Radu Stanca (March 5, 1920 – December 26, 1962) was a Romanian poet, playwright, theatre director, theatre critic and theoretician. He was born in Sebeş and died in Cluj-Napoca.

Stanca was member of the Sibiu Literary Circle, a movement of young poets and essayists who tried, between 1946–1948, to rejuvenate the main literary style and aesthetical thinking. In 1947 he received the ''Lovinescu'' award for his tragicomedy ''Dona Juana''. One of the leading Romanian theatres is the ''Radu Stanca National Theatre'' in Sibiu.

References

Ion Vartic, ''Radu Stanca. Poezie şi teatru'', Bucureşti, Ed. Albatros, 1978

Category:Romanian dramatists and playwrights Category:Romanian essayists Category:Romanian writers Category:1920 births Category:1962 deaths

ro:Radu Stanca

The radula (plural radulae or radulas) is an anatomical structure used by molluscs for feeding, sometimes compared to a tongue. It is a minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, which is typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the esophagus. The radula is unique to the molluscs, and is found in every class of mollusc except the bivalves.

Within the gastropods, the radula is used in feeding by both herbivorous and carnivorous snails and slugs. The arrangement of teeth on the radula ribbon varies considerably from one group to another.

In most of the more ancient lineages of gastropods, the radula is used to graze, by scraping diatoms and other microscopic algae off rock surfaces and other substrates.

Predatory marine snails such as the Naticidae use the radula plus an acidic secretion to bore through the shell of other molluscs. Other predatory marine snails, such as the Conidae, use a specialized radula tooth as a poisoned harpoon. Predatory pulmonate land slugs, such as the ghost slug, use elongated razor-sharp teeth on the radula to seize and devour earthworms. Predatory cephalopods, such as squid, use the radula for cutting prey.

The introduction of the term "radula" is usually attributed to Alexander von Middendorff in 1848.

Components

A typical radula comprises a number of bilaterally-symmetrical self-similar rows of teeth rooted in a radular membrane. Some species have teeth that bend with the membrane as it moves over the odontophore, whereas in other species, the teeth are firmly rooted in place, and the entire radular structure moves as one entity.

Radular membrane

The radular membrane may be a single tongue, or may split into two (bipartite).

Hyaline shield

See Hyaline shield for more details.

Odontophore

The odontophore is the tongue of flesh underlying the radular membrane, and controls the organ's protrusion and return. It can be likened to a pulley wheel over which the radular 'string' is pulled.

Flexibility

The radular teeth can generally bend in a sideways direction. In the patellogastropods, though, the teeth lost this ability and became fixed.

Teeth

The radula comprises multiple, identical (or near enough) rows of teeth; often, each tooth in a row (along with its symmetric partner) will have a unique morphology.

Each tooth can be divided into three sections: a base, a shaft, and a cusp. In radulae that just sweep, rather than rasp, the underlying substrate, the shaft and cusp are often continuous and cannot be differentiated.

The teeth often tesselate with their neighbours, and this interlocking serves to make it more difficult to remove them from the radular ribbon.

Morphology

The morphology of the radula is related to diet. However, it is not fixed per species; some molluscs can adapt the form of their radular teeth according to which food sources are abundant.

Pointed teeth are best suited to grazing on algal tissue, whereas blunt teeth are preferable if feeding habits entail scraping epiphytes from surfaces.

Use

The radula is used in two main ways: either as a 'rake', generally to comb up microscopic, filamentous algae from a surface; or as a rasp, to feed directly on a 'plant'. The rhipidoglossan (see below) and, to a lesser extent, the taenigloissan radula types are suited to less strenuous modes of feeding, brushing up smaller algae or feeding on soft forms; molluscs with such radulae are rarely able to feed on leathery or coralline algae. On the other hand, the docoglossan gastropod radula allows a very similar diet to the polyplacophora, feeding primarily on these resistant algae, although microalgae are also consumed by species with these radular types.

The sacoglossans (sea slugs) form an interesting anomaly in that their radula comprises a single row; they feed by sucking on cell contents, rather than rasping at tissue, and most species feed on a single genus or species of alga. Here, the shape of the radular teeth has a close match with the food substrate on which they are used. Triangular teeth are suited to diets of calcified algae, and are also present in radulae used to graze on ''Caulerpa''; in both these cases the cell walls are predominantly composed of xylan. ''Sabot)-shaped teeth – rods with a groove along one side – are associated with diets of crossed-fibrillar cellulose walled algae, such as the Siphonocladales and Cladophorales, whereas blade-shaped teeth are more generalist.

Early molluscs

The first ''bona fide'' radula dates to the Early Cambrian, although trace fossils from the earlier Ediacaran have been suggested to have been made by the radula of the organism ''Kimberella''.

Another so-called radula has been reported from the early Cambrian in 1974, this one preserved with fragments of the mineral ilmenite suspended in a quartz matrix, and showing similarities to the radula of the modern cephalopod ''Sepia''. However, this was since re-interpreted as ''Salterella'' Volborthella''?">Volborthella''?.

Based on the bipartite nature of the radular dentition pattern in solenogasters, larval gastropods and larval polyplacophora, it has been postulated that the ancestral mollusc bore a bipartite radula (although the radular membrane may not have been bipartite).

In chitons

Each row of the polyplacophoran radula has two mineralized teeth used to abrade the substrate, and two longer teeth that sweep up any debris. The other 13 teeth on each row do not appear to be involved in feeding.

The teeth of ''Chaetopleura apiculata'' comprise fibres surrounded by magnetite, sodium and magnesium.

In gastropods

[[File:Radula diagram3.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagrammatic transverse view of the buccal cavity of a gastropod, showing the radula and how it is used. The rest of the body of the snail is shown in green. The food is shown in blue. Muscles that control the radula are shown in brown. The surface of the radula ribbon, with numerous teeth, is shown as a zig-zag line]]

Anatomy and method of functioning

The mouth of the gastropods is located below the anterior part of the mollusc. It opens into a pocket-like buccal cavity, containing the radula sac, an evaginated pocket in the posterior wall of this cavity.

The radula apparatus consists of two parts :

the cartilaginous base (the odontophore), with the odontophore protractor muscle, the radula protractor muscle and the radula retractor muscle.

the radula itself, with its longitudinal rows of chitinous and recurved teeth, the cuticula.

The odontophore is movable and protrusible, and the radula itself is movable over the odontophore. Through this action the radula teeth are being erected. The tip of the odontophore then scrapes the surface, while the teeth cut and scoop up the food and convey the particles through the esophagus to the digestive tract.

In a flexoglossate radula (the primitive condition), the teeth flex outwards to the sides as they round the tip of the odontophore, before flexing back inwards. In the derived stereoglossate condition, the teeth do not flex.

These actions continually wear down the frontal teeth. New teeth are continuously formed at the posterior end of the buccal cavity in the radula sac. They are slowly brought forward to the tip by a slow forward movement of the ribbon, to be replaced in their turn when they are worn out.

Teeth production is rapid (some species produce up to five rows per day). The radular teeth are produced by odontoblasts, cells in the radula sac.

The number of teeth present depends on the species of mollusc and may number more than 100,000. Large numbers of teeth in a row (actually v-shaped on the ribbon in many species) is presumed to be a more primitive condition, but this may not always be true.

The greatest number of teeth per row is found in ''Pleurotomaria'' (deep water gastropods in an ancient lineage) which has over 200 teeth per row (Hyman, 1967).

The shape and arrangement of the radular teeth is an adaptation to the feeding regimen of the species.

The teeth of the radula are lubricated by the mucus of the salivary gland, just above the radula. Food particles are trapped into this sticky mucus, smoothing the progress of food into the oesophagus.

Certain gastropods use their radula teeth to hunt other gastropods and bivalve molluscs, scraping away the soft parts for ingestion. Cone shells have a single radula tooth, that can be thrust like a harpoon into its prey, releasing a neurotoxin.

Radula formulae

The number, shape, and specialized arrangement of teeth in each transverse row is consistent on a radula, and the different patterns can be used as a diagnostic characteristic to identify the species in many cases.

Each row of radula teeth consists of

One central or median tooth (or rachidian tooth, rachis tooth)

On each side: one or more lateral teeth

And then beyond that: one or more marginal teeth.

This arrangement is expressed in a radular tooth formula, with the following abbreviations :

R : designates the central tooth or the rachis tooth (in case of lack of central tooth : the zero sign 0)

the lateral teeth on each side are expressed by a specific number or D, in case the outer lateral tooth is dominant.

the marginal teeth are designated by a specific number or, in case they are in a very large numbers, the infinity symbol ∞

This can be expressed in a typical formula such as:

3 + D + 2 + R + 2 + D + 3

This formula means: on each side of the radula there are 3 marginal teeth, 1 dominant lateral tooth, 2 lateral teeth, and one central tooth.

The seven basic types

The docoglossan or stereoglossan radula: in each row there is one usually small central tooth, flanked by 1-3 laterals (with the outer one dominant) and a few (3 at the most) hooked marginals. The central tooth may even be absent. The teeth are fixed in a stiff position on the radular ribbon. This is the most primitive radula type, and we could assume it represents the plesiomorphic condition i.e., the primitive character state, that is taken from an ancestor without change, such as would be possessed by the earliest molluscs (Eogastropoda, also Polyplacophora; limpet families Patellidae, Lottiidae, Lepetidae). The radula operates like a chain of 'shovels', and the rigid structure operates like a rasp, scraping at hardened macroalgae. Accordingly, docoglossan radulae are often hardened by biomineralization. Spaces between the teeth make the radula ill-suited to collecting microalgae.

* Formula: 3 + D + 2 + R + 2 + D + 3

* Or: 3 + D + 2 + 0 + 2 + D + 3

Rhipidoglossan radula : a large central and symmetrical tooth, flanked on each side by several (usually five) lateral teeth and numerous closely packed flabellate marginals, called ''uncini'' (typical examples: Vetigastropoda, Neritomorpha). This already marks an improvement over the simple docoglossan state. These radulae generally operate like 'brooms', brushing up loose microalgae.

* Formula: ∞ + 5 + R + 5 + ∞

* In case of a dominant lateral tooth: ∞ + D + 4 + R + 4 + D + ∞

Hystrichoglossan radula : each row with lamellate and hooked lateral teeth and hundreds of uniform marginal teeth that are tufted at their ends (typical example : Pleurotomariidae).

* The radula formula of, for example, ''Pleurotomaria'' (''Entemnotrochus'') ''rumphii'' is : ∞. 14. 27. 1. 27. 14. ∞

Taenioglossan radula: seven teeth in each row: one middle tooth, flanked on each side by one lateral and two marginal teeth (characteristic of the majority of the Caenogastropoda). These operate like 'rakes', scraping algae and gathering the resultant detritus.

* Formula : 2 + 1 + R + 1 + 2

Ptenoglossan radula: rows with no central tooth but a series of several uniform, pointed marginal teeth (typical example : Epitoniodea).

* Formula : n + 0 + n

Stenoglossan or rachiglossan radula: each row has one central tooth and one lateral tooth on each side (or no lateral teeth in some cases) (most Neogastropoda).

* Formula : 1 + R + 1

* Or : 0 + R + 0

Toxoglossan radula: The middle teeth are very small or lack completely. Each row has only two teeth of which only one is in use at a time. These grooved teeth are very long and pointed, with venom channels (neurotoxins) and barbs, and are not firmly fixed to the basal plate. The teeth can therefore be individually transferred to the proboscis and ejected like a harpoon into the prey (typical example : Conoidea).

* formula : 1 + 0 + 1

These radula types show the evolution in the gastropods from herbivorous to carnivorous feeding patterns. Scraping algae requires many teeth, as is found in the first three types.

Carnivorous gastropods generally need fewer teeth, especially laterals and marginals. The ptenoglossan radula is situated between the two extremes and is typical for those gastropods which are adapted to a life as parasites on polyps.

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Gastropods with no radula

The streptaxid ''Careoradula perelegans'' is the only known terrestrial gastropod which has no radula.

There are also various marine gastropods that lack a radula. For example, all species of sea slugs in the family Tethydidae have no radula, and a clade of dorids (the Porostomata) as well as all species of the genus'' Clathromangelia'' (family Clathurellidae) likewise lack the organ. The radula has been lost a number of times in the Opisthobrancha.

In cephalopods

Most cephalopods possess a radula as well as a horny chitinous beak, although it is reduced in octopuses and absent in ''Spirula''.

The cephalopod radula rarely fossilizes: it has been found in around one in five ammonite genera, and is rarer still in non-ammonoid forms. Indeed, it is known from only three non-ammonoid taxa in the Palaeozoic era: ''Michelinoceras'', ''Paleocadmus'', and an unnamed species from the Soom Shale.

In solenogasters

The solenogaster radula is akin to that of other molluscs, with regularly spaced rows of teeth produced at one end and shed at the other. The teeth within each row are similar in shape, and get larger in size towards the outer extreme. A number of teeth occur on each row; this number is usually constant but prone to small variations from row to row; indeed, it increases over time, with teeth being added to the middle of rows by addition or by the division of existing teeth. A number of radular formulae are exhibited by this class: 1:0:1 is most common, followed by 0:1:0 and n:0:n.

In caudofoveates

The radula of the caudofoveate ''Falcidens'' is unlike the conchiferan radula. It has a reduced form, comprising just a single row of teeth. On each side of the apparatus, two teeth appear at the front; behind these, the third teeth fuse to form a mineralized axial plate. Bars occur posterior to this, behind which a sheath encircles the apparatus. The rear of the apparatus consists of a large plate, the 'radular cone'. The unusual form of the radula is accompanied by an unusual purpose: rather than rasping substrates, ''Falcidens'' uses its teeth as pincers to grasp prey items.

See also

hypostome

References

Further reading

Molluscan buccal structures and radula

A Comparison of the feeding behaviour and the functional morphology of radula structure in Nudibranchs

Katsuno S. & Sasaki T. (2008). "Comparative Histology of Radula-Supporting Structures in Gastropoda". ''Malacologia'' 50(1-2): 13-56. doi:10.4002/0076-2997-50.1.13

External links

Category:Gastropods Category:Mollusc anatomy

bg:Радула ca:Ràdula cs:Radula de:Radula es:Rádula fr:Radula it:Radula he:רדולה lt:Radulė nl:Radula ja:歯舌 no:Radula pl:Tarka pt:Rádula ru:Радула simple:Radula sk:Radula sl:Strgača sr:Радула sv:Radula uk:Радула zh:齒舌

Name	William Cody
Birth name	William Frederick Cody
Birth date	February 26, 1846
Birth place	near LeClaire, Iowa
Death date	January 10, 1917
Death place	Denver, Colorado
Death cause	|resting_place Lookout Mountain, Golden, Colorado |resting_place_coordinates |residence |nationality |other_names |known_for |education |employer |occupation |title |salary |networth |height |weight |term |predecessor |successor |party |boards |religion |spouse |partner |children Four children, two of whom died young: Kit died of scarlet fever in April, 1876, and his daughter Orra died in 1880 |parents |relatives |signature |website |footnotes
Signature	Buffalo Bill Cody signature.svg }}

William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody (February 26, 1846 – January 10, 1917) was a United States soldier, bison hunter and showman. He was born in the Iowa Territory (now the U.S. state of Iowa), near LeClaire but lived several years in Canada before his family moved to the Kansas Territory. Buffalo Bill received the Medal of Honor in 1872 for service to the US Army as a scout. One of the most colorful figures of the American Old West, Buffalo Bill became famous for the shows he organized with cowboy themes, which he toured in Great Britain and Europe as well as the United States.

Nickname and work

William Frederick Cody ("Buffalo Bill") got his nickname after the American Civil War when he had a contract to supply Kansas Pacific Railroad workers with buffalo meat. Cody earned the nickname by killing 4,280 American bison (commonly known as buffalo) in eight months, (1867–68). Bill Comstock also had the nickname. Cody and Comstock competed in a buffalo-shooting match over the exclusive right to use the name, which Cody won by killing 69 bison to Comstock's 48.

Cody had documented service as a soldier during the Civil War and as Chief of Scouts for the Third Cavalry during the Plains Wars. He claimed to have had many jobs, including as a trapper, bullwhacker, "Fifty-Niner" in Colorado, a Pony Express rider in 1860, wagonmaster, stagecoach driver, and a hotel manager, but historians have had difficulty documenting them, and he may have fabricated some for publicity.

He became world famous for his Wild West Shows, which toured in Great Britain and Europe. Audiences were enthusiastic about seeing a piece of the American West. The adventure story writer Emilio Salgari met Buffalo Bill in Italy, saw his show, and later featured him as a hero in some of his novels.

Early life and education

Born in the Iowa Territory, he was baptized as William Cody in the Dixie Union Chapel in Peel County (present-day Peel Region), Ontario, Canada in 1847, not far from his family's farm. His parents Isaac and Mary Cody were Canadians. The Chapel was built with Cody money and the land was donated by Philip Cody of Toronto Township. The Cody family were originally Quakers and opposed to slavery. They had emigrated from the United States with other Quaker families from Vermont, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, shortly before or after the Revolutionary War, when slavery was still legal in those states, to buy land and farm in York, Peel, and Ontario counties.

thumb|left|William Cody at age 19 When Bill was seven, his family moved in 1853 from Canada to Leavenworth, Kansas Territory. In these years before the Civil War, Kansas was running high with emotion and physical conflict on both sides of the slavery question. When his father gave an antislavery speech at the local trading post, pro-slavery men formed a mob and one stabbed him. The boy helped to drag his father to safety, although the man never fully recovered from his injuries.

In Kansas, the family was frequently persecuted by pro-slavery supporters, forcing Isaac Cody to spend much of his time away from home. His enemies learned of a planned visit to his family and plotted to kill him on the way. The young Cody, despite his youth and the fact that he was ill, rode 30 miles (48 km) to warn his father. Cody's father died in 1857 from complications from his stabbing.

After the father's death, the Cody family suffered financially. At age 11, Bill Cody took a job with a freight carrier as a "boy extra." He would ride up and down the length of a wagon train, and deliver messages to the drivers and workmen. Next he joined Johnston's Army as an unofficial member of the scouts assigned to guide the Army to Utah to put down a rumored rebellion by the Mormon population of Salt Lake City. According to Cody's account in ''Buffalo Bill's Own Story'', the Utah War was where he first began his career as an "Indian fighter".

''Presently the moon rose, dead ahead of me; and painted boldly across its face was the figure of an Indian. He wore this war-bonnet of the Sioux, at his shoulder was a rifle pointed at someone in the river-bottom below; in another second he would drop one of my friends. I raised my old muzzle-loader and fired. The figure collapsed, tumbled down the bank and landed with a splash in the water. 'What is it?' called McCarthy, as he hurried back. 'It's over there in the water.' 'Hi!' he cried. 'Little Billy's killed an Indian all by himself!' So began my career as an Indian fighter.''

At the age of 14, Cody was struck by gold fever, but on his way to the gold fields, he met an agent for the Pony Express. He signed with them, and after building several stations and corrals, Cody was given a job as a rider, which he kept until he was called home to his sick mother's bedside.

Military service

After his mother recovered, Cody wished to enlist as a soldier, but was refused for his age. He began working with a United States freight caravan which delivered supplies to Fort Laramie. In 1863 he enlisted as a teamster with the rank of Private in Company H, 7th Kansas Cavalry and served until discharged in 1865.

The next year Cody married Louisa Frederici, and they had four children together. Two died young.

From 1868 until 1872 Cody was employed as a scout by the United States Army. Part of the time he scouted for Indians. At other times, he hunted and killed bison to supply the Army and the Kansas Pacific Railroad. In January 1872 Cody was a scout for Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia's highly publicized royal hunt.

Medal of Honor

In 1872 Cody was awarded a Medal of Honor for "gallantry in action" while serving as a civilian scout for the 3^rd Cavalry Regiment. In 1917, the U.S.Army—after Congress revised the standards for award of the medal—removed from the rolls 911 medals previously awarded either to civilians, or for actions that would not warrant a Medal of Honor under the new higher standards. Among those revoked was Cody's.

In 1977 Dr. Mary Edwards Walker's medal was restored, and other reviews began. Cody's medal—along with those given to four other civilian scouts—was re-instated on June 12, 1989.

Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show

In December 1872 Cody traveled to Chicago to make his stage debut with friend Texas Jack Omohundro in ''The Scouts of the Prairie'', one of the original Wild West shows produced by Ned Buntline. During the 1873–74 season, Cody and Omohundro invited their friend James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok to join them in a new play called ''Scouts of the Plains''.

The troupe toured for ten years. Cody's part typically included an 1876 incident at the Warbonnet Creek, where he claimed to have scalped a Cheyenne warrior. He said it was in revenge for the death of George Armstrong Custer

In 1883, in the area of North Platte, Nebraska, Cody founded "Buffalo Bill's Wild West," a circus-like attraction that toured annually. (Despite popular misconception, the word "show" was not a part of the title.) With his show, Cody traveled throughout the United States and Europe and made many contacts. He stayed, for instance, in Garden City, Kansas, in the presidential suite of the former Windsor Hotel. He was befriended by the mayor and state representative, a frontier scout, rancher, and hunter named Charles "Buffalo" Jones.

In 1893 Cody changed the title to "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World". The show began with a parade on horseback, with participants from horse-culture groups that included US and other military, American Indians, and performers from all over the world in their best attire. Turks, Gauchos, Arabs, Mongols and Georgians, displayed their distinctive horses and colorful costumes. Visitors would see main events, feats of skill, staged races, and sideshows. Many historical western figures participated in the show. For example, Sitting Bull appeared with a band of 20 of his braves.

Cody's headline performers were well known in their own right. People such as Annie Oakley and her husband Frank Butler did sharp shooting, together with the likes of Gabriel Dumont. Performers re-enacted the riding of the Pony Express, Indian attacks on wagon trains, and stagecoach robberies. The show was said to end with a re-enactment of Custer's Last Stand, in which Cody portrayed General Custer, but this is more legend than fact. The finale was typically a portrayal of an Indian attack on a settler's cabin. Cody would ride in with an entourage of cowboys to defend a settler and his family. This finale was featured predominantly as early as 1886, but vanished after 1907; in total, it was used in 23 of 33 tours. The show influenced many 20th-century portrayals of "the West" in cinema and literature.

With his profits, Cody purchased a ranch near North Platte, Nebraska, in 1886. Scout's Rest Ranch included an eighteen-room mansion and a large barn for winter storage of the show's livestock.

In 1887 Cody took the show to Great Britain in celebration of the Jubilee year of Queen Victoria. It played in London before going on to Birmingham and Salford near Manchester, where it stayed for five months.

In 1889 the show toured Europe, and in 1890 Cody met Pope Leo XIII. He set up an independent exhibition near the Chicago World's Fair of 1893, which greatly contributed to his popularity. It vexed the promoters of the fair, who had first rejected his request to participate.

In 1908 Pawnee Bill and Buffalo Bill joined forces and created the "Two Bills" show. That show was foreclosed on when it was playing in Denver, Colorado.

Irrigation

Larry McMurtry, along with historians such as RL Wilson, asserts that at the turn of the 20^th century, Buffalo Bill Cody was the most recognizable celebrity on earth. While Cody's show brought appreciation for the Western and American Indian cultures, he saw the American West change dramatically during his life. Bison herds, which had once numbered in the millions, were now threatened with extinction. Railroads crossed the plains, barbed wire, and other types of fences divided the land for farmers and ranchers, and the once-threatening Indian tribes were now confined to reservations. Wyoming's resources of coal, oil and natural gas were beginning to be exploited toward the end of his life.

Even the Shoshone River was dammed for hydroelectric power as well as for irrigation. In 1897 and 1899 Cody and his associates acquired from the State of Wyoming the right to take water from the Shoshone River to irrigate about of land in the Big Horn Basin. They began developing a canal to carry water diverted from the river, but their plans did not include a water storage reservoir. Cody and his associates were unable to raise sufficient capital to complete their plan. Early in 1903 they joined with the Wyoming Board of Land Commissioners in urging the federal government to step in and help with irrigation development in the valley.

The Shoshone Project became one of the first federal water development projects undertaken by the newly formed Reclamation Service, later to become known as the Bureau of Reclamation. After Reclamation took over the project in 1903, investigating engineers recommended constructing a dam on the Shoshone River in the canyon west of Cody. Construction of the Shoshone Dam started in 1905, a year after the Shoshone Project was authorized. When it was completed in 1910, it was the tallest dam in the world. Almost three decades after its construction, the name of the dam and reservoir was changed to Buffalo Bill Dam by an act of Congress to honor Cody.

Life in Cody, Wyoming

In 1895, William Cody was instrumental in the founding of Cody, the seat of Park County in northwestern Wyoming. The Old Trail Town museum is at the center of the community and honors the traditions of Western life. Cody first passed through the region in the 1870s. He was so impressed by the development possibilities from irrigation, rich soil, grand scenery, hunting, and proximity to Yellowstone Park that he returned in the mid-1890s to start a town. He brought with him associates for whom streets were named: Beck, Alger, Rumsey, Bleistein and Salsbury. The town was incorporated in 1901.

In November 1902, Cody opened the Irma Hotel, which he named after his daughter. He envisioned a growing number of tourists coming to Cody via the recently opened Burlington rail line. He expected that they would proceed up the Cody Road along the North Fork of the Shoshone River to visit Yellowstone Park. To accommodate travelers, Cody completed construction of the Wapiti Inn and Pahaska Tepee in 1905 along the Cody Road.

Cody also established the TE Ranch, located on the South Fork of the Shoshone River about thirty-five miles from Cody. When he acquired the TE property, he sent cattle from Nebraska and South Dakota. His new herd carried the TE brand. The late 1890s were relatively prosperous years for "Buffalo Bill's Wild West", and he bought more land to add to the TE Ranch. Eventually Cody held around 8,000 acres (32 km²) of private land for grazing operations and ran about 1,000 head of cattle. He also operated a dude ranch, pack horse camping trips, and big game hunting business at and from the TE Ranch. In his spacious ranch house, he entertained notable guests from Europe and America.

Life in Staten Island, New York

Cody brought his "Wild West Show" to an area of Mariners Harbor called Erastina (named for Staten Island promoter Erastus Wiman) for two seasons from June to October in 1886 and again in 1887. During the winter of 1886, the show moved indoors to Madison Square Garden. His show, featuring Native Americans, trick riders, "the smallest cowboy" and sharpshooters (including Annie Oakley), is said to have drawn millions of visitors to the island.

His 1879 autobiography is titled ''The Life and Adventures of Buffalo Bill''.

Death

William F. Cody died of kidney failure on January 10, 1917, surrounded by family and friends at his sister's house in Denver. Cody was baptized into the Catholic Church the day before his death by Father Christopher Walsh of the Denver Cathedral. Upon the news of Cody's death, tributes were made by King George V of the United Kingdom, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Imperial Germany, and President Woodrow Wilson. His funeral was in Denver at the Elks Lodge Hall. The Wyoming governor John B. Kendrick, a friend of Cody's, led the funeral procession.

242px|right|thumb|Cody's grave lies atop Lookout Mountain in Golden, Colorado.

At his death, Cody's once great fortune had dwindled to less than $100,000. He left his burial arrangements up to his wife Louisa. She said that he had always said he wanted to be buried on Lookout Mountain, which was corroborated by their daughter Irma, Cody's sisters, and family friends. But other family members joined the people of Cody to say Buffalo Bill should be buried in the town he founded. The controversy continued.

On June 3, 1917, Cody was buried on Colorado's Lookout Mountain in Golden,west of the city of Denver, on the edge of the Rocky Mountains, overlooking the Great Plains. His burial site was selected by his sister, Mary Decker. In 1948 the Cody chapter of the American Legion offered a reward for the 'return' of the body, so the Denver chapter mounted a guard over the grave until a deeper shaft could be blasted into the rock.

Philosophy

As a frontier scout, he respected Native Americans and supported their rights. He employed many more natives than Sitting Bull, as he thought his show offered them good pay for a better life. He called them "the former foe, present friend, the American", and once said, "Every Indian outbreak that I have ever known has resulted from broken promises and broken treaties by the government."

Buffalo Bill also supported the rights of women. He said, "What we want to do is give women even more liberty than they have. Let them do any kind of work they see fit, and if they do it as well as men, give them the same pay."

In his shows the Indians were usually depicted attacking stagecoaches and wagon trains in order to be driven off by cowboys and soldiers. He also had the wives and children of his Indian performers set up camp – as they would in the homelands – as part of the show, so that the paying public could see the human side of the "fierce warriors"; that they were families like any other, just part of a different culture.

He supported conservation by speaking out against hide-hunting and pushing for a hunting season.

Legacy and honors

Buffalo Bill and his exploits became well known in American culture and he was portrayed in many literary works, television shows, and movies, especially during the 1950s and 1960s, when they were most popular. He is featured as a character in the Broadway musical ''Annie Get Your Gun''.

He was honored by two U.S. postage stamps. One was a 15¢ Great Americans series postage stamp.

On television, his character was featured on shows such as ''Bat Masterson'' and even ''Bonanza''. His persona has been portrayed as anything from an elder statesman to a flamboyant, self-serving exhibitionist. He has been played by a wide variety of actors over the years.

''Buffalo Bill's / defunct''

A free verse poem on mortality by E E Cummings uses Buffalo Bill as an image of life and vibrancy. The poem is commonly known by its first two lines: "Buffalo Bill's / defunct". In ''Poetry,'' edited by J. Hunter, it is titled "portrait". The poet expresses Buffalo Bill's showmanship by describing his "watersmooth-silver / stallion", and using a staccato beat for the quick shooting of clay pigeons.

Other Buffalo Bills

Buffalo Bill is also the name of a musician/producer/M.C. from the group ''Mechanics of Sound. He is most known for his work with Melodic Undertone Production Group''' and his help in the underground hiphop movement of San Antonio.

Buffalo Bill was the first song written by Australian country music singer Sara Storer. Living in Camooweal, north of Mount Isa, she met a retired water buffalo shooter whose stories inspired her to write Buffalo Bill, her first song. Buffalo Bill won a Golden Guitar at the Tamworth Country Music Festival in 2001 for New Talent of the Year and appears on her first album, Chasing Buffalos.

Buffalo Bill is also the name of a fictional character from Thomas Harris's ''The Silence of the Lambs'', who was also parodied in the movie ''Joe Dirt'' under the name Buffalo Bob.

Two television series, ''Buffalo Bill, Jr.'' (1955–6) starring Dickie Jones and ''Buffalo Bill'' (1983–4) starring Dabney Coleman, had nothing to do with the historic person.

The Buffalo Bills, an NFL team based in Buffalo, New York, were named after Buffalo Bill. Prior to that team's existence, other early football teams (such as Buffalo Bills (AAFC)) used the nickname, solely due to name recognition, as Bill Cody had no special connection with the city.

The Buffalo Bills are a barbershop-quartet singing group consisting of Vern Reed, Al Shea, Bill Spangenberg, and Wayne Ward. They appeared in the original Broadway cast of ''The Music Man'' (opened 1957) and in the 1962 motion-picture version of that play.

Buffalo Bill is the title of a song by the jam band Phish.

Buffalo Bill is the name of a bluegrass band in Wisconsin.

Samuel Cowdery, buffalo hunter, "wild west" showman and aviation pioneer changed his surname to "Cody" and was often taken for the original "Buffalo Bill" in his touring show ''Captain Cody King of the Cowboys''.

William Wilson "Buffalo Bill" Quinn: Retired Lieutenant General and Silver Star recipient. He served in World War II as a colonel and became a full colonel in Korea; and at the end of Korea became a Brigadier General.

The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill is the title of a song by the Beatles that indirectly refers to Buffalo Bill.

Buffalo Bill is the title of a song by American rapper Eminem

In The Three Stooges short ''Goofs and Saddles'' Moe Howard's character is known as "Buffalo Bill".

Bubble O' Bill is the name of an ice-cream available in New Zealand & Australia with the depiction of Buffalo Bill, with a gum ball for his nose

The image of 19 year old Buffalo Bill is being used as the cover of Tyler The Creator's sophomore release, Goblin

Buffalo Bills is also the name of a bar and nightclub in Whistler, BC, Canada.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars

Ned Buntline: Contemporary of Buffalo Bill and author of successful dime novel series "Buffalo Bill Cody – King of the Border Men"

William "Doc" Carver

Pony Express

Show Indians

References

Further reading

Buffalo Bill Days (June 22–24, 2007). A 20-page special section of ''The Sheridan Press'', published in June 2007 by Sheridan Newspapers, Inc., 144 Grinnell Avenue, Post Office Box 2006, Sheridan, Wyoming, 82801, USA. ''(Includes extensive information about Buffalo Bill, as well as the schedule of the annual three-day event held in Sheridan, Wyoming.)''

Story of the Wild West and Camp-Fire Chats by Buffalo Bill (Hon. W.F. Cody.) "A Full and Complete History of the Renowned Pioneer Quartette, Boone, Crockett, Carson and Buffalo Bill.", c1888 by HS Smith, published 1889 by Standard Publishing Co., Philadelphia, PA.

''The life of Hon. William F. Cody, known as Buffalo Bill, the famous hunter, scout and guide. An autobiography'', F. E. Bliss. Hartford, Conn, 1879 Digitized from the Library of Congress.

"Buffalo Bill’s Wild West: Celebrity, Memory and Popular History", by Joy S. Kasson, published by Hill & Wang publishing co., 2001

External links

Heppler, Jason. "The Wild West Show and the Progressive Image of American Indians". University of Nebraska–Lincoln and Buffalo Bill Historical Center. Retrieved August 23, 2011.

Category:1846 births Category:1917 deaths Category:American folklore Category:American hunters Category:American people of the Indian Wars Category:American people of Jersey descent Category:American pioneers Category:American Roman Catholics Category:American stage actors Category:American writers Category:Bison hunters Category:Civilian recipients of the Medal of Honor Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism Category:Deaths from renal failure Category:History of Nebraska Category:International Circus Hall of Fame inductees Category:People from New York City Category:People from North Platte, Nebraska Category:People from Park County, Wyoming Category:People from Scott County, Iowa Category:People from Staten Island Category:People of the Great Sioux War of 1876–77 Category:Pony Express riders Category:Tall tales Category:Union Army soldiers Category:Utah War Category:Wild west shows

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name	Florian Pittiş
birth name	Florian Pittiş
birth date	4 October 1943
birth place	Bucureşti, Romania
death date	August 05, 2007
death place	Bucureşti, Romania
awards	}}

Florian Pittiş (; 1943–2007) was a Romanian stage and television actor, theatre director, folk music singer, and radio producer.

He attended the Gheorghe Lazăr High School in Bucharest and in 1968 he graduated from the Institute of Theatre. As a young actor he was hired at one of the best theatres in Bucharest, the Bulandra Theatre, where he worked with directors such as Andrei Şerban, Liviu Ciulei, Alexandru Tocilescu. In the early '70s he studied in Paris with the well-known mime artist, Marcel Marceau.

In 1992, he was one of the founding members of the band Pasărea Colibri.

In 1998 he became the director of Radio Romania Tineret, known as Radio3Net since 2001, the only Romanian radio station that broadcasts exclusively on the Internet.

Great admirer of Bob Dylan, he had masterfully translated and adapted some of Dylan's songs: A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall, Death is Not the End, Don't Think Twice, It's All Right, Mr. Tambourine Man, Rainy Day Women#12 & 35, She Belongs to Me, Silvio.

Florian Pittiș had a very active life and he was loved both by his own generation and by the youth. Emblematic for his image was his long hair, his informal wear, and his habit of smoking "Carpaţi", a brand of filterless cigarettes. He was equally appreciated for his very particular voice, as a singer, on stage, and as a voice-over in television programs. He was called many superlative and admirative names such as "the prophet of the blue-jeans generation" and "the most beautiful voice in the Romanian theater".

In the Benelux he is remembered by many a 80's youth for his role as the Parrot in the 1979 (almost cult) youth movie "Ma-ma", which aired on Dutch Television in 1980. The movie was called "Rock and Roll Wolf" on Dutch Television. It was a Russian, Romanian and French cooproduction, featuring many great artists (such as Oleg Popov) and completely English spoken and sung.

On July 30, 2007, Pittiş was admitted in serious condition at the Oncology Institute in Bucharest where he died a week later.

Stage Activity

Lucius – Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare, director Andrei Serban, 1968

Fleance – Macbeth by William Shakespeare, director Liviu Ciulei, 1968

Aurel – The End of the World by Victor Eftimiu, director Zoe Anghel-Stanca, 1968

Camille – A Flea in Her Ear by Georges Feydeau, director Emil Mandric, 1969

Collin Talbo – The Grass Harp by Truman Capote, director Crin Teodorescu, 1970

Jeremy – Love for Love by William Congreve, director Emil Mandric, 1970

Arlechino – The Liar by Carlo Goldoni, director Sanda Manu, 1971

Valentin – Valentin and Valentina by Aleksei Nicolaevici Arbuzov, director Adrian Georgescu, 1972

Feste – Twelfth Night, Or What You Will by William Shakespeare; director Liviu Culei, 1973

Count d’Aubigny – Elisabeth I by Paul Foster, director Liviu Ciulei, 1974

Alioska – The Lower Depths by Maxim Gorky, director Liviu Ciulei, 1975

Traian – Titanic Waltz by Tudor Musatescu, director Toma Caragiu, 1975

Edmund – Long Day's Journey Into Night by Eugene O’Neill, director Liviu Ciulei, 1976

Parrot – Ma-ma, director Elisabeta Bostan, 1976

King Radu The Handsome – The Cold by Marin Sorescu, director Dan Micu, 1977

Piotr – The Philistines by Maxim Gorky, director Ioan Taub, 1978

Ariel – The Tempest by William Shakepeare, director Liviu Ciulei, 1978

Leonard Brazil – City Sugar by Stephen Poliakoff, director Florian Pittis, 1980

Patriciu – Investigation on a Young Man by Adrian Dohotaru, director Petre Popescu, 1980

King Louis XIV – The Cabal of the Hypocrites by Mihail Bulgakov, director Alexandru Tocilescu, 1982

M. Loyal - Tartuffe by Molière, director Alexandru Tocilescu, 1982

Laertes - Hamlet by William Shakespeare, director Alexandru Tocilescu, 1985

Teodoro – The Dog in the Manger by Lope de Vega, director Florian Pittis, 1988

Philinte – The Misantrophe by Molière, director Valeriu Moisescu, 1989

Dr. Frank Bryant - Educating Rita by Willy Russell, director Florian Pittis, 1989

Mortimer Brewster - Arsenic and Old Lace by Joseph Kesselring, director Grigore Gonta, 1991

Sonnenstich - Spring Awakening by Frank Wedekind, director Liviu Ciulei, 1991

Tiresias - Antigone by Sophocles, director Alexandru Tocilescu, 1993

Jack - Everything in the Garden by Edward Albee, director Tudor Marascu, 1997

As a director

Facing the World (with Mircea Vintila), 1979

City Sugar - by Stephen Poliakoff, 1980

The Dog in the Manger by Lope de Vega, 1988

Black and White by Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall, 1997

Educating Rita by Willy Russel, 1989

Poezia muzicii tinere - 1981

Song of Myself – music show on the poetry of Walt Whitman, 1985

Music

Sunt tanar, Doamna... (2008);

Cântece de bivuac (1999);

Ciripituri (1998);

În căutarea cuibului pierdut (1996);

Nu trântiţi uşa (Mircea Vintilă şi Florian Pittiş), 1992

See also

Music of Romania

References

External links

Florian Pittis's :) Home Page

Songs interpreted by Florian Pittiş on radio3net

Videos with Pittiş on YouTube

"Sunt cel mai frumos din orasul acesta" http://www.radio3net.ro/florian-pittis/

Category:1943 births Category:2007 deaths Category:Burials at Bellu Category:Cancer deaths in Romania Category:Deaths from prostate cancer Category:Gheorghe Lazăr National College (Bucharest) alumni Category:People from Bucharest Category:Romanian film actors Category:Romanian pop singers Category:Romanian radio personalities Category:Romanian stage actors

ar:فلورين بيتيش es:Florian Pittiş la:Florianus Pittiş ro:Florian Pittiș

name	Eugen Doga
birth date	March 01, 1937
death date
resting place coordinates
occupation	Composer
misc	}}

Eugen Doga (, ) (born March 1, 1937) is a Soviet and Moldovan/Romanian composer. After the fall of the Soviet Union he lives in Moscow, Russia.

Biography

Doga was born on March 1, 1937 in the village of Mocra in the Rîbniţa district of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. He made his debut in the composition art in 1963, with a string quartet, later becoming the author of many musical compositions, film and theater soundtracks.

After graduating from the Conservatoire in Chişinău, he performed as violoncellist in the Orchestra of the State Committee of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic for television and radio (1957–1962), taught at the Music College "Stefan Neaga" from Chişinău (1962–1967), and worked from 1967 to 1972 at the repertory-editorial Board of the Ministry of Culture of Moldova.

Creation

Doga wrote music for more than 200 films, spectacles and ballets. He is the author of many cantatas, composed a symphony, instrumental music, romances, a symphonic poem, many songs for children, etc.

He composed music for many films, including ''Maria, Mirabella'' and ''Мой Ласковый И Нежный Зверь'' (), which is known under its international title, ''A Hunting Accident''.

References

External links

Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Eugen Doga

Category:Moldovan composers Category:Soviet composers Category:1937 births Category:Living people Category:Romanian film score composers

az:Yevgeni Doqa ro:Eugen Doga ru:Дога, Евгений Дмитриевич uk:Еуженіу Дога