Area Navigation

Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method of Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) navigation that allows an aircraft to choose any course within a network of navigation beacons, rather than navigating directly to and from the beacons. This can conserve flight distance, reduce congestion, and allow flights into airports without beacons. Area navigation used to be called Random Navigation and therefore the acronym is RNAV ^[1].

RNAV can be defined as a method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired course within the coverage of station-referenced navigation signals or within the limits of a self-contained system capability, or a combination of these.

In the United States, RNAV was developed in the 1960s, and the first such routes were published in the 1970s. In January 1983, the Federal Aviation Administration revoked all contiguous United States RNAV routes due to findings that aircraft were using inertial navigation systems rather than the ground-based beacons [1]. RNAV was reanimated after the large-scale introduction of satellite navigation.

[edit] Background^[2]

The continuing growth of aviation increases demands on airspace capacity, thus emphasizing the need for optimum utilisation of available airspace. Improved operational efficiency derived from the application of area navigation techniques has resulted in the development of navigation applications in various regions worldwide and for all phases of flight. These applications could potentially be expanded to provide guidance for ground movement operations.

Requirements for navigation applications on specific routes or within a specific airspace must be defined in a clear and concise manner. This is to ensure that the flight crew and the air traffic controllers are aware of the on-board RNAV system capabilities in order to determine if the performance of the RNAV system is appropriate for the specific airspace requirements.

RNAV systems evolved in a manner similar to conventional ground-based routes and procedures. A specific RNAV system was identified and its performance was evaluated through a combination of analysis and flight testing. For land-based operations, the initial systems used very high frequency omnidirectional radio range (VOR) and distance measuring equipment (DME) for estimating position; for oceanic operations, inertial navigation systems (INS) were employed. Airspace and obstacle clearance criteria were developed based on the performance of available equipment, and specifications for requirements were based on available capabilities. Such prescriptive requirements resulted in delays to the introduction of new RNAV system capabilities and higher costs for maintaining appropriate certification. To avoid such prescriptive specifications of requirements, an alternative method for defining equipment requirements has been introduced. This enables the specification of performance requirements, independent of available equipment capabilities, and is termed performance-based navigation (PBN). Thus, RNAV is now one of the navigation techniques of PBN; currently the only other is required navigation performance (RNP).

RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key difference between them is the requirement for on-board performance monitoring and alerting. A navigation specification that includes a requirement for on-board navigation performance monitoring and alerting is referred to as an RNP specification. One not having such requirements is referred to as an RNAV specification. An area navigation system capable of achieving the performance requirement of an RNP specification is referred to as an RNP system.

As a result of decisions made in the industry in the 1990s, most modern RNAV systems provide on-board performance monitoring and alerting, therefore the navigation specifications developed for use by these systems can be designated as RNP.

Many RNAV systems, while offering very high accuracy and possessing many of the functions provided by RNP systems, are not able to provide assurance of their performance. Recognising this, and to avoid operators incurring unnecessary expense, where the airspace requirement does not necessitate the use of an RNP system, many new as well as existing navigation requirements will continue to specify RNAV rather than RNP systems. It is therefore expected that RNAV and RNP operations will co-exist for many years.

However, RNP systems provide improvements in the integrity of operation, permitting possibly closer route spacing, and can provide sufficient integrity to allow only the RNP systems to be use for navigation in a specific airspace. The use of RNP systems may therefore offer significant safety, operational and efficiency benefits. While RNAV and RNP applications will co-exist for a number of years, it is expected that there will be a gradual transition to RNP applications as the proportion of aircraft equipped with RNP systems increases and the cost of transition reduces.

Functional requirements[link]

RNAV specifications include requirements for certain navigation functions. These functional requirements include:

1. continuous indication of aircraft position relative to track to be displayed to the pilot flying on a navigation display situated in his primary field of view;
2. display of distance and bearing to the active (To) waypoint;
3. display of ground speed or time to the active (To) waypoint;
4. navigation data storage function; and
5. appropriate failure indication of the RNAV system including its sensors.

Navigation error components and alerting[link]

Lateral navigation[link]

The inability to achieve the required lateral navigation accuracy may be due to navigation errors related to aircraft tracking and positioning. The three main errors are path definition error (PDE), flight technical error (FTE) and navigation system error (NSE). The distribution of these errors is assumed to be independent, zero-mean and Gaussian. Therefore, the distribution of total system error (TSE) is also Gaussian with a standard deviation equal to the root sum square (RSS) of the standard deviations of these three errors.

PDE occurs when the path defined in the RNAV system does not correspond to the desired path, i.e. the path expected to be flown over the ground. Use of an RNAV system for navigation presupposes that a defined path representing the intended track is loaded into the navigation database. A consistent, repeatable path cannot be defined for a turn that allows for a fly-by turn at a waypoint (because nearness to waypoint and wind vector may not be repeatable), requires a fly-over of a waypoint (because wind vector may not be repeatable), or occurs when the aircraft reaches a target altitude (because target altitude is dependent on engine thrust and aircraft weight). In these cases, the navigation database contains a point-to-point desired flight path, but cannot account for the RNAV system defining a fly-by or fly-over path and performing a manoeuvre. A meaningful PDE and FTE cannot be established without a defining path, resulting in variability in the turn. Also, a deterministic, repeatable path cannot be defined for paths based on heading and the resulting path variability is accommodated in the route design.

FTE relates to the air crew or autopilot's ability to follow the defined path or track, including any display error (e.g. course deviation indicator (CDI) centring error). FTE can be monitored by the autopilot or air crew procedures and the extent to which these procedures need to be supported by other means depends, for example, on the phase of flight (i.e. take-off, climb, cruise, descent, landing) and the type of operations. Such monitoring support could be provided by a map display.

NSE refers to the difference between the aircraft's estimated position and actual position.

Longitudinal navigation[link]

Longitudinal performance implies navigation against a position along a track (e.g. 4-D control). However, at the present time, there are no navigation specifications requiring 4-D control, and there is no FTE in the longitudinal dimension. The current navigation specifications define requirements for along-track accuracy, which includes NSE and PDE. PDE is considered negligible. The along-track accuracy affects position reporting (e.g. "10 NM to ABC") and procedure design (e.g. minimum segment altitudes where the aircraft can begin descent once crossing a fix).

Designation[link]

An RNAV specification is designated as RNAV X, e.g. RNAV 1. The expression 'X' (where stated) refers to the lateral navigation accuracy in nautical miles, which is expected to be achieved at least 95% of the flight time by the population of aircraft operating within the airspace, route or procedure.

There are no RNAV approach specifications.

Flight planning[link]

Manual or automated notification of an aircraft's qualification to operate along an air traffic services (ATS) route, on a procedure or in an airspace is provided to ATC via the flight plan^[3].

References[link]

 This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Federal Aviation Administration.

External links[link]

• RNAV Tutorial - Florida International University
• Getting To Grips with Modern Navigation - Airbus

See also[link]

• VNAV
• LNAV
• LPV

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2011)

Alberto Santos-Dumont
Born	July 20, 1873 Palmira, Minas Gerais, Empire of Brazil
Died	July 23, 1932(1932-07-23) (aged 59) Guarujá, São Paulo, Brazil
Occupation	Aviator, Inventor
Signature

Caricature of Santos-Dumont from Vanity Fair, 1899

Alberto Santos-Dumont (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈsɐ̃tuz duˈmõw̃]; (July 20, 1873 – July 23, 1932) was a Brazilian aviation pioneer. The heir of a wealthy family of coffee producers, Santos Dumont dedicated himself to science studies in Paris, France, where he spent most of his adult life.

Santos-Dumont designed, built, and flew some of the first practical dirigibles, demonstrating that routine, controlled flight was possible. This "conquest of the air", in particular his winning the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize on October 19, 1901 on a flight that rounded the Eiffel Tower,^[1] made him one of the most famous people in the world during the early 20th century.

In addition to his pioneering work in airships, on 23 October 1906 Santos-Dumont, flying the 14-bis or Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"), made the first flight of an airplane to be witnessed by the European press and certified by the Aéro Club de France and the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).^[2] Santos-Dumont is considered to be the "Father of Aviation" in Brazil, his native country.^[3]

Santos-Dumont occupied the 38th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, from 1931 until his death in 1932.

Biography[link]

Childhood[link]

Santos-Dumont was born in Cabangu Farm, a farm in the Brazilian town of Palmira, today named Santos Dumont in the state of Minas Gerais, in the Southeast Brazil. He grew up as the sixth of eight children on a coffee plantation owned by his family in the state of São Paulo. His French-born father was an engineer, and made extensive use of the latest labor-saving inventions on his vast property. So successful were these innovations that Santos-Dumont's father gathered a large fortune and became known as the "Coffee King of Brazil."

He was fascinated by machinery, and while still a young child he learned to drive the steam tractors and locomotive used on his family's plantation. He was also a fan of Jules Verne and had read all his books before his tenth birthday. He wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil in the long, sunny afternoons at the plantation.

According to the custom of wealthy families of the time, after receiving basic instruction at home with private instructors including his parents, young Alberto was sent out alone to larger cities to do his secondary studies. He studied for a while in "Colégio Culto à Ciência", in Campinas.^{[citation needed]}

Move to France[link]

In 1891, Alberto's father had an accident while inspecting some machinery. He fell from his horse and became a paraplegic. He decided to sell the plantation and move to Europe with his wife and younger children. At 17, Santos-Dumont left the prestigious Escola de Minas in Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, for Paris. Shortly after he arrived, he bought an automobile. Later, he pursued studies in physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor.

Balloons and dirigibles[link]

Santos-Dumont #6 rounding the Eiffel Tower in the process of winning the Deutsch Prize. Photo courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution (SI Neg. No. 85-3941)

Santos-Dumont described himself as the first "sportsman of the air." He started flying by hiring an experienced balloon pilot and took his first balloon rides as a passenger. He quickly moved on to piloting balloons himself, and shortly thereafter to designing his own balloons. In 1898, Santos-Dumont flew his first balloon design, the Brésil.

After numerous balloon flights, he turned to the design of steerable balloons, or dirigible, that could be propelled through the air rather than drifting along with the wind. A dirigible, La France, capable of flying at around 24 km/h (15 mph) had been successfully flown in 1884 by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs, but their experiments had not progressed due to a lack of funding.^[4] Between 1898 and 1905 Santos Dumont built and flew 11 dirigibles. With air traffic control restrictions still decades in the future, he would float along Paris boulevards at rooftop level in one of his airships, commonly landing in front of a fashionable outdoor cafe for lunch. On one occasion he even flew an airship early one morning to his own apartment at No. 9, Rue Washington, just off Avenue des Champs-Élysées, not far from the Arc de Triomphe.

To win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize Santos-Dumont decided to build a bigger craft, the dirigible Number 5. On August 8, 1901 during one of his attempts his dirigible lost hydrogen gas. It started to descend and was unable to clear the roof of the Trocadero Hotel. A loud explosion was then heard. Santos-Dumont survived the explosion and was left hanging in a basket from the side of the hotel. With the help of the crowd he climbed to the roof without injury.

The zenith of his lighter-than-air career came when he won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. This was for the first flight from the Parc Saint Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than thirty minutes, necessitating an average ground speed of at least 22 km/h (14 mph) to cover the round trip distance of 11 km (6.8 mi) in the allotted time.

On October 19, 1901, after several attempts, Santos-Dumont succeeded in making the trip in using his dirigible Number 6. Immediately after the flight, a controversy broke out around a last minute rule change regarding the precise timing of the flight. There was much public outcry and comment in the press. Finally, after several days of vacillating by the committee of officials, Santos-Dumont was awarded the prize as well as the prize money of 125,000 francs. In a charitable gesture, he donated 75,000 francs of the prize money to the poor of Paris. The balance was given to his workmen as a bonus. An additional matching 125,000 francs was voted to him along with a gold medal by the government of his native Brazil.

Santos-Dumont's aviation feats made him a celebrity in Europe and throughout the world. He won several more prizes and became a friend to millionaires, aviation pioneers, and royalty. In 1903 Aida D'Acosta Breckinridge piloted Santos-Dumont's airship. In 1904, he went to the United States and was invited to the White House to meet U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.

In 1904, Santos-Dumont shipped his new airship No. 7 (also called Racer), from Paris to St. Louis to fly at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, to compete for the Grand Prize of $100,000 which was to be given to a flying machine (of any sort) that could make three round-trip flights over a 24 km (15 mile) “L”-shaped course at an overall average speed of 32 kph (20 mph),later reduced to 24 kph (15 mph). It was also necessary for the machine to land without damage to craft or crew not more than 46 m (150 ft) from the starting point. Because he was probably the best-known aviator at the time, the Fair committee went to great lengths to ensure his participation, including modifying the rules. However, upon arrival in St. Louis, Santos-Dumont found his airship’s gas bag to be irreparably damaged: sabotage, although suspected, was never proven, and Santos-Dumont did not participate in the contest after suspicion of the deed, a repeat of a similar incident in Boston, began to focus somewhat absurdly on Santos- Dumont himself, and he indignantly left the Fair and returned immediately to France.

The public eagerly followed his daring exploits. Parisians affectionately dubbed him le petit Santos. The fashionable folk of the day mimicked various aspects of his style of dress, from his high collared shirts to his signature Panama hat. He was, and remains to this day, a prominent folk hero in his native Brazil.

Heavier than air aircraft[link]

The November 12 flight.

Although Santos-Dumont continued to work on dirigibles, his primary interest soon turned to heavier-than-air aircraft. By 1905 he had finished his first fixed-wing aircraft design, and also a helicopter. He finally achieved his dream of flying an aircraft on October 23, 1906 by piloting the 14-bis before a large crowd of witnesses for a distance of 60 metres (197 ft) at a height of two to three metres (10 ft). This well-documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro-Club de France of a powered heavier-than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Price for the first officially observed flight further than 25 meters. On November 12, 1906, Santos-Dumont set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 metres in 21.5 seconds.^[5][6]

Santos-Dumont made other contributions to the field of aircraft design. He added movable surfaces, the precursor to ailerons, between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral stability than was offered by the 14-bis wing dihedral. He also pushed for and exploited substantial improvements in engine power-to-weight ratio, and other refinements in aircraft construction techniques.

Alberto Santos-Dumont flying the Demoiselle over Paris

Santos-Dumont's final design were the Demoiselle monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22). These aircraft were used by Dumont for personal transport. The fuselage consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo booms, and the pilot sat a seat between the main wheels of a tricycle landing gear. The Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a tail unit that functioned both as elevator and rudder, and by wing warping (No. 20).

In 1908 Santos-Dumont started working with Adolphe Clément's Clement-Bayard company to mass-produce the Demoiselle No 19. They planned a production run of 100 units, built 50 but sold only 15, for 7,500 francs for each airframe. It was the world's first series production aircraft. By 1909 it was offered with a choice of 3 engines, Clement 20 hp; Wright 4-cyl 30 hp (Clement-Bayard had the license to manufacture Wright engines); and Clement-Bayard 40 hp designed by Pierre Clerget. The Demoiselle could achieve a speed of120 km/h.^[7]

The Demoiselle could be constructed in only 15 days. Possessing a good performance, flying at a speed of more than 100 km/h, the Demoiselle was the last aircraft designed by Santos-Dumont. The June 1910 edition of the Popular Mechanics magazine published drawings of the Demoiselle and stated "This machine is better than any other which has ever been built, for those who wish to reach results with the least possible expense and with a minimum of experimenting." American companies sold drawings and parts for Demoiselles for several years afterwards. Santos-Dumont was so enthusiastic about aviation that he made the drawings of the Demoiselle available free of charge, thinking that aviation would lead to a new prosperous era for mankind.

[edit] The first fixed-wing aircraft: The 14-bis versus the Wright Flyers

Mainstream aviation historians credit the Wright Brothers with the creation of the first successful heavier-than-air flying machine, able to take off under its own power and capable of sustained and controlled flight.

The Wrights used a launching rail for their 1903 flights and a launch catapult for their 1904 and 1905 machines, but the aircraft of Santos-Dumont and other Europeans had wheeled undercarriages. The Wright Brothers continued to use skids, which necessitated the use of a dolly running on a track. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, founded in France in 1905 to verify aviation records, stated among its rules that an aircraft should be able to take off under its own power in order to qualify for a record. Supporters of Santos-Dumont maintain that this means the 14-bis was, technically, the first successful fixed-wing aircraft. However the 14-bis was barely controllable, and Santos-Dumont did not seriously attempt to develop the design. By the end of 1906, the Wright Brothers were using their aircraft to make flights lasting upwards of half an hour, and copies of their aircraft were later successfully fitted with wheeled undercarriages.

14-bis on an old postcard

Which one was "first" or "more practical" is a matter of how those words are defined. No one could contest that the Wrights flew first or that Santos-Dumont took off on wheels before the Wrights, and earned a variety of prizes and official records in France. Patriotic pride influences opinions of the relative importance and practicality of each aircraft, thus causing debate: some Brazilians believe that Santos-Dumont had the first "real", practical aircraft, and that his nationality may have caused his accomplishments not to receive worldwide recognition.

Many other inventors could also claim to have produced the first flying machine. A long series of "flying machines" had already achieved some of the criteria that are required of an "aircraft." These include being able to sustain flight using lighter-than-air craft, powered machines which could generate enough lift to rise off the ground, but which were not controllable (Hiram Maxim,for instance), and unpowered winged vehicles that flew briefly and that could be controlled (Otto Lillienthal). These are only two examples from the long history of attempts to produce a flying machine, so this debate extends well beyond an argument about the 14-Bis versus the Wright Flyer.^[8]

Wristwatch[link]

The wristwatch had already been invented by Patek Philippe, decades earlier, but Santos-Dumont played an important role in popularizing its use by men in the early 20th century. Before him they were generally worn only by women (as jewels), as men favoured pocket watches.

In 1904, while celebrating his winning of the Deutsch Prize at Maxim's Restaurant in Paris, Santos-Dumont complained to his friend Louis Cartier about the difficulty of checking his pocket watch to time his performance during flight. Santos-Dumont then asked Cartier to come up with an alternative that would allow him to keep both hands on the controls. Cartier went to work on the problem and the result was a watch with a leather band and a small buckle, to be worn on the wrist.^[9]

Santos-Dumont never took off again without his personal Cartier wristwatch, and he used it to check his personal record for a 220 m (730 ft) flight, achieved in 21 seconds, on November 12, 1906. The Santos-Dumont watch was officially displayed on October 20, 1979 at the Paris Air Museum next to the 1908 Demoiselle, the last aircraft that he built.

Later years[link]

Santos-Dumont bought one of the very early Le Zèbre cars, now on display at the São Paulo car museum.

Santos-Dumont continued to build and fly airplanes, such as the N21 Demoiselle. His final flight as a pilot was made in Demoiselle on January 4, 1910. The flight ended in an accident, but the cause was never completely clear. There were few observers and no reporters on the scene. However, in a PBS documentary about Santos-Dumont it is alleged that the crash was due to a snapped wire.^[10]

Santos-Dumont fell seriously ill a few months later. He experienced double vision and vertigo that made it impossible for him to drive, much less fly. He was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. He abruptly dismissed his staff and closed his workshop. His illness soon led to a deepening depression.

In 1911, Santos-Dumont moved from Paris to the French seaside village of Bénerville (now Benerville-sur-Mer) where he took up astronomy as a hobby. Some of the local folk, who knew little of his great fame and exploits in Paris just a few years earlier, mistook his German-made telescope and unusual accent as signs that he was a German spy who was tracking French naval activity. These suspicions eventually led to Santos-Dumont having his rooms searched by the French military police. Upset by the charge, as well as depressed from his illness, he burned all of his papers, plans, and notes. Thus, there is little direct information available about his designs today.

In 1931 he left France to go back to his country of birth. His return to Brazil was marred by tragedy. A dozen members of the Brazilian scientific community boarded a seaplane with the intention of paying a flying welcome to the returning aviator on the luxury liner Cap Arcona. Instead, the seaplane crashed with the loss of all on board.^[11] The loss deepened Santos-Dumont's growing despondency.

"A Encantada", the house of Santos-Dumont in Petrópolis

In Brazil, Santos-Dumont bought a small lot on the side of a hill in the city of Petrópolis, in the mountains near Rio de Janeiro, and in 1918 built a small house there filled with imaginative mechanical gadgetry including an alcohol-fueled heated shower of his own design. The hill was purposefully chosen because of its great steepness as a proof that ingenuity could make it possible to build a comfortable house in that unlikely site. After building it, he used to spend his summers there to escape the heat in Rio, and affectionately called it A Encantada (The Enchanted), after its street, Rua do Encanto (Enchantment Street). The house has its stairs designed in a curious way, each tread alternately hollowed in the right and left, like an alternating tread stair: it allows that the stairs be steep enough to fit the little room available in the house, but still enable people to climb it comfortably. As the first hollow was in the left side of the stairs, people must step first with their right foot to climb it.

Private life[link]

Santos-Dumont, a lifelong bachelor, did seem to have a particular affection for a married Cuban-American woman named Aída de Acosta. She is the only other person that he ever permitted to fly one of his airships. By allowing her to fly his No. 9 airship she most likely became the first woman to pilot a powered aircraft. Until the end of his life he kept a picture of her on his desk alongside a vase of fresh flowers. Nonetheless, there is no indication that Santos-Dumont and Acosta stayed in touch after her flight. Upon Santos-Dumont's death Acosta was reported as saying that she hardly knew the man.

He is also known to not only have often used an equal sign (=) between his two surnames in place of a hyphen, but also seems to have preferred that practice, to display equal respect for his father's French ethnicity and the Brazilian ethnicity of his mother.^[12]

Death[link]

Alberto Santos-Dumont – seriously ill, and said to be depressed over his multiple sclerosis (not confirmed) and the use of aircraft in warfare during São Paulo's Constitutionalist Revolution committed suicide by hanging himself in the city of Guarujá in São Paulo, on July 23, 1932.^[13] He was buried in the Cemitério São João Batista in Rio de Janeiro. There are many monuments commemorating him in the country of his birth and elsewhere. His house in Petrópolis, Brazil is now a museum.^[14]

Legacy[link]

Bust near the Brazilian Embassy, Washington, D.C., USA

Ice cream made by the Santos Dumont Coffee Company.

• Santos Dumont is a small lunar impact crater that lies in the northern end of the Montes Apenninus range at the eastern edge of the Mare Imbrium
• The aviator gives his name to the city of Santos Dumont, in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. In this municipality is located the Cabangu farm, where he was born. The Faculdades Santos Dumont is a group of private higher learning colleges in the city.^[15]
• The city of Dumont, in the state of São Paulo, near Ribeirão Preto is so named because it is located where it used to be one the largest coffee farms in the world, between 1870 and 1890. The farm was owned by Alberto Santos-Dumont's father. It was sold in 1896 to a British company, the Dumont Coffee Company.
• The airport for domestic flights of Rio de Janeiro is also named after him (see Santos Dumont Regional Airport)
• The Rodovia Santos Dumont is a highway in the state of São Paulo.
• The Brazilian Air Force (Command of Aeronautics) awards the Santos Dumont Medal of Merit to important personalities in the world of aviation. The state government of Minas Gerais has a similar medal.
• The Réseau Santos Dumont is a cooperative university network between France and Brazil, instituted by the French and Brazilian Ministries of Education in 1994, with 26 universities in each country.
• The American Office of Naval Research of San Diego, California named one of its research airships as the 600B Santos Dumont.^[16]
• The Historic and Cultural Institute of Aeronautics of Brazil has instituted the Santos Dumont Annual Prize of Journalism to the best reports in the media about aeronautics.
• The Lycée Polyvalent Santos Dumont is a lyceum in Saint-Cloud, France^[17]
• Tens of thousands of streets, avenues, plazas, schools, monuments, etc., are dedicated to the national hero in Brazil.
• He is mentioned as a pioneer of aviation, specifically in the area of dirigibles, in the 1984 novel by Robert A. Heinlein entitled Job: A Comedy of Justice.
• The official Brazilian Presidential Aircraft, an Airbus Corporate Jet tail number FAB2101, was named Alberto Santos Dumont.
• A popular Chilean rock band of the 1990s adopted the name Santos Dumont.^[18]
• A short story by H.G. Wells, "The Truth About Pyecraft", includes a reference to Santos Dumont and his skill as an aviator.
• The aviator gives his name to a boutique Aircraft Management and Consultancy Company, Santos Dumont, founded in May 2004.

See also[link]

	Brazil portal
	France portal
	Aviation portal
	Biography portal

Alberto Santos-Dumont footage starts at 21 seconds in this 1945 newsreel on various firsts in human flight, but be aware of controversial claims in the narration (full size).

• Early flying machines
• Airship
• Aviation history
• List of early flying machines
• List of firsts in aviation
• List of Santos-Dumont aircraft
• List of years in aviation
• History of watches
• History of timekeeping devices

References[link]

Notes

Bibliography

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alberto Santos-Dumont

• U. S. Centennial of Flight Commission Dumont
• Alberto Santos Dumont Article by writer Patricia Nell Warren.
• History of Aviation: Brazil, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
• Alberto Santos-Dumont at Find a Grave

Preceded by Graça Aranha (founder)

Brazilian Academy of Letters - Occupant of the 38th chair 1931 — 1932

Succeeded by Celso Vieira

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011)

Juliana
Juliana in 1963
Queen of the Netherlands
Reign	4 September 1948 – 30 April 1980
Predecessor	Wilhelmina
Successor	Beatrix
Spouse	Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld
Issue
Beatrix of the Netherlands Princess Irene Princess Margriet Princess Christina
Full name
Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina
House	House of Orange-Nassau*
Father	Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Mother	Wilhelmina of the Netherlands
Born	(1909-04-30)30 April 1909 The Hague, Netherlands
Died	20 March 2004(2004-03-20) (aged 94) Baarn, Netherlands
Burial	30 March 2004 Nieuwe Kerk, Delft
Religion	Dutch Reformed

Princess Juliana (right) in her 5th grade classroom

Juliana (Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina; 30 April 1909 – 20 March 2004) was the Queen regnant of the Kingdom of the Netherlands between 1948 and 1980. She was the only child of Queen Wilhelmina and Prince Henry. She was married to Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, with whom she had four children: Princess Beatrix (born 1938), Princess Irene (born 1939), Princess Margriet (born 1943), Princess Christina (born 1947). During the Second World War she lived in exile with her children in Ottawa, Canada. She became Queen of the Netherlands with her mother's abdication in 1948 and was succeeded by Queen Beatrix after her own abdication in 1980. During her reign both Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) proclaimed in 1945, but recognized in 1949 and Suriname in 1975 became independent from the Netherlands. Her birthday is celebrated annually as Koninginnedag, Queen's Day. Upon her death at the age of 94, she was the longest-lived former ruling monarch in the world. She is commemorated in space, in the name of the asteroid 816 Juliana.

Early life[link]

Juliana with her mother, Queen Wilhelmina, circa 1914

Born in The Hague, the daughter of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Juliana spent her childhood at Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn, and at Noordeinde Palace and Huis ten Bosch Palace in The Hague. A small school class was formed at Noordeinde Palace on the advice of the educator Jan Ligthart so that, from the age of six, the Princess could receive her primary education with children of her own age. These children were Baroness Elise Bentinck, Baroness Elisabeth van Hardenbroek and Jonkvrouwe Miek (Mary) de Jonge.

Juliana in 1933

As the Dutch constitution specified that she should be ready to succeed to the throne by the age of eighteen, Princess Juliana's education proceeded at a faster pace than that of most children. After five years of primary education, the Princess received her secondary education (to pre-university level) from private tutors.

On 30 April 1927, Princess Juliana celebrated her eighteenth birthday. Under the constitution, she had officially come of age and was entitled to assume the royal prerogative, if necessary. Two days later her mother installed her in the "Raad van State" ("Council of State").

In the same year, the Princess enrolled as a student at the University of Leiden. In her first years at university, she attended lectures in sociology, jurisprudence, economics, history of religion, parliamentary history and constitutional law. In the course of her studies she also attended lectures on the cultures of Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles, international affairs, international law, history, and European law.

Marriage[link]

Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard after their engagement

In the 1930s, Queen Wilhelmina began a search for a suitable husband for her daughter. At the time, the House of Orange was one of the most strictly religious royal families in the world, and it was very difficult to find a Protestant prince who suited their standards. Princes from the United Kingdom and Sweden were "vetted" but either declined or were rejected by the princess.

At the 1936 Winter Olympics in Bavaria, she met Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, a young German aristocrat. Prince Bernhard was a suave young businessman, and though not a playboy, certainly a "man about town" with a dashing lifestyle. But his rank and religion were suitable, and so Princess Juliana's royal engagement was arranged by her mother. Princess Juliana fell deeply in love with her fiancé, a love that was to last a lifetime and that withstood separation during the war and Bernhard's many extramarital affairs and illegitimate children. The astute Queen Wilhelmina left nothing to chance: court lawyers drew up a prenuptial agreement that specified exactly what the German-born prince could and could not do, and what money he would receive from the royal estate. The couple's engagement was announced on 8 September 1936.

The wedding announcement divided a country that mistrusted Germany under Adolf Hitler. Prior to the wedding, on 24 November 1936, Prince Bernhard was granted Dutch citizenship and changed the spelling of his names from German to Dutch. They married in The Hague on 7 January 1937, the date on which Princess Juliana's grandparents, King William III and Queen Emma, had married fifty-eight years earlier. The civil ceremony was held in The Hague Town Hall and the marriage was blessed in the Great Church (St. Jacobskerk), likewise in The Hague. The young couple moved into Soestdijk Palace in Baarn.

Their first child Princess Beatrix was born on 31 January 1938, and their second Princess Irene on 5 August 1939.

Canadian exile[link]

Dutch Royalty House of Orange-Nassau William I Children    William II    Prince Frederick    Princess Paulina    Marianne, Princess Albert of Prussia Grandchildren    Louise, Queen of Sweden and Norway    Prince William    Prince Frederick    Marie, Princess of Wied William II Children    William III    Prince Alexander    Prince Henry    Prince Ernest Casimir    Sophie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach William III Children    William, Prince of Orange    Prince Maurice    Alexander, Prince of Orange    Wilhelmina Wilhelmina Children    Juliana Juliana Children    Beatrix    Princess Irene    Princess Margriet    Princess Christina Beatrix Children    Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange    Prince Friso    Prince Constantijn Grandchildren    Princess Catharina-Amalia    Princess Alexia    Princess Ariane    Countess Luana    Countess Zaria    Countess Eloise    Count Claus-Casimir    Countess Leonore

In the tense European political climate in the shadow of the growing threat of Nazi Germany, Juliana met Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biestefeld at the 1936 Winter Olympics in Bavaria. They were engaged by September that year, and married in the following January.^[1]

Stornoway, situated in the prestigious suburb of Rockcliffe Park, was occupied by Princess Juliana and her children during their time of exile.

During the war and German occupation of the Netherlands the prince and princess decided to leave the Netherlands with their two daughters for the United Kingdom, to represent the State of the Netherlands in exile. The princess remained there for a month before taking the children to Ottawa, the capital of Canada, where she resided at Stornoway in the suburb of Rockcliffe Park. Her mother and husband remained in Britain with the Dutch government in exile.^[1]

When her third child Margriet was born, the Governor General of Canada, Alexander Cambridge, Earl of Athlone, granted Royal Assent to a special law declaring Princess Juliana's rooms at the Ottawa Civic Hospital as extraterritorial so that the infant would have exclusively Dutch, not dual nationality.^[2] Had these arrangements not occurred, Princess Margriet would not be in the line of succession. The Canadian government flew the Dutch tricolour flag on parliament's Peace Tower while its carillon rang out with Dutch music at the news of Princess Margriet's birth. Prince Bernhard, who had remained in London with Queen Wilhelmina and members of the exiled Dutch government, was able to visit his family in Canada and be there for Margriet's birth.

Crown Prince Olav of Norway, Princess Juliana, Eleanor Roosevelt, Crown Princess Märtha, and Thomas J. Watson in 1944

Princess Juliana's genuine warmth and the gestures of her Canadian hosts created a lasting bond which was reinforced when Canadian soldiers fought and died by the thousands in 1944 and 1945 to liberate the Netherlands from the Nazis. On 2 May 1945 she returned by a military transport plane with Queen Wilhelmina to the liberated part of the Netherlands, rushing to Breda to set up a temporary Dutch government. Once home she expressed her gratitude to Canada by sending the city of Ottawa 100,000 tulip bulbs. On 24 June 1945 she sailed on the RMS Queen Elizabeth from Gourock, Scotland, to the United States, listing her last permanent residence as London, England. The following year (1946), Juliana donated another 20,500 bulbs, with the request that a portion of these be planted at the grounds of the Ottawa Civic Hospital where she had given birth to Margriet. At the same time, she promised Ottawa an annual gift of tulips during her lifetime to show her lasting appreciation for Canada's war-time hospitality. Each year Ottawa hosts the Canadian Tulip Festival in celebration of this gift.

Return to the Netherlands[link]

On 2 August 1945 Princess Juliana was reunited with her family on Dutch soil. Juliana immediately took part in a post-war relief operation for the people in the northern part of the country, where the Nazi-caused famine (the famine winter of 1944–1945) and their continued torturing and murdering of the previous winter had claimed many victims. She was very active as the president of the Dutch Red Cross and worked closely with the National Reconstruction organization. Her down to earth manner endeared her to her people so much that a majority of the Dutch people would soon want Queen Wilhelmina to abdicate in favour of her daughter. In the spring of 1946 Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard visited the countries that had helped the Netherlands during the occupation.

Queen Juliana in the Golden Carriage on the day of her inauguration as Queen in 1948

During her pregnancy with her last child, Marijke Christina, Princess Juliana contracted German measles. The girl was born in 1947 with cataracts in both eyes and was soon diagnosed as almost totally blind in one eye and severely limited in the other. Despite her blindness, Christina, as she was called, was a happy and gifted child with a talent for languages and an ear for music. Over time, and with advances in medical technology, her eyesight did improve such that with thick glasses, she could attend school and even ride a bicycle. However, before that happened, her mother, the Princess, clinging to any thread that offered some hope for a cure, came under the spell of Greet Hofmans, a faith healer with heterodox beliefs, who was considered by "her many detractors" to be a sham.^[1]

Indonesian Vice-president Hatta and Dutch Queen Juliana at the signing ceremony in Amsterdam at which the Dutch recognized Indonesian sovereignty

For several weeks in the autumn of 1947 and again in 1948 the princess acted as regent when, for health reasons, Queen Wilhelmina was unable to perform her duties. The independence of Indonesia, which saw more than 150,000 Dutch troops stationed there as decolonization force, was regarded as an economic disaster for the Netherlands. With the certain loss of the prized colony, the queen announced her intention to abdicate. On 6 September 1948, with the eyes of the world upon her, Princess Juliana, the twelfth member of the House of Orange to rule the Netherlands, was inaugurated as queen in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. On 27 December 1949 at Dam Palace in Amsterdam, Queen Juliana signed the papers that recognised Indonesian sovereignty over the former Dutch colony.

Queen of the Netherlands[link]

Royal Monogram

Bess Truman, President Truman, Prince Bernhard, and Queen Juliana in 1952

Her daughter's blindness and the increasing influence of Hofmans, who had moved into a royal palace, severely affected the queen's marital relationship. Over the next few years, the controversy surrounding the faith healer, at first kept out of the Dutch media, erupted into a national debate over the competency of the queen. The people of the Netherlands watched as their queen often appeared in public dressed like any ordinary Dutch woman. Queen Juliana began riding a bicycle for exercise and fresh air. The queen wanted to be addressed as "Mevrouw" (Dutch for "Mrs.") by her subjects.

Although the bicycle and the down-to-earth manners suggest a simple life style, the Dutch royal court of the 1950s and 1960s was still a splendid affair with chamberlains in magnificent uniforms, gilded state coaches, visits to towns in open carriages and lavish entertaining in the huge palaces. At the same time the queen began visiting the citizens of the nearby towns and, unannounced, would drop in on social institutions and schools. Her refreshingly straightforward manner and talk made her a powerful public speaker. On the international stage, Queen Juliana was particularly interested in the problems of developing countries, the refugee problem, and had a very special interest in child welfare, particularly in the developing countries.

On the night of 31 January 1953, the Netherlands was hit by the most destructive storm in more than five hundred years. Thirty breaches of dunes and dikes occurred and many towns were swept away by twelve-foot tidal waves. More than two thousand people drowned and tens of thousands were trapped by the floodwaters. Dressed in boots and an old coat, Queen Juliana waded through water and slopped through deep mud all over the devastated areas to bring desperate people food and clothing. Showing compassion and concern, reassuring the people, her tireless efforts would permanently endear her to the citizens of the Netherlands.

In 1956, the influence of Miss Hofmans on Juliana's political views would almost bring down the House of Orange in a constitutional crisis that caused the court and the royal family to split in a Bernhard faction set on removing a queen considered religiously fanatic and a threat to NATO, and the queen's pious and pacifist courtiers. The prime minister resolved the crisis. However, Juliana lost out to her powerful husband and his friends. The Hofmans was banished from the court and Juliana's supporters were sacked or pensioned. Prince Bernhard planned to divorce his wife but decided against it when he, as he told an American journalist, "found out that the woman still loved him".

In 1963 Queen Juliana faced another crisis among the Protestant part of her people when her daughter Irene secretly converted to Roman Catholicism and, without government approval, on 29 April 1964 married Prince Carlos Hugo of Bourbon, Duke of Parma, a claimant to the Spanish throne and also a leader in Spain's Carlist party. With memories of the Dutch struggle for independence from Roman Catholic Spain and fascist German oppression still fresh in the minds of the Dutch people, the events leading to the marriage were played out in all the newspapers and a storm of hostility erupted against the monarchy for allowing it to happen — a matter so serious, the queen's abdication became a real possibility. She survived, however, thanks to the underlying devotion she had earned over the years.

Queen Juliana riding a bicycle in 1967

But crisis, as a result of marriage, would come again with the announcement in July 1965 of the engagement of Princess Beatrix, heir to the throne, to German diplomat Claus von Amsberg. The future husband of the future queen had been a member of the Nazi Wehrmacht and the Hitler Youth movement. Many angry Dutch citizens demonstrated in the streets, and held rallies and marches against the "traitorous" affair. While this time upset citizens did not call for the queen's abdication because the true object of their wrath, Princess Beatrix, would then be queen, they did start to question the value of having a monarchy at all. After attempting to have the marriage cancelled, Queen Juliana acquiesced and the marriage took place under a continued storm of protest and an almost certain attitude pervaded the country that Princess Beatrix might be the last member of the House of Orange to ever reign in the Netherlands. Despite all these difficult matters, Queen Juliana's personal popularity suffered only temporarily.

The queen was noted for her courtesy and kindness. In May 1959, for example, American ufologist George Adamski received a letter from the lady head of the Dutch Unidentified Flying Objects Society informing him that she had been contacted by Queen Juliana's palace and "that the Queen would like to receive you."^[3] Adamski informed a London newspaper about the invitation, which prompted the court and cabinet to request that the queen cancel her meeting with Adamski, but the queen went ahead with the meeting saying that, "A hostess cannot slam the door in the face of her guests."^[3] After the meeting, Dutch Aeronautical Association president Cornelis Kolff said, "The Queen showed an extraordinary interest in the whole subject.".^[3] The Dutch press put it more straightforward. The Amsterdam newspaper De Volkskrant, referred by the June 1 1959 issue of Time Magazine, said: "The Dutch press could hardly be accused of concealing the facts last week. Once again, Queen Juliana's weakness for the preternatural had landed her back in the headlines: she had invited to the palace a crackpot from California who numbered among his friends men from Mars, Venus and other solar-system suburbs."^[4]

Dutch guilder with Juliana's portrait

An event in April 1967 brought an overnight revitalization of the royal family, when the first male heir to the Dutch throne in 116 years, Willem-Alexander, was born to Princess Beatrix. This time the demonstrations in the street were ones of love and enthusiasm. This joyful occasion was helped along by an ever-improving Dutch economy.

Scandal rocked the royal family again in 1976 when it was revealed that Prince Bernhard had accepted a $1.1 million bribe from U.S. aircraft manufacturer Lockheed Corporation to influence the Dutch government's purchase of fighter aircraft. The Prime Minister of the Netherlands ordered an inquiry into the affair while Prince Bernhard refused to answer reporters' questions, stating: "I am above such things." Rather than calling on the queen to abdicate, the Dutch people were this time fearful that their beloved Juliana might abdicate out of shame or because of a criminal prosecution conducted in her name against her consort.

Princess Beatrix, Prince Akihito, Queen Juliana, Princess Michiko, and Prince Claus in 1979

On 26 August 1976 a censored and toned-down, but devastating report on Prince Bernhard's activities was released to a shocked Dutch public. The prince resigned his various high profile positions as a lieutenant admiral, a general and an inspector general of the armed forces. The prince resigned from his positions in the board of many businesses, charities, the World Wildlife Fund and other institutions. The prince also accepted that he would have to give up wearing his beloved uniforms. In return, the States-General accepted that there was to be no criminal prosecution.

On her Silver Jubilee in 1973, Queen Juliana donated all of the money that had been raised by the National Silver Jubilee Committee to organizations for children in need throughout the world. She donated the gift from the nation which she received on her seventieth birthday to the "International Year of the Child."

She was the 922nd Lady of the Order of the Garter in 1958.

On 30 April 1980, the day of her 71st birthday, Queen Juliana abdicated and her eldest daughter succeeded her as Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. Juliana remained active in numerous charitable causes until well into her eighties.

Illness and death[link]

The Royal Hearse with the remains of the late Princess Juliana on its way to the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft

From the mid-1990s, Juliana's health declined and she also suffered the progressive onset of senility. Juliana did not appear in public after this time. At the order of the Royal Family's doctors, Juliana was placed under 24-hour care. Prince Bernhard publicly admitted in a television interview in 2001 that she was no longer able to recognise her family.

Juliana died in her sleep on 20 March 2004, several weeks before her 95th birthday, at Soestdijk Palace in Baarn from complications of pneumonia, exactly 70 years after her grandmother Emma.

She was embalmed (unlike her mother, who chose not to be) and on 30 March 2004 interred beside her mother, Wilhelmina, in the royal vaults under the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft. The memorial service made her ecumenical and often highly personal views on matters of religion public. The late Princess, a vicar told in her sermon, was interested in all religions and in reincarnation.

Juliana's husband, Prince Bernhard, died barely eight months after her, on 1 December 2004, aged 93 and his remains were placed next to hers.

In 2009, an exhibition of portraits of Juliana, and objects from her life, was held at the Het Loo Palace to mark the centenary of her birth. ^[5]

Titles, Styles, Honours and Arms[link]

Royal styles of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands
Reference style	Her Majesty
Spoken style	Your Majesty
Alternative style	Ma'am

• 1909 – 1937: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg^[6][7]
• 1937 – 1948: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld^[6][8]
  • 14 October 1947 – 1 December 1947;
    14 May 1948 – 30 August 1948: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess Regent^[9]
• 1948 - 1980: Her Majesty Juliana, Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld^[6][10]
• 1980 - 2004: Her Royal Highness Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld^[6]

Arms[link]

As a Princess, Juliana bore the following arms: Quarterly, 1 and 3, Azure, billetty Or a lion with a coronet Or armed and langued Gules holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and bound together Or (the royal arms of dominion of the Netherlands, and thus her mother Queen Wilhelmina), 2 and 4, Or, a Horn azure, langued gules, (the arms of the Principality of Orange) on an inescutcheon or, a Bull's head sable (for her father's House of Mecklenburg). On her accession to the throne in 1948, Juliana adopted the arms of Dominion of the Netherlands. i.e., Azure, billetty Or a lion with a coronet Or armed and langued Gules holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and bound together Or.

Issue[link]

Ancestry[link]

Prime Ministers during the Queen's reign[link]

Prime Ministers of the Netherlands

• Willem Drees (1948–1958)
• Louis Beel (1958–1959)
• Jan de Quay (1959–1963)
• Victor Marijnen (1963–1965)
• Jo Cals (1965–1966)
• Jelle Zijlstra (1966–1967)
• Piet de Jong (1967–1971)
• Barend Biesheuvel (1971–1973)
• Joop den Uyl (1973–1977)
• Dries van Agt (1977–1982)

Prime Ministers of the Netherlands Antilles

• Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez (1949)
• Lindoro Christoffel Kwartsz (1949–1951)
• Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez (1951–1954)
• Efraïn Jonckheer (1954–1968)
• Ciro Domenico Kroon (1968–1969)
• Gerald C. Sprockel (1969)
• Ernesto O. Petronia (1969–1971)
• Ramez Jorge Isa (1971)
• Otto R.A. Beaujon (1971–1973)
• Juancho Evertsz (1973–1977)
• Lucinda da Costa Gomez-Matheeuws (1977)
• Leo A.I. Chance (1977)
• Silvius Gerard Marie Rozendal (1977–1979)
• Miguel A. Pourier (1979)
• Dominico Martina (1979–1984)

Prime Ministers of Suriname

• Julius Caesar de Miranda (1949–1951)
• Jacques Adam Drielsma (1951–1951)
• Johann Ate Eldert Buiskool (1951–1952)
• Adrian Cornelis Jasper Marous Alberga (1952)
• Archibald Currie (1952–1955)^[11]
• Johan Ferrier (1955–1958)
• Severinus Désiré Emanuels (1958–1963)
• Johan Adolf Pengel (1963–1969)
• Arthur J. May (1969)^[12]
• Jules Sedney (1969–1973)
• Henck Alphonsus Eugène Arron (1973–1980)^[13]

Legacy[link]

• Shortly after her birth, the inhabitants of a small village near Den Helder asked permission from Queen Wilhelmina to name their village after the young princess. They received permission and they named their village Julianadorp.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Juliana of the Netherlands

• Juliana van Oranje-Nassau (1909-2004) on Familypedia
• Queen Juliana (1909-2004) at the Dutch Royal House website
• Princess Juliana, Former Dutch Monarch, Is Dead at 94 Obituary The New York Times

v t e Monarchs of the Netherlands Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) Louis I Louis II United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839) William I Kingdom of the Netherlands (1839–present) William I William II William III Wilhelmina Juliana Beatrix