "No direct links have been established between Hanoi and perpetrators of rural violence." As Kahin and Lewis point out:

Contrary to United States policy assumptions, all available evidence shows that the revival of the civil war in the South in 1958 was undertaken by Southerners at their own—not Hanoi's—initiative...Insurgency activity against the Saigon government began in the South under Southern leadership not as a consequence of any dictate from Hanoi, but contrary to Hanoi's injunctions.^[24]

Similarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that "it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism".^[24]

During John F. Kennedy's administration, 1961–1963[link]

In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated Vice-President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America "loomed larger than Asia on his sights."^[104] In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty."^[105] In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S.-Soviet issues.

The Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in Korea, and Kennedy faced a three-part crisis – the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement.^[106] These made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to "draw a line in the sand" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place."^[107][108]

In May 1961, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diem the "Winston Churchill of Asia."^[109] Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, "Diem's the only boy we got out there."^[102] Johnson assured Diem of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists.

Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diem and his forces must ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences."^[110] The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Bad leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in emasculating the ARVN. The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi's support for the NLF played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis.^[111]

South Vietnam, Military Regions, 1967

One major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a "brush fire" war in Vietnam.

Kennedy advisers Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the "danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did."^[112] By 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors.^[113]

The Strategic Hamlet Program had been initiated in 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. The aim was to isolate the population from the insurgents, provide education and health care, and strengthen the government's hold over the countryside.^{[citation needed]} The Strategic Hamlets, however, were quickly infiltrated by the guerrillas.^{[citation needed]} The peasants resented being uprooted from their ancestral villages.^{[citation needed]} In part, this was because Colonel Pham Ngoc Thao, a Diem favourite who was instrumental in running the program, was in fact a communist agent who used his Catholicism to gain influential posts and damage the ROV from the inside.^{[citation needed]}

The government refused to undertake land reform, which left farmers paying high rents to a few wealthy landlords. Corruption dogged the program and intensified opposition.

On 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including the People's Republic of China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising the neutrality of Laos.^[114]

Coup and assassinations[link]