Name	University of Alcalá
Native name	Universidad de Alcalá
Established	Historical University 1499 Official Modern University 1977
Type	public
Rector	Dr. Fernando Galván
City	Alcalá de Henares
State	Madrid
Country	Spain
Students	22,836
Campus	Urban and Outskirts
Free label	Faculty
Free	1,616
Website	www.uah.es
Endowment	160 million EUR
Logo

facade of the university.]]

The University of Alcalá () is a public university located in the city of Alcalá de Henares, to the east of Madrid in Spain. Founded in 1499, it was moved in 1836 to Madrid. In 1977, the University was reopened in its same historical buildings. The University of Alcalá is especially renowned in the Spanish-speaking world as it presents each year the highly prestigious Cervantes Prize.

History

Although by 1293 King Sancho IV of Castile had already given his approval to the establishment of a "Studium Generale", the University of Alcalá was founded by the Regent of Spain, Cardinal Cisneros, in 1499 as a totally new educational project which fused the best of the traditional Paris and Salamanca models with more innovative models, such as those of Bologna and Louvain. Cardinal Cisneros's ambition was to create an university for the modern age and to place Spain at the peak of the European Renaissance movement. Renaissance humanism was to be the crucible in which the ordained and lay clergy could be educated to facilitate ecclesiastical regeneration. The university was also designed to train a new and efficient corps of civil servants to serve the increasingly complex Spanish monarchy. The fulfillment of that reforming ambition led to Alcalá's transformation into the seat of an aristocratic university which would prepare the ground for Spain's "Siglo de Oro" ("Golden Century").

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the University of Alcalá became the pre-eminent centre of academic excellence. In its lecture rooms taught and studied figures of the stature of Nebrija, Tomás de Villanueva, Ginés de Sepúlveda, Ignatius de Loyola, Domingo de Soto, Ambrosio de Morales, Arias Montano, Juan de Mariana, Francisco Vallés de Covarrubias, Juan de la Cruz, Lope de Vega, Quevedo, and so on. At the same time, the prestige of its learning and teaching soon converted it into the model to be followed by the new universities in the Americas.

The eighteenth century, especially the last three decades, was a turning point in Spanish university education, with university teaching methods undergoing root and branch reform. Nevertheless, this period also saw the arrival of Melchor de Jovellanos at the university and the awarding of a doctorate in philosophy for the first time in Spain to a woman, María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda.

In the mid-nineteenth century, the university was moved to Madrid as a consequence of the selling-off of church lands. From that time onwards, the aspiration to one day win back the university was kept alive by the Condueños Society. The fervour of the people of Alcalá, the university's celebrated past, the recovery of the collective memory, and the new boost given to Spanish education by the transition to democracy meant that the University of Alcalá's lecture rooms were opened again in 1977. Ever since then, the teamwork and tenacity of its governors have allowed its intellectual, cultural and architectural heritage to be recovered. Due to its distinctive university model, its contribution to the arts and sciences throughout history, and to the beauty and wealth of its buildings, the University of Alcalá was declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site on December 2, 1998.

The university today

Today's University of Alcalá preserves its traditional humanities faculties, a testimony to the university's special efforts, past and present, to promote and diffuse the Spanish language through both its studies and the Cervantes Prize, which is awarded annually by the King and Queen of Spain in the Paraninfo (Great Hall). The University has added to its time-honoured education in the humanities and social sciences new degree subjects in scientific fields such as health sciences or engineering, spread out across its different sites (the Alcalá Campus, El Encín, and Guadalajara), all of which, together with the Science and Technology Park, are a key factor in its projection abroad, while also acting as a dynamo for activities in its local region.

The University of Spanish Language

Because of its rich tradition in humanities fields, the University of Alcalá presents several programs of Spanish language and literature studies. Also, it presents a specific Spanish-language program for foreign students. Alcalingua is the Department of the University of Alcalá in charge of Spanish Language and Culture courses to foreigners, as well as the development of teaching materials for the teaching of Spanish as a foreign language. The Universidad de Alcalá, together with EDUESPAÑA, grants the CEELE, Certificado de Calidad en la Enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera (Quality Certificate for Teaching in Spanish as a Foreign Language).

International agreements

The University of Alcalá is a party to various bilateral agreements with Institutions in non-European countries, above all with universities in Latin America and USA. Some of these agreements stipulate exchanges for first and second stage students. Like Erasmus Programme students, foreign students who take advantage of these exchange schemes are exempt of payment of tuition fees to the University of Alcalá, though they must meet their own costs of travel, accommodation and upkeep. Application to take part in these exchanges should be carried out in the university of origin. Once selected, the university of origin will inform the University of Alcalá.

Notable teachers (present day)

Rodrigo Rato Figaredo, former Manager Director of the International Monetary Fund Manuel Marín González, former speaker of the Spanish Congress of Deputies and long-time member of the European Commission (Responsible for the presentation of the proposal for the Erasmus Programme). Virgilio Zapatero Gómez, former Spanish minister (1986–1993)

Facilities and other services

The University of Alcalá is spread across three main sites:

*The renovated sixteenth and seventeenth century buildings located in the city centre of Alcalá de Henares are home to studies in the traditional fields of Humanities, Social Sciences and Law, as well as to the School of Architecture.

Health Sciences, specialised experimental sciences, and the new technologies are to found in Faculties and university schools built from scratch on the Campus just outside the city of Alcalá de Henares.

Part of its recent process of expansion, the development of the Guadalajara Campus deserves special mention. Here, as well as the long-standing Escuela de Magisterio (primary education teacher-training college) and the Castilla-La Mancha Health Service Nursing College, both attached to the University, may be found the Multi-departmental Building, which is home for Technical Architecture, Business Science, and Tourism.

The University of Alcalá boasts an extensive network of 14 libraries spread across its three campuses. Offering long year-round opening hours, in exam periods they never close. The University also offers a wide range of sporting activities. Some of them are aikido, archery, badminton to fencing, rugby or yoga. There are also courses in snorkelling, horse-riding and mountaineering, among other popular sports such as football. The University has a Hall for music, dance, theatre or flamenco, as well as the University Choir, "Tuna" (traditional student music group), and Film Club.

Architecture

Many buildings on the campus of Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas borrow the architectural elements from those found at University of Alcalá.

References

External links

University of Alcalá official site (Spanish)

University of Alcalá International Student Home Page (English)

Category:Universities in the Community of Madrid University of Alcala Category:1499 establishments Category:Educational institutions established in the 15th century Category:Public universities

Name	Nilo Alcala
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Nilo Belarmino Alcala II
Born	February 23, 1978
Origin	Lucena City, Philippines
Instrument	voice, piano
Genre	classical,
Occupation	composer, arranger, singer, conductor
Associated acts	Philippine Madrigal Singers Metro Manila Concert Orchestra
Url	http://nilo_alcala2.webs.com/

Nilo Alcala is a Filipino composer, arranger, and singer.

Biography

Alcala is a recipient of a number of recognitions, including the 2009 POLYPHONOS Young Composer Award given by the Seattle-based vocal ensemble, The Esoterics. He also received a Young Composer Award from the Asian Composers League, in cooperation with the Israel Composers League in 2004. He won Best Movie Theme Song and was also nominated for Best Film Score at the 34th Metro Manila Film Festival for his music in the movie "Homecoming" by renowned Filipino director Gil Portes. For the same movie, Alcala also received nominations from the Golden Screen Awards of the Entertainment Press Society and the Star Awards for Movies of the Philippine Movie Press Club. As an arranger, his work in the Sony BMG released Album Acclamation of the renowned Philippine Madrigal Singers was nominated for Best Vocal Arrangement at the 20th Awit Awards organized by the Philippine Association of the Record Industry or PARI.

Alcala was member/soloist and resident composer/arranger of the two-time European Choral Grand Prix winner and UNESCO Artist for Peace Philippine Madrigal Singers. The group has premiered Alcala's compositions in prestigious international festivals and competitions, including the Florilege Vocal de Tours in France, and the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing in Arezzo, Italy.

Alcala graduated BS Development Communication from the University of the Philippines Los Baños (BSDC 1999) prior to his admission in 2001 to the University of the Philippines Diliman College of Music. Upon graduating Bachelor of Music in Composition Magna cum laude in 2007, Alcala received the Gawad Chanselor Natatanging Mag-aaral (Chancellor's Outstanding Student Award), an award conferred by University of the Philippines to students with outstanding academic and non-academic achievements. Alcala became full scholar under the Billy Joel Fellowship at Syracuse University College of Visual and Performing Arts in upstate New York where he finished Masters in Music Composition and received the Irene Crooker Excellence in Music Award in 2009.

Alcala's teachers include Prof. Josefino Chino Toledo, Dr. Jonas Baes, Dr. Christine Muyco, Dr. Ramon P. Santos, Dr. Nicolas Scherzinger, Dr. Gregory Mertl, Dr. Daniel S. Godfrey. He also had master classes with Judith Weir.

Summary of Accomplishments

AWARDS/NOMINATIONS:

*2009 POLYPHONOS Young Composer Award (Seattle, USA)

*2007 Gawad Tsanselor Natatanging Mag-aaral (Outstanding Student Award), University of the Philippines

*2006 Prix pour une ouvre de creation, Finalist, Florilege Vocal de Tours ,France

*2004 Asian Composers League Young Composer Award, 2nd Prize (Jerusalem, Israel)

*Ani ng Dangal Award - given by Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

*Best Sound Design/Music Score for "Flower Trail" - INDEO Awards

*Irene Crocker Music Award - Syracuse University

*Awiting Bayan para sa Korong Pilipino (Choral Writing Competition) - "Kaisa-isa Niyan" (2006) winner in the Mga Awiting Bayan Para sa Korong Pilipino Choral Writing Competition and chosen for publication by the National Committee on Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and the National Music Competitions for Young Artists (NAMCYA)– Cultural Center of the Philippines, 2007.

*24th Metro Manila FIlm Festival, Best Movie Theme Song

*24th Metro Manila Film Festival, Best FIlm Score, nominee

*Star Awards, Original Theme Song of the Year, nominee

*Golden Screen Awards, Movie Theme Song of the Year, nominee

*20th Awit Awards, Best Vocal Arrangement (Acclamation), nominee

FELLOWSHIPS/GRANTS:

*Billy Joel Fellowship (Syracuse University)

National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA)

Asian Cultural Council

COMMISSIONS:

*The Esoterics (Seattle, WA) - for the MYSTERIUM concert series, Ooctober 2009

*National Music Competitions for Young Artists (NAMCYA) - Bagong Umaga (2005) – was official contest piece for the NAMCYA youth choir category, Folk Arts Theater, 2005

*Children's Museum and Library, Inc. - "Bagbagto" was official contest piece for the VOICES IN HARMONY youth choral competition finals, Manila 2008

*St. Stephen High School (Manila, Philippines) - "Miracles of Jesus" - a mini-musical

*Anglo-Chinese Junior College Choir (Singapore) - "Papanok a Lakitan" premiered at the Esplanade Concert Hall in Singapore, 2009

*Long Island Children's Choir (New York) - "Silly Syllables" performed at Merkin Hall, New York City, 2008

*Bangkok Voices - "Song of Dawn" (2006) – commissioned by the Bangkok Voices in Thailand for the World Choir Games Musica Contemporanea Category held in Xiamen, China, 2006.

COMPOSER/ARRANGER RESIDENCIES:

*Philippine Madrigal Singers

*Sole Voce Los Angeles

PERFORMANCES:

*Metro Manila Community Orchestra (now Metro Manila Concert Orchestra)- his works "Diary of a Synaesthete" and "Speak to me my love/You are the evening cloud" were chosen for premiere during the Music UnderKonstruction concerts at Cultural Center of the Philippines in 2005 and 2006, respectively.

*Syracuse University Singers

*Taipei Philharmonic Youth Choir

*University of the Philippines Los Banos Choral Ensemble

*various choirs from the Philippines, in Asia and the USA

READINGS:

*Cassat String Quartet

*daCapo Chamber Ensemble

HONOR SOCIETIES

*Phi Beta Delta Honor Society for International Students

*Phi Kappa Phi

*Pi Kappa Lambda (music honor society)

Selective List of Works by Category

CHORAL

*Pater Noster (treble choir) 2003

Dayo Dayo Kupita (mixed choir) 2005

Song of Dawn (mixed choir) 2006

Kaisa-isa Niyan (mixed choir) 2006

La Noche De Mil Noches (mixed choir) 2007

Silly Syllables (children’s choir, 2 violins, piano) 2008

Bagbagto (mixed choir, also in treble and male choir version, with optional wood percussion) 2009

Papanok A Lakitan (mixed choir, optional wood percussion) 2009

Song of the Night (mixed choir) 2009

VOCAL

*Then Finish The Last Song (soprano, piano) 2008

Tell Me If All This Be True (soprano, piano) 2009

A Day Like This (tenor, piano) 2009

The Sick Rose (soprano, piano) 2009

A Burning (tenor, mezzo-soprano, piano) 2009

Tell Me If All This Be True (soprano, piano) 2009

ORCHESTRAL

*Diary of a Synaesthete (orchestra) 2005

Speak To Me My Love/You Are The Evening Cloud (soprano, tenor, orchestra) 2007

CHAMBER/SOLO INSTRUMENTAL

*Freudian Id (string quartet) 2003

chuck d’ cheeky chat (instrumental chamber ensemble) 2004

Dancing Delusions (instrumental chamber ensemble) 2005

Stream of Consciousness (instrumental chamber ensemble) 2008

The Tyranny of Distractions (cello) 2009

MUSICAL THEATER

*Miracles of Jesus (children’s choir, soloists, rock band) 2007

FILM/ANIMATION

*Motion picture soundtrack for “Homecoming” (directed by Gil Portes) 2003

Animation soundtrack for “Flower Trail” 2004

References

Alcala, Nilo. Dayo Dayo Kupita. All Together Now! Inc., 2006.

*Alcala, Nilo. Kaisa-isa Niyan. Mga Awiting Bayan Para sa Korong Pilipino. National Commission on Culture and the Arts and National Music Competitions for young Artists, 2007.

*Alcala, Nilo. Dancing Delusions. I’mPulse 1st Asia-Europe Music Camp. DVD and CD. Conducted by Josefino Chino Toledo. Asia-Europe Foundation, 2005.

*Asian Composers League. “Winners of ACL Young Composers Awards.” Asian Composers League. http://www.asiancomposersleague.com/ACLawards.html

*European Grand Prix for Choral Singing Association. http://www.gpeuropa.com/gpe/gpe2007/gpe2007_sound.htm

*Kasilag, Lucresia. “Santos, Ramon Pagayon.” Grove Music Online, http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.24558>

*Philippine Madrigal Singers. “The Philippine Madrigal Singers…Now.” Google.com. http://www.thephilippinemadrigalsingers.blogspot.com

*Santos, Ramon. “Toledo, Josefino Chino.” Grove Music Online, http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.49223

External links

Official website

Excerpts of compositions

Official Youtube Channel

facebook page

Category:1978 births Category:Living people Category:Filipino composers Category:Composers Category:Film score composers Category:Choral composers Category:Arrangers

Name	Sigmund Freud
Caption	Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1921
Birth name	Sigismund Schlomo Freud
Birth date	May 06, 1856
Birth place	Freiberg in Mähren, Moravia, Austrian Empire (now the Czech Republic)
Death date	September 23, 1939
Death place	London, England, UK
Residence	Austria, UK
Nationality	Austrian
Ethnicity	Ashkenazi Jew
Fields	Neurology Psychiatry Psychology Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis
Workplaces	University of Vienna
Alma mater	University of Vienna
Known for	Psychoanalysis
Influences	Breuer, Charcot, Darwin, Dostoyevsky, Goethe, Haeckel, Hartmann, Jackson, Kant, Mayer, Nietzsche, Shakespeare, Schopenhauer, Sophocles, J.P. Jacobsen
Influenced	John Bowlby Viktor Frankl Anna Freud Arthur Janov Ernest Jones Carl Jung Melanie Klein Jacques Lacan Fritz Perls Otto Rank Wilhelm Reich
Awards	Goethe Prize
Religion	Atheist
Signature	FreudSignature.png

Sigmund Freud (), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychiatry. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient, technically referred to as an "analysand", and a psychoanalyst. Freud redefined sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association, created the theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was an early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, and a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.

While many of Freud's ideas have fallen out of favor or been modified by other analysts, and modern advances in the field of psychology have shown flaws in some of his theories, his work remains influential in clinical approaches, and in the humanities and social sciences. He is considered one of the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century, in terms of originality and intellectual influence.

Early life

Freud was born on 6 May 1856, to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Příbor, Austrian Empire, now the Czech Republic. Freud was born with a caul, which the family accepted as a positive omen.

His father, Jacob, was 41, a wool merchant, and had two children by a previous marriage. His mother, Amalié (née Nathansohn), the second wife of Jakob, was 21. He was the first of their eight children and, in accordance with tradition, his parents favored him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood. Despite their poverty, they sacrificed everything to give him a proper education. Due to the economic crisis of 1857, Freud's father lost his business, and the family moved to Leipzig before settling in Vienna.

In 1865, Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He was an outstanding pupil and graduated the Matura in 1873 with honors.

After planning to study law, Freud joined the medical faculty at University of Vienna to study under Darwinist Prof. Karl Claus. At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown and Freud spent four weeks at the Austrian zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an unsuccessful search for their male reproductive organs.

Freud began smoking at 24; he smoked cigarettes at first, but later switched exclusively to cigars. Freud believed that smoking enhanced his capacity to work and ability to muster self-control, and continued despite warnings from Wilhelm Fliess.

Development of psychoanalysis

. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.]]

In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a traveling fellowship to study with Europe's most renowned neurologist and researcher of hypnosis, Jean-Martin Charcot. He was later to remember the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialised in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Freud later turned away from hypnosis as a potential cure for mental illness, instead favouring free association and dream analysis. Charcot himself questioned his own work on hysteria towards the end of his life.

After opening his own medical practice, specializing in neurology, Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886. Her father Berman was the son of Isaac Bernays, chief rabbi in Hamburg.

After experimenting with hypnosis on his neurotic patients, Freud abandoned this form of treatment as it proved ineffective for many, he favored treatment where the patient talked through his or her problems. This came to be known as the "talking cure" and the ultimate goal of this talking was to locate and release powerful emotional energy that had initially been rejected or imprisoned in the unconscious mind. Freud called this denial of emotions "repression", and he believed that it was an impediment to the normal functioning of the psyche, even capable of causing physical retardation which he described as "psychosomatic". The term "talking cure" was initially coined by a patient, Anna O., who was treated by Freud's colleague Josef Breuer. The "talking cure" is widely seen as the basis of psychoanalysis.

Carl Jung initiated the rumor that a romantic relationship may have developed between Freud and his sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, who had moved into Freud's apartment at 19 Berggasse in 1896. Psychologist Hans Eysenck suggested that the affair occurred, resulting in an aborted pregnancy for Miss Bernays.

In his 40s, Freud "had numerous psychosomatic disorders as well as exaggerated fears of dying and other phobias". In that time, Freud was exploring his own dreams, memories, and the dynamics of his personality development. During this self-analysis, he came to realize a hostility he felt towards his father, Jacob Freud, who had died in 1896. He also recalled "his childhood sexual feelings for his mother, Amalia Freud, who was attractive, warm, and protective." Freud considered this time of emotional difficulty to be the most creative time in his life.

After the publication of Freud's books in 1900 and 1905, interest in his theories began to grow, and a circle of supporters developed in the following period. However, Freud often clashed with those supporters who critiqued his theories, the most famous being Carl Jung, who had originally supported Freud's ideas. Part of the disagreement between the two was in Jung's interest and commitment to religion, which Freud saw as unscientific.

Struggle with cancer

In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia, a benign growth associated with heavy smoking, on his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 informed Ernest Jones, telling him that the growth had been removed. Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the growth's seriousness, minimizing its importance. Freud later saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that the growth was cancerous; he identified it to Freud using the euphemism "a bad leukoplakia" instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma. Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growth excised. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist whose competence he had previously questioned; Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud bled during and after the operation, and may narrowly have escaped death. Freud subsequently saw Deutsch again; Deutsch saw that further surgery would be required, but refrained from telling Freud that he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might wish to commit suicide.

Escape from Austria and final years

In 1932, Freud received the Goethe Prize in appreciation of his contribution to psychology and to German literary culture. One year later (on 30 January 1933), the Nazis took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among those burned and destroyed by the Nazis. Freud quipped: Freud's four sisters perished in Nazi Concentration Camps.

In March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This led to violent outbursts of anti-Semitism in Vienna, and Freud and his family received visits from the Gestapo. Freud decided to go into exile "to die in freedom". In this goal, he was fortuitously assisted by Anton Sauerwald, a Nazi official given control over all Freud's assets in Austria. Sauerwald, however, was not an ordinary Nazi; while "he had made bombs for the Nazi movement, he had also studied medicine, chemistry and law."

At the University of Vienna, Sauerwald had been a student of Professor Josef Herzig, who often visited Freud to play cards. Sauerwald did not disclose to his Nazi superiors that Freud had many secret bank accounts and disobeyed a Nazi directive to have Freud's books on psychoanalysis destroyed.

Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in England during a service attended by Austrian refugees, including the author Stefan Zweig. His ashes were later placed in the crematorium's columbarium. They rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud received as a present from Marie Bonaparte, and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After Martha Freud's death in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn.

Freud's ideas

Freud has been influential in two related but distinct ways: he simultaneously developed a theory of the human mind's organization and internal operations and a theory that human behavior both conditions and results from how the mind is organized. This led him to favor certain clinical techniques for trying to help cure mental illness. He theorized that personality is developed by a person's childhood experiences. In his philosophical writings he advocated an atheistic world view; he was eulogized as "'the atheist's touchstone' for the 20th century."

Early work

, North London. Sigmund and Anna Freud lived at 20 Maresfield Gardens, near this statue. Their house is now a museum dedicated to Freud's life and work. The building behind the statue is the Tavistock Clinic, a major psychological health care institution.]]

Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna. He took nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25. He was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis." He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom.

Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.

Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk in free association and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is lesser direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, transference, the patient can discover and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts involving parents.

The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough which he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of absence. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of absence her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom. In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms," and some authors have challenged Breuer's published account of a cure. (A contrary view has been published by Richard Skues.)

In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but then came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies.

Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Wilhelm Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients. In the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood. In these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as unconscious memories if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious. Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.

As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse. His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.

Cocaine

As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He wrote several articles on the antidepressant qualities of the drug and he was influenced by friend and confidant Wilhelm Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of "nasal reflex neurosis". Fliess operated on the noses of Freud and a number of Freud's patients' whom he believed to be suffering the disorder, including Emma Eckstein, whose surgery proved disastrous. Freud felt that cocaine would work as a panacea and wrote a well-received paper, "On Coca", explaining its virtues. He prescribed it to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow to help him overcome a morphine addiction acquired while treating a disease of the nervous system. Freud also recommended cocaine to many of his close family and friends. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had not written extensively. Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery. Freud was bruised by this, especially because this would turn out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world. Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished because of this early ambition. Furthermore, Freud's friend Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis" as a result of Freud's prescriptions and died a few years later. Freud felt great regret over these events, dubbed by later biographers as "The Cocaine Incident". He managed to move on although some speculate that he continued to use cocaine after this event. Some critics have suggested that most of Freud's psychoanalytical theory was a byproduct of his cocaine use.

The Unconscious

Perhaps the most significant contribution Freud made to Western thought were his arguments concerning the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. However, as psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer pointed out, "contrary to what most people believe, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in Principles of Psychology his monumental treatise on psychology, examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious'". Boris Sidis, a Russian Jew who emigrated to the United States of America in 1887, and studied under William James, wrote The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society in 1898, followed by ten or more works over the next twenty five years on similar topics to the works of Freud. Historian of psychology Mark Altschule concluded, "It is difficult—or perhaps impossible—to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance." Freud's advance was not to uncover the unconscious but to devise a method for systematically studying it.

Freud called dreams the "royal road to the unconscious". This meant that dreams illustrate the "logic" of the unconscious mind. Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) in which he proposed that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort.

One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression". Freud believed that many people "repress" painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that repression varies among individual patients. Freud also argued that the act of repression did not take place within a person's consciousness. Thus, people are unaware of the fact that they have buried memories or traumatic experiences.

Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents that are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.

Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the ego, super-ego, and id. Throughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.

Psychosexual development

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.

Freud originally posited childhood sexual abuse as a general explanation for the origin of neuroses, but he abandoned this so-called "seduction theory" as insufficiently explanatory. He noted finding many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on imagination than on real events. During the late 1890s Freud, who never abandoned his belief in the sexual etiology of neuroses, began to emphasize fantasies built around the Oedipus complex as the primary cause of hysteria and other neurotic symptoms. Despite this change in his explanatory model, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had in fact been sexually abused by their fathers. He explicitly discussed several patients whom he knew to have been abused.

Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. Freud argued that children then passed through a stage in which they fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex) but that the child eventually overcame and repressed this desire because of its taboo nature. (The term 'Electra complex' is sometimes used to refer to such a fixation on the father, although Freud did not advocate its use.) The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development.

Freud's views have sometimes been called phallocentric. This is because, for Freud, the unconscious desires the phallus (penis). Males are afraid of losing their masculinity, symbolized by the phallus, to another male. Females always desire to have a phallus—an unfulfillable desire. Thus boys resent their fathers (fear of castration) and girls desire theirs.

Id, ego, and super-ego

In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully elaborated upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences.

The term ego entered the English language in the late 18th century; Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) described the game of chess as a way to "...keep the mind fit and the ego in check". Freud acknowledged that his use of the term Id (das Es, "the It") derives from the writings of Georg Groddeck. The term Id appears in the earliest writing of Boris Sidis, in which it is attributed to William James, as early as 1898.

The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. The theory of ego defense mechanisms has received empirical validation, and the nature of repression, in particular, became one of the more fiercely debated areas of psychology in the 1990s.

Life and death drives

Freud believed that humans were driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido/Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive (Thanatos). Freud's description of Cathexis, whose energy is known as libido, included all creative, life-producing drives. The death drive (or death instinct), whose energy is known as anticathexis, represented an urge inherent in all living things to return to a state of calm: in other words, an inorganic or dead state.

Freud recognized the death drive only in his later years and developed his theory of it in Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Freud approached the paradox between the life drives and the death drives by defining pleasure and unpleasure. According to Freud, unpleasure refers to stimulus that the body receives. (For example, excessive friction on the skin's surface produces a burning sensation; or, the bombardment of visual stimuli amidst rush hour traffic produces anxiety.)

Conversely, pleasure is a result of a decrease in stimuli (for example, a calm environment the body enters after having been subjected to a hectic environment). If pleasure increases as stimuli decreases, then the ultimate experience of pleasure for Freud would be zero stimulus, or death.

Given this proposition, Freud acknowledged the tendency for the unconscious to repeat unpleasurable experiences in order to desensitize, or deaden, the body. This compulsion to repeat unpleasurable experiences explains why traumatic nightmares occur in dreams, as nightmares seem to contradict Freud's earlier conception of dreams purely as a site of pleasure, fantasy, and desire. On the one hand, the life drives promote survival by avoiding extreme unpleasure and any threat to life. On the other hand, the death drive functions simultaneously toward extreme pleasure, which leads to death. Freud addressed the conceptual dualities of pleasure and unpleasure, as well as sex/life and death, in his discussions on masochism and sadomasochism. The tension between life drive and death drive represented a revolution in his manner of thinking.

These ideas resemble aspects of the philosophies of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche. Schopenhauer's pessimistic philosophy, expounded in The World as Will and Representation, describes a renunciation of the will to live that corresponds on many levels with Freud's Death Drive. Similarly, the life drive clearly parallels much of Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian in The Birth of Tragedy. However, Freud denied having been acquainted with their writings before he formulated the groundwork of his own ideas.

Freud's legacy

Psychotherapy

Freud has had a tremendous impact on psychotherapy. However, Freud's theories and research methods have always been controversial. His contributions to psychotherapy have been extensively criticized and defended by many scholars and historians. He and psychoanalysis have sometimes been criticized in extreme terms. For an often-quoted example, Peter Medawar, a Nobel Prize winning immunologist, said in 1975 that psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century".

Betty Friedan also criticised Freud and what she considered his Victorian slant on women in her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whose 1970 book Sexual Politics accused him of confusion and oversights. Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought that his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor. Juliet Mitchell defended Freud against Friedan, Millett and other feminist critics, and accused them of misreading him.

Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen writes in a review of Han Israëls's book Der Fall Freud published in The London Review of Books that, "The truth is that Freud knew from the very start that Fleischl, Anna O. and his 18 patients were not cured, and yet he did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations...he disguised fragments of his self-analysis as ‘objective’ cases, that he concealed his sources, that he conveniently antedated some of his analyses, that he sometimes attributed to his patients ‘free associations’ that he himself made up, that he inflated his therapeutic successes, that he slandered his opponents."

David Stafford-Clark writes that, "Psychoanalysis was and will always be Freud's original creation. Its discovery, exploration, investigation, and constant revision formed his life's work. It is manifest injustice, as well as wantonly insulting, to commend psychoanalysis, still less to invoke it 'without too much of Freud'." It's like supporting the theory of evolution 'without too much of Darwin'. If psychoanalysis is to be treated seriously at all, one must take into account, both seriously and with equal objectivity, the original theories of Sigmund Freud.

Ethan Watters and Richard Ofshe write that, "The story of Freud and the creation of psychodynamic therapy, as told by its adherents, is a self-serving myth".

Jacques Lacan saw attempts to locate pathology in, and then to cure, the individual as more characteristic of American ego psychology than of proper psychoanalysis. For Lacan, psychoanalysis involved "self-discovery" and even social criticism, and it succeeded insofar as it provided emancipatory self-awareness.

One influential post-Freudian psychotherapy has been psychologist Arthur Janov's primal therapy. Joel Kovel writes that Janov's work was compared to Freud's by the Chattanooga Times and the Berkeley Gazette. According to Kovel, primal therapy resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience, but nevertheless has profound differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology in which need is primary while wish is derivative and disepensible when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of danger situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is awareness that the parents do not love it.

Philosophy

Although Freud was not a philosopher, he greatly admired Franz Brentano, known for his theory of perception, as well as Theodor Lipps, who was one of the main supporters of the ideas of the unconscious and empathy. In his 1932 lecture on psychoanalysis as "a philosophy of life" Freud commented on the distinction between science and philosophy: :Philosophy is not opposed to science, it behaves itself as if it were a science, and to a certain extent it makes use of the same methods; but it parts company with science, in that it clings to the illusion that it can produce a complete and coherent picture of the universe, though in fact that picture must needs fall to pieces with every new advance in our knowledge. Its methodological error lies in the fact that it over-estimates the epistemological value of our logical operations, and to a certain extent admits the validity of other sources of knowledge, such as intuition.

Freud's model of the mind is often considered a challenge to the enlightenment model of rational agency, which was a key element of much modern philosophy. Freud's theories have had a tremendous effect on the Frankfurt school and critical theory. Following the "return to Freud" of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, Freud had an incisive influence on some French philosophers.

Freud once openly admitted to avoiding the work of Nietzsche, "whose guesses and intuitions often agree in the most astonishing way with the laborious findings of psychoanalysis".

Science

Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form. Psychology departments in American universities today are scientifically oriented, and Freudian theory has been marginalized, being regarded instead as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact, according to a recent APA study. Freud critic Richard Webster calls psychoanalysis "perhaps the most complex and successful" pseudo-science in history. Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis have argued for Freud's theories, pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. Founded by South African neuroscientist Mark Solms, neuro-psychoanalysis has received contributions from researchers including Oliver Sacks, Jaak Panksepp, Douglas Watt, Eric Kandel, and Joseph E. LeDoux. Still other clinical researchers have recently found empirical support for more specific hypotheses of Freud such as that of the "repetition compulsion" in relation to psychological trauma.

Patients

Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Many of the people identified only by pseudonyms were traced to their true identities by Peter Swales. Some patients known by pseudonyms were Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim, 1859–1936); Cäcilie M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss); Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.; (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973); Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878–1914); and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979). Other famous patients included H.D. (1886–1961); Emma Eckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), with whom Freud had only a single, extended consultation; and Princess Marie Bonaparte. Critics of Freud argue that, among all his patients, Freud was "unable to document a single unambiguously efficacious treatment".

People on whom psychoanalytic observations were published, but who were not patients, included Daniel Paul Schreber (1842–1911); Giordano Bruno, Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), on whom Freud co-authored an analysis with primary writer William Bullitt; Michelangelo, whom Freud analyzed in his essay, "The Moses of Michelangelo"; Leonardo da Vinci, analyzed in Freud's book, Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood; Moses, in Freud's book, Moses and Monotheism; and Josef Popper-Lynkeus, in Freud's paper, "Josef Popper-Lynkeus and the Theory of Dreams".

Followers

Freud spent most of his life in Vienna, where a brilliant group of followers formed around him. They believed that his ideas could do more for the treatment of neurotic patients than any other method. These people spread their ideas throughout Europe and America. Some of them subsequently withdrew from the original psychoanalytic society and founded their own divergent schools. The most famous of these are Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung.

Around 1910, Alfred Adler began to pay attention to some of the conscious personality factors and gradually deviated from Freud's basic ideas, including the perceptions of the importance of infant hunger for life and the driving force of unconscious cruelty. Adler eventually realized that his views were different from Freud's, and started a system he called Individual psychology. In 1912 Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of the Unconscious) and it became clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology.

Another follower of Freud was Karen Horney, one of whose primary contributions was to introduce a new method of psychoanalysis—introspection. Horney believed that in some cases, the patient is able to continue the analysis without the supervision of the doctor, if he has already mastered the technique. She claimed that some people can achieve a clear understanding of their unconscious stress without the supervision of experienced analysts. Horney is now considered a Neo-Freudian.

Bibliography

On 1 January 2010, in accordance with the Life+70 law of copyright, the works of Sigmund Freud passed into the Public Domain.

Further reading

Cioffi, Frank. Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. Peru, IL: Open Court, 1999.

Crews, Frederick. The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995.

Crews, Frederick, ed. Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend. New York: Penguin Books, 1998.

Dufresne, Todd, ed. Against Freud: Critics Talk Back. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.

Dufresne, Todd. Killing Freud: Twentieth-Century Culture and the Death of Psychoanalysis. New York: Continuum, 2003.

Ellenberger, Henri. Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri F. Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Ellenberger, Henri. The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books, 1970.

Esterson, Allen. Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud. Chicago: Open Court, 1993.

Gellner, Ernest. The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason. London: Fontana Press, 1993.

Grünbaum, Adolf. The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

Grünbaum, Adolf. Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis. Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press, 1993.

Hale, Nathan G., Jr. Freud and the Americans: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876–1917. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Hale, Nathan G., Jr. The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Hirschmüller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer. New York University Press, 1989.

Jung, Carl Gustav. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung Volume 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1961.

Macmillan, Malcolm. Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997.

Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.

Roazen, Paul. Freud and His Followers. New York: Knopf, 1975.

Roazen, Paul. Freud: Political and Social Thought. London: Hogarth Press, 1969.

Roth, Michael, ed. Freud: Conflict and Culture. New York: Vintage, 1998.

Stannard, David E. Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press, 2005.

Wollheim, Richard. Freud. Fontana, 1971.

Wollheim, Richard, and James Hopkins, eds. Philosophical Essays on Freud. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

See also

Afterwardsness

American Psychoanalytic Association

Dostoevsky and Parricide

Freud family

Freud's seduction theory

Freudian slip

Freudo-Marxism

History of the Jews in Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Neo-Freudian

Psychoanalytic literary criticism

Psychoanalytic theory

Psychodynamics

Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud's views about homosexuality

Signorelli parapraxis

The Century of the Self (related documentary)

The Mark Steel Lectures – Freud

References

External links

A BBC recording of Freud speaking, made in 1938

Dream Psychology by Sigmund Freud

Essays by Freud at Quotidiana.org

Freud Archives at Library of Congress

Freud Museum, Maresfield Gardens, London

International Network of Freud Critics

International Psychoanalytical Association, founded by Freud in 1910

Sigmund Freud birthplace PRIBOR

Sigmund Freud Collection at Bartleby.com (15 works in English)

Sigmund Freud Life and Work

soliloquia.ch: Sigmund Freud (Freud Speaking – Audio, English/German

(public domain in Canada)

Works by Sigmund Freud in audio format from LibriVox

Category:Austrian psychoanalysts Category:Narcissism Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society Category:Jewish atheists Category:Austrian atheists Category:Jews who emigrated to the United Kingdom to escape Nazism Category:Austrian Jews Category:People from Příbor Category:People of the Edwardian era Category:1856 births Category:1939 deaths