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Population map of Peru (regional).

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Peru, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

Peru is a multiethnic country, which means that it is home to people of many different historical backgrounds. Therefore, it is a multicultural country as well. Since it is a multiethnic society, Peruvian people usually treat their nationality as a citizenship instead of an ethnicity. The Peruvian census does not contain information about ethnicity so only rough estimates are available. Its population can be composed of Mestizos: 47%,^[1] Amerindians: 31%,^[2] European: 18.5%,^[1] Afro-Peruvians: 2%,^[3] Asians and others: 1%.^[4] Amerindians are found in the southern Andes, though a large portion, also to be found in the southern and central coast due to the massive internal labor migration from remote Andean regions to coastal cities,during the past four decades. While the Jungle are the "heart" of the indigenous populations of Peru, White people are mostly found in the northern highlands and are mostly of Spanish, Italian, British, French, German, Irish and Croatian descent.^{[citation needed]}An estimated over 10,000 Palestinians live in Peru alone, many of these families who arrived after the first Israel wars in 1948-49 had reestablished and bettered themselves in Peru when it comes to socioeconomic status.

Overview[link]

Ages pyramid of Perú in 2007

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by the amalgamation of different cultures and ethnicities over thousands of years. Amerindians inhabited the land for several millennia before the Spanish conquest in the 15th century; their cultures and influence represent the foundation of today’s Peru.

As a result of European contact and conquest, the population of the area now known as Peru decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620.^[5] This happened mostly because of the unintended spread of germs and infectious diseases. In fact, the spread of smallpox greatly weakened the Inca empire, even before the Spanish arrival. The Amerindians did not have as much natural immunity to the disease as did the Europeans who had been exposed to smallpox for roughly two centuries.^[6] For this reason, several Amerindian populations were decimated. Furthermore, the disease killed Inca ruler Wayna Capac, triggering a civil war in the Inca empire that preceded the conquest efforts the Spaniards. Thus, the conquest was facilitated by the weakness of the Inca empire which was recovering from both a civil war and epidemics of unknown diseases.

Peruvian girls

However, other reasons for the decrease of Amerindian population include the battles for domination and survival, followed by the breakdown of the Inca social system, famine, genocide, human exploitation, and forced mine labor to extract the gold and silver to ship back to Europe. Forced labor started after the settlement of the Spanish. The Amerindian population suffered further decrease as the Spanish exploited an Inca communal labor system called mita for mining purposes, thus annihilating thousands in forced labor.

Spaniards arrived in large numbers under colonial rule. After the independence, there has been a gradual European immigration from Austria, England, France, Germany, Italy, Croatia and Spain.^[7] Polynesians also came to the country lured to work in the Guano islands during the boom years of this commodity around the 1860s. Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers in the sugar plantations of the north coast and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.^[8] Other immigrant groups include Arabs, South Asians, Japanese and Americans from the United States.^{[citation needed]}

Mestizos compose about 47%^[1] of the total population. The term traditionally denotes Amerindian and European ancestry (mostly Spaniard ancestry and to a lesser degree, Italian). This term, was part of the caste classification during colonial times, whereby people of exclusive Spanish descend but born in the colonies were called criollos, people of mixed Amerindian and Spanish descend were called mestizos, those of African and Spanish descend were called mulatos and those of Amerindian and African descend were called zambos. Nowadays, these terms have racist connotations.

Most Peruvian mestizos are of Amerindian and European descent, but other ethnic backgrounds (such as Asian, Middle Eastern and African) are also present, in varying degrees, in some segments of the mestizo population. Most mestizos are urban dwellers and show stronger European inheritance in regions like Lima Region, La Libertad Region, Callao Region, Pasco Region, Cajamarca Region, and Arequipa Region.

Amerindians constitute around 30%-32%^[9][10] of the total population. The two major indigenous or ethnic groups are the Quechuas (belonging to various cultural subgroups), followed by the Aymaras, mostly found in the extreme southern Andes. A large proportion of the indigenous population who live in the Andean highlands still speak Quechua or Aymara, and have vibrant cultural traditions, some of which were part of the Inca Empire, arguably the most advanced agricultural civilization in the world. Literally dozens of indigenous cultures are also dispersed throughout the country beyond the Andes Mountains in the Amazon basin. This region is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban centers include Iquitos, Nauta, Puerto Maldonado, Pucallpa and Yurimaguas. This region is home to numerous indigenous peoples, though they do not constitute a large proportion of the total population. Examples of indigenous peoples residing in eastern Peru include the Shipibo, Urarina,^[11] Cocama, and Aguaruna, to name just a few.

European descendants constitute around 18.5%^[1] of the total population.^[12] They are descendants of the Spanish colonizers and other Europeans such as Italians, British, French, Germans and Croatians (see also Croats) who arrived in the 19th and 20th centuries. The majority of them live also in the largest cities (like mestizos), usually in the North and Center of Peru: Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Cajamarca and San Martin^{[disambiguation needed ]}. The only southern city with a significant white population is Arequipa. Recently, Peru has seen a migration of American retirees and businessmen come to settle in the country, due to lower cost of living and economic booms in the 1990s and 2000s, though Peru experiences busts in between.^{[citation needed]}

Chinatown in Lima

There is also a large presence of Asian Peruvians, primarily Chinese and Japanese along with recent arrived Koreans and Taiwanese immigrants, that constitutes 3% of the population, which in proportion to the overall population is the second largest of any Latin American nation, after Panama. Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in Latin America after Brazil and the largest population of Chinese descent in Latin America. Historic communities inhabited by people of Chinese descent are found throughout the Peruvian upper Amazon, including cities such as Yurimaguas, Nauta, Iquitos and the north central coast (Lambayeque and Trujillo). In contrast to the Japanese community in Peru, the Chinese appear to have intermarried much more since they came to work in the rice fields during the Viceroyalty and to replace the African slaves, during the abolition of slavery itself. Despite the presence of Peruvians of Asian heritage being quite recent, in the past decade they have made significant advancements in business and political fields; a past president (Alberto Fujimori), several past cabinet members, and one member of the Peruvian congress are of Japanese or Chinese origin. Small numbers of Arab Peruvians, mostly of Lebanese and Syrian origin, and Palestinians also reside, as well a small Hindustani and Pakistani community.^{[citation needed]}

The remaining is constituted by Afro-Peruvians, a legacy of Peru's history as an importer of slaves during the colonial period. Today also mulattos (mixed African and European) and zambos (mixed African and Amerindian) constitute an important part of the population as well, especially in Piura, Tumbes, Lambayeque, Lima and Ica regions. The Afro-Peruvian population is concentrated mostly in coastal cities south of Lima, such as that of those found in the Ica Region, in cities like Cañete, Chincha, Ica, Nazca and Acarí in the border with the Arequipa Region. Another large but poorly promoted segment of Afro-Peruvian presence is in the Yunga regions (west and just below the Andean chain of northern Peru), (i.e., Piura and Lambayeque), where sugarcane, lemon, and mango production are still of importance. Important communities are found all over the Morropón Province, such as in the city of Chulucanas. One of them is Yapatera, a community in the same city, as well as smaller farming communities like Pabur or La Matanza and even in the mountainous region near Canchaque. Further south, the colonial city of Zaña or farming towns like Capote and Tuman in Lambayeque are also important regions with Afro-Peruvian presence.

Socioeconomic and cultural indicators are increasingly important as identifiers. For example, Peruvians of Amerindian descent who have adopted aspects of Hispanic culture also are beginning to consider themselves "mestizo". With economic development, access to education, intermarriage, and large-scale migration from rural to urban areas, a more homogeneous national culture is developing, mainly along the relatively more prosperous coast. Peruvians view themselves as a racially mixed people: a "half indigenous, a third European, a sixth African and one part Asiatic" composition as a "melting pot" recipe for a Peruvian stew.^{[citation needed]}

Most of Peru's population (about 50% percent) lives in the Costa (coastal area), while 36% live in the Sierra (the Andes) and only 12% in the Selva or Amazon rain forest^{[citation needed]}. Almost one third of the nation's population lives in the Lima and Callao Metropolitan Area^{[citation needed]}. Lima is home to over 8 million Peruvians, one of South America's largest urban areas, it includes the neighboring community of Callao that's grown fast and expanded since the 1960s.

Language[link]

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Peruvian Paso

Peru has two official languages--Spanish and the foremost indigenous language, Quechua. Spanish is used by the government and the media and in education and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.

Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a socioeconomic divide between the coast's mestizo-Hispanic culture and the more diverse, traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional customs, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the mestizo-Hispanic culture.

Amerindian woman with child

Peru's official languages are Spanish and, according to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Amerindian languages such as Quechua, Aymara and other such indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. Today, Spanish is spoken by some 80.3% of the population, and is the language used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken.

According to official sources, the use of Spanish has increased while the knowledge and use of indigenous languages has decreased considerably during the last four decades (1960–2000). At the beginning of the 1960s some 39% of the total Peruvian population were registered as speakers of indigenous languages, but by the 1990s the figures show a considerable decline in the use of Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages, when only 28% is registered as Quechua-speaking (16% of whom are reported to be bilingual in Spanish) and Spanish-speakers increased to 72%.

For 2005, government figures place Spanish as being spoken by 80.3% of the population, but among Amerindian languages another decrease is registered. Of the indigenous languages, Quechua remains the most spoken, and even today is used by some 16.2% of the total Peruvian population, or a third of Peru's total indigenous population. The number of Aymara-speakers and other indigenous languages is placed at 3%, and foreign languages 0.2%.

The drastic decline in use and knowledge of indigenous languages is largely attributed to the recent demographic factors. The urbanization and assimilation of Peru's Amerindian plurality into the Hispanic-mestizo culture, as well as the new socioeconomic factors associated with class structure have given privilege to the use of Spanish at the expense of the Amerindian languages which were spoken by the majority of the population less than a century ago.

The major obstacle to a more widespread use of the Quechua language is the fact that multiple dialects of this language exist. Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, was originally and remains essentially an oral language. Therefore, there is a lack of modern media which use it: for example books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb^{[citation needed]} version of Don Quixote was presented in Quechua.

The percentage of native speakers of Quechua who are illiterate has been decreasing lately, as 86.87% of the Peruvian population is literate. More encouraging, nationwide literacy rate of youth aged 15 to 24 years is high, and considered an achievement in Peruvian educational standards.^{[citation needed]}

Education[link]

Peruvian school children with an OLPC XO-1 laptop

Under the 1993 constitution, primary education is free and compulsory. The system is highly centralized, with the Ministry of Education appointing all public school teachers. Eighty-three percent of Peru's students attend public schools at all levels, but over 15 percent (usually the upper-classes) attend private schools if their parents can afford to pay for the tuition.

School enrollment has been rising sharply for years, due to a widening educational effort by the government and a growing school-age population. The illiteracy (2008) rate is estimated at 7.1% (10.6% for women), 19.0% in rural areas and 3.7% in urban areas [3]. Quechua is mostly an oral language, so in some cases, in rural areas, people do not speak Spanish and therefore do not know how to read or write. Elementary and secondary school enrollment is about 7.7 million. Peru's 74 universities (1999), 39% public and 61% private institutions, enrolled about 322,000 students in 1999.

See also[link]

• Peruvian people
• Indigenous peoples in Peru
• European Peruvians
• Asian Peruvians
• Afro-Peruvians
• Roman Catholicism by country
• British Peruvian - 1960's era president Nicolas Lindley is notably of English descent.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

Republic of Peru República del Perú (Spanish)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Himno Nacional del Perú"  (Spanish) "National Anthem of Peru"
Capital (and largest city)		Lima 12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W / 12.0433°S 77.0283°W / -12.0433; -77.0283
Official language(s)		Spanish
Ethnic groups (2011)		Mestizo (76%) Amerindian (7%) White (6%) Asian (1%) Black (1%) Mulatto (1%) Other (1%) (self-reported)[1]
Demonym		Peruvian
Government		Unitary presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Ollanta Humala
-	Prime Minister	Oscar Valdés
Legislature		Congress
Independence		from Spain
-	Declared	July 28, 1821
-	Consolidated	December 9, 1824
-	Recognized	August 14, 1879
-	Current constitution	December 31, 1993
Area
-	Total	1,285,216 km2 (20th) 496,225 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.41
Population
-	2010 estimate	29,496,000 (40th)
-	2007 census	28,220,764
-	Density	23/km2 (191st) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$322.675 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$10,588[2]
GDP (nominal)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$184.962 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$6,069[2]
Gini (2009)		▼48[3] (high)
HDI (2010)		0.723[4] (high) (63rd)
Currency		Nuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zone		PET (UTC−5)
Date formats		dd.mm.yyyy (Spanish;CE)
Drives on the		Right
ISO 3166 code		PE
Internet TLD		.pe
Calling code		+51
1	Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru ⁱ/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú;^[5] Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures, spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 29.5 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology[link]

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.^[6] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.^[7] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.^[8] The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.^[9] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence.

History[link]

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.^[10] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.^[11] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.^[12] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.^[13]

In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.^[14] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.^[15] Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.^[16] However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.^[17] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.^[18] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.^[19]

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.^[20] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.^[21] National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.^[22] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.^[23] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.^[24]

Independence was proclaimed by José de San Martín in 1821.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica and Tarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.^[25] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).^[26] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.^[27]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.^[28] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.^[29] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.^[30] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.^[31] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.^[32]

Government[link]

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.^[33] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.^[34] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.^[35] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.^[36] The judiciary is nominally independent,^[37] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.^[38]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.^[39] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).^[40] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).^[41]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.^[42] Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.^[43] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.^[44] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.^[45]

Regions[link]

Ama
zonas

Ancash

Apurímac

Arequipa

Ayacucho

Caja
marca

Cusco

Huánuco

Huanca
velica

Ica

Junín

La Libertad

Lamba
yeque

Lima

Lima
Province

Callao

Loreto

Madre de Dios

Moquegua

Pasco

Piura

Puno

Tacna

Tumbes

San
Martín

Ucayali

info

Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.^[46] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.^[47] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.^[48]

Regions:

Province:

• Lima

Geography[link]

Peru covers 1,285,216 km² (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.^[49] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.^[50]

Left: Alpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park.
Right: Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve, depicts the Peruvian rainforest.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.^[51] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.^[52]

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.^[53] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.^[54] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.^[55] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.^[56]

Economy[link]

Peru is a developing country with a market-oriented economy; its 2010 per capita income is estimated by the IMF at US$5,195,^[2] and it has a high Human Development Index score of 0.723 based on 2010 data.^[57] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.^[58] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.^[59] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that is extremely poor.^[60]

Left: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.
Right: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro, Lima.

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.^[61] Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.^[62] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.^[63]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).^[64] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.^[65] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.^[66] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.^[67]

Demographics[link]

Clockwise from top:
Afro-Peruvian association football athlete Jefferson Farfán.
Nobel laureate writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
Former President of Peru, economist Alejandro Toledo.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian David N. Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.^[68] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from Italy, Spain, France, Britain, and Germany followed independence.^[69] Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.^[70] The majority of the people in Peru are Amerindians, mostly Quechua and Aymara, or mestizos who are of mixed white and Amerindian ancestry.^[71] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.^[72]

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.^[73] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.^[74] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.^[75] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.^[76]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.^[77] In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.^[78] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).^[79] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.^[80]

Culture[link]

Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,^[81] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.^[82] During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.^[83] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.^[84] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.^[85]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.^[86] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría^[87] and José María Arguedas.^[88] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.^[89]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.^[90] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.^[91] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.^[92]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.^[93] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.^[94] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.^[95] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.^[96] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, and huayno.^[97]

See also[link]

	Latin America portal
	South America portal
	Peru portal

• Index of Peru-related articles
• Outline of Peru

v t e  Peru topics History Timeline Ancient cultures Inca Empire Spanish conquest Viceroyalty War of Independence Guano Era War of the Pacific Colombia–Peru War Ecuadorian–Peruvian war Internal conflict Demographic Economic Geography Cities Earthquakes Wildlife Flora Mountains Natural regions Protected areas Rivers Government Constitution Electoral system Foreign relations Law Law enforcement Military Nationality law Regions and provinces Politics Elections Political parties (Alliance for the Future APRA National Unity Possible Peru Peruvian Nationalist Party Popular Action Union for Peru) Economy Agriculture Central Bank Communications Companies Currency Electricity Stock Exchange Tourism Transport Water supply and sanitation Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Demographics Education Languages Literature Media Music Public holidays Religion Sport Other topics List of Peruvians Human rights International rankings Llama Machu Picchu National symbols Index Portal

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Peru on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Country Profile from BBC News
• Peru from the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Peru entry at The World Factbook
• Peru at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Peru at the Open Directory Project
• PeruLinks web directory
• Wikimedia Atlas of Peru
• Peru travel guide from Wikitravel
• (Spanish) Web portal of the Peruvian Government
• Geographic data related to Peru at OpenStreetMap

Related information[link]

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lez:Перу

This article is about the Brazilian model. For the Brazilian actress, see Juliana Martins (actress).

Juliana Martins (born on October 3, 1984 in José Bonifácio, São Paulo state) is a Brazilian model. She worked for Sports Illustrated, and contested in the 1997 Elite Model Look. Juliana Martins was labeled the Brazilian Cindy Crawford by John Casablancas when she was thirteen years old ^[1].

Print[link]

• Marie Claire
• Sports Illustrated

External links[link]

• Juliana Martins at the Fashion Model Directory
• Juliana Martins at Askmen

References[link]

1. ^ IstoÉ magazine

This Brazilian biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

This biographical article about a model is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e