The Honourable Jean Marchand PC, MP
Jean Marchand in 1980
Member of the Canadian Parliament for Quebec West
In office 1965–1968
Preceded by	Lucien Plourde
Succeeded by	District was abolished in 1966
Member of the Canadian Parliament for Langelier
In office 1968–1976
Preceded by	District was created in 1966
Succeeded by	Gilles Lamontagne
Senator for De la Vallière, Quebec
In office 1976–1983
Appointed by	Pierre Trudeau
Preceded by	Romuald Bourque
Succeeded by	Pierre de Bané
Personal details
Born	(1918-12-20)December 20, 1918 Champlain, Quebec
Died	August 28, 1988(1988-08-28) (aged 69)
Political party	Liberal
Occupation	trade unionist, Politician
Religion	Catholic

for others with the same name, see Jean Marchand

Jean Marchand, PC, CC (December 20, 1918 – August 28, 1988) was a well known French Canadian public figure, trade unionist and politician in Quebec, Canada.

During the 1949 Asbestos Strike in Quebec, Marchand led the striking workers as secretary of the Catholic Workers Confederation of Canada (CCCL). It was during this time that he met Pierre Trudeau. Marchand was approached to be a Liberal candidate in the federal election of 1963, but disagreements scuttled a run that year.

In the 1965 federal election, Marchand along with Gérard Pelletier and Pierre Elliott Trudeau, were persuaded to run as Liberal candidates. Dubbed the "Three Wise Men" in English, and les trois colombes (three doves) in French, they were seen as destined to shake Canadian politics. Trudeau and Pelletier were provided "safe" ridings in Montreal while Marchand won a hard fight in Quebec City for his riding. Marchand was given a post in the government of Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson promptly after winning the election.

After Charles de Gaulle's infamous cry of "Vive le Québec Libre", the Cabinet met to decide the response. The French-speaking ministers, led by Jean Marchand, wanted Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson to tell de Gaulle to go home. The English-speaking ministers, on the other hand, did not want to go that far: a public rebuke was sufficient.

When Pearson retired in 1968, Marchand was seen as the most likely and strongest Quebec candidate to replace him but he declined to run for the Liberal party leadership, claiming that his English was not good enough. It then fell upon Trudeau to make a credible run by a French Canadian for the leadership of the Liberal party. Trudeau won the Liberal leadership and the 1968 federal election.

In the Trudeau government, Marchand held a variety of posts. In October 1976, he resigned his seat in the House of Commons over a disagreement with the government position regarding the use of French language by air traffic controllers in Quebec. Presenting himself as an opponent of the separatist program of the Parti Québécois, he stood unsuccessfully as a candidate in the 1976 Quebec provincial election, which the Parti Québécois won.

Marchand was appointed to the Senate less than a month later, and became Speaker of the Canadian Senate in 1980. He was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1986.

Cabinet posts[link]

Under Pearson he was appointed Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, and later of Manpower and Immigration by Prime Minister Pearson.

Under Trudeau he held many senior portfolios. He was Minister of Forestry and Rural Development from 1968 to 1969, Minister of Regional Economic Expansion from 1969 to 1972, Minister of Transport from 1972 to 1975, a Minister without portfolio from 1975 to 1976, and Minister of the Environment in 1976.

External links[link]

• Jean Marchand - Parliament of Canada biography
• Order of Canada Citation

v t e Ministers of Fisheries and Oceans Ministers of Marine and Fisheries (1867–1930)1 Mitchell Smith Pope McLelan Foster Tupper Costigan Davies Sutherland Préfontaine Laurier (acting) Brodeur Lemieux Hazen Ballantyne Lapointe Cardin Black (acting) Patenaude (acting) Cardin (acting) Ministers of Marine (1930–1936)2 Cardin Duranleau Gendron Howe Ministers of Fisheries (1930–1969) Macmillan Rhodes Duranleau (acting) Stirling (acting) Ernst Michaud Bertrand Bridges Bertrand (acting) Gregg MacKinnon Mayhew Sinclair MacLean Robichaud Davis Minister of Fisheries and Forestry (1969–1971) Davis Ministers of the Environment (1971–1976)3 Davis Sauvé LeBlanc (acting) Marchand LeBlanc (acting) Ministers of State (Fisheries) (1974–1976) LeBlanc Minister of Fisheries and the Environment (1976–1979) LeBlanc Ministers of Fisheries and Oceans (1979–) LeBlanc McGrath LeBlanc de Bané Breau Fraser Nielsen Siddon Valcourt Crosbie Reid Tobin Dingwall (acting) Mifflin Anderson Dhaliwal Thibault Regan Hearn Shea Ashfield 1The office of Minister of Marine and Fisheries was abolished and the offices of Minister of Fisheries and Minister of Marine were created in 1930 2The offices of Minister of Marine and Minister of Railways and Canals were abolished and the office of Minister of Transport was created in 1936 3From 1971 to 1976 the Minister of the Environment was also the Minister of Fisheries.

v t e Ministers of the Environment Ministers of the Environment (1971-1976)1 Davis Sauvé LeBlanc (acting) J. Marchand LeBlanc (acting) Minister of Fisheries and the Environment (1976-1979) LeBlanc Minister of State (Environment) (1977-1979) L. Marchand Ministers of the Environment (1979-) L. Marchand Fraser Roberts Caccia Blais-Grenier McMillan Bouchard Oberle (acting) de Cotret Charest Vincent Copps Marchi Stewart Anderson Dion Ambrose Baird Prentice Baird Kent 1From 1971 to 1976 the Minister of the Environment was also the Minister of Fisheries.

v t e Ministers of Transport Ministers of Railways and Canals (1879–1936) Tupper Pope Macdonald Bowell (acting) Haggart Ouimet (acting) Haggart Blair Fielding (acting) Emmerson Fielding (acting) Graham Cochrane Reid Stewart Kennedy Graham Dunning Drayton (acting) Black Dunning Crerar Manion Howe Ministers of Transport (1936–2006) Howe Cardin Howe (acting) Michaud Chevrier Marler Hees Balcer McIlraith Pickersgill Hellyer Richardson (acting) Jamieson Marchand Lang Mazankowski Pépin Axworthy Mazankowski Crosbie Bouchard Lewis Corbeil Young Anderson Collenette Valeri Lapierre Ministers of Transport, Infrastructure and Communities (2006–) Cannon Baird Strahl Lebel

v t e Secretaries of State of Canada Langevin Aikins Christie Scott Aikins O'Connor Mousseau Chapleau Patterson Costigan Dickey Montague Ouimet (acting) Daly (acting) Tupper Scott Murphy Roche Coderre Blondin Patenaude Sévigny (acting) Meighen Burrell Sifton Drayton (acting) Monty Copp Foster Murphy (acting) Lapointe Perley Rinfret Cahan Rinfret Lapointe Casgrain McLarty Martin Gibson Bradley Pickersgill Pinard Fairclough Courtemanche Balcer Dorion Balcer Halpenny Pickersgill Lamontagne LaMarsh Connolly Marchand Pelletier Faulkner Roberts MacDonald Fox Regan Joyal McLean B. Bouchard Crombie L. Bouchard Weiner de Cotret Landry1 1The department was eliminated in 1993 when the government was reorganized. The position of Secretary of State for Canada was not legally eliminated until 1996 when its remaining responsibilities were assigned to other cabinet positions and departments, particularly the newly created position of Minister of Canadian Heritage.

v t e Ministers of Citizenship and Immigration Ministers of Citizenship and Immigration (1950-1966)1 Harris Pickersgill Fulton (acting) Fairclough Bell Favreau Tremblay Nicholson Marchand Ministers of Citizenship and Immigration (1994-) Marchi Robillard Caplan Coderre Sgro Volpe Solberg Finley Kenney 1The office of Minister of Citizenship and Immigration was abolished and the office of Minister of Manpower and Immigration was proclaimed in force October 1, 1966.

v t e Ministers of Manpower and Immigration Marchand MacEachen Lang Mackasey Andras Cullen1 The office of Minister of Manpower and Immigration was abolished and the office of Minister of Employment and Immigration came in force August 15, 1977.

v t e   Speakers of the Senate of Canada Cauchon J. Ross Cauchon Botsford Cauchon Chauveau Christie Wilmot Macpherson Botsford Macpherson Miller Plumb Allan Lacoste J. J. Ross Pelletier Power Dandurand Kerr Landry Bolduc Bostock Hardy Blondin Foster Parent Vien King Beauregard Robertson Drouin White Bourget Smith Deschatelets Fergusson Lapointe Grosart Marchand Riel Charbonneau LeBlanc Molgat Hays Kinsella

French Canadian
Canadien français, Canadienne française

La Bolduc • Gabrielle Roy Maurice Richard • Hubert Reeves • Jean Chrétien • Jack Kerouac • Louise Arbour • Céline Dion
Total population
10,421,365
Regions with significant populations
Canada, especially Quebec, New Brunswick, and Ontario, smaller populations in New England, New York and Michigan.
Languages
Canadian French (native language), English (as a second language).
Religion
Primarily Roman Catholic
Related ethnic groups
French, Québécois, Acadians, Cajun, Métis, French-speaking Quebecer, Franco-Ontarian, Franco-Manitoban, French American, Brayon

French Canadian or Francophone Canadian (also Canadien in Canadian English or in French) generally refers to the descendents of French colonists who arrived in New France (Canada) in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population of Canada.

During the mid-18th century, Canadian colonists born in French Canada expanded across North America and colonized various regions, cities, and towns.^[1] Today, the majority of French Canadians live across North America, including the United States and Canada. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French Canadian descent, although smaller communities of French Canadians exist throughout Canada and in the American region of New England, where between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States and New England, in particular.^[2]

Other terms for French Canadians that continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebeckers or Québécois. French Canadians constitute the second largest ethnic group in Canada, after English Canadians and before Scottish Canadians and Irish Canadians.^[3]

Etymology[link]

The French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the land area along the St. Lawrence River, divided in three districts (Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montréal), as well as to the Pays d'en Haut (Upper Countries), a vast and thinly settled territorial dependence north and west of Montreal which covered the whole of the Great Lakes area.

At the end of the 17th century, the French word Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. From 1535 to the 1690s, however, it had referred to the Aboriginal people the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona and Hochelaga.^[4]

Identities[link]

Canada[link]

French Canadians living in Canada express their cultural identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census^[6][7][8] found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as Canadien, French, Québécois, and Acadian. The latter three were grouped together by Jantzen (2006) as “French New World” ancestries because they originate in Canada.^[5][9]

Jantzen (2006) distinguishes the English Canadian, meaning "someone whose family has been in Canada for multiple generations", and the French Canadien, used to refer to descendants of the original settlers of New France in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[10]

Those reporting “French New World” ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada.^[11] Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their ethno-cultural group, with 70% and 61%, respectively, reporting a strong sense of belonging.^[12]

The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada.^[13] Although deeply rooted Canadians express a deep attachment to their ethnic identity, most English-speaking Canadians of British or Canadian ancestry generally cannot trace their ancestry as far back in Canada as French-speakers.^[14] As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker: for example, only 50% of third generation "Canadians" strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average.^[15] The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported "Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities". These identities include French New World ancestries such as "Québécois" (37% of Quebec population), "Acadian" (6% of Atlantic provinces).^[16]

Quebec[link]

Fête nationale du Québec (or Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day) parade in Montreal

Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois (masculine) or Québécoise (feminine) to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français and Canadienne française. Francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as "French Canadian" (Canadien or Canadien français). Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty, often find Canadien français to be archaic or even pejorative. This is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. It has given Québécois an ambiguous meaning^[17] which has often played out in political issues,^[18] as all public institutions attached to the provincial government refer to all Quebec citizens, regardless of their language or their cultural heritage, as Québécois.

Elsewhere in Canada[link]

Collège Universitaire de Saint-Boniface in Manitoba

The emphasis on the French language and Quebec autonomy means that French-speakers across Canada may now self-identify as québécoise, acadienne, or Franco-canadienne, or as provincial linguistic minorities such as Franco-manitobaine, Franco-ontarienne or fransaskoise.^[19] Education, health and social services are provided by provincial institutions, so that provincial identities are often used to identify French-language institutions:

• Franco-Newfoundlanders, province of Newfoundland and Labrador, also known as Terre-Neuvien(ne).
• Franco-Ontarians, province of Ontario, also referred to as Ontarien(ne).
• Franco-Manitobans, province of Manitoba, also referred to as Manitobain(e).
• Fransaskois, province of Saskatchewan, also referred to Saskois(e).
• Franco-Albertans, province of Alberta, also referred to Albertain(e).
• Franco-Columbians, province of British Columbia mostly live in the Vancouver metro area. Also referred to as Franco-Colombien(ne)
• Franco-Yukonnais, territory of Yukon, also referred to as Yukonais(e).
• Franco-Ténois, territory of Northwest Territories, also referred to as Ténois(e).
• Franco-Nunavois, territory of Nunavut, also referred to as Nunavois(e).

Acadians residing in the provinces of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia represent a distinct francophone culture. This group's culture and history evolved separately from the French Canadian culture of Quebec, at a time when the Maritime Provinces were not part of what was referred to as Canada, and are consequently considered a distinct culture from French Canadians.

Brayons in Madawaska County, New Brunswick and Aroostook County, Maine may be identified with either the Acadians or the Québécois, or considered a distinct group in their own right, by different sources.

French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as "French Canadian". Identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do. Some identify only with the provincial groupings, explicitly rejecting "French Canadian" as an identity label.

United States[link]

Distribution of French Americans in the United States

During the mid-18th century, French explorers and Canadiens born in French Canada colonized other parts of North America in what are today Louisiana (called Louisianais), Mississippi, Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan as well as around Detroit.^[20] French Canadians emigrated massively from Canada to the United States between the 1840s and the 1930s in search of economic opportunities in border communities and industrialized portions of New England.^[21] French-Canadian communities remain along the Quebec border in northern Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire as well as further south in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and southern New Hampshire. The wealth of Catholic churches named after St. Louis throughout New England is indicative of the French immigration to the area. They came to identify as Franco-American, especially those who were born American.

Distinctions between French Canadian, natives of France, and other New World French identities is more blurred in the U.S. than in Canada. In L'avenir du français aux États-Unis, Calvin Veltman finds that since the French language has been so widely abandoned in the United States, the term "French Canadian" is there understood in ethnic rather than linguistic terms.

Population[link]

People who today claim some French-Canadian ancestry or heritage number some 7 million in Canada and 2.4 million people in the United States. (An additional 8.4 million Americans claim French ancestry; they are treated as a separate ethnic group by the U.S. Census Bureau.)

Distribution in Canada[link]

In Canada, 85% of French Canadians reside in Quebec where they constitute the majority of the population in all regions except the far North. Most cities and villages in this province were built and settled by the French or French Canadians during the French colonial rule.

There are various urban and small centres in Canada outside of Quebec that have long-standing populations of French Canadians, going back to the late 19th century. Eastern and Northern Ontario have large populations of francophones in communities such as Ottawa, Cornwall, Hawkesbury, Sudbury, Welland, Timmins and Windsor. Many also pioneered the Canadian Prairies in the late 18th century, founding the towns of Saint Boniface, Manitoba and in Alberta's Peace Country, including the region of Grande Prairie.

The following table shows the population of Canada's that has French ancestries. The data is from Statistics Canada.

The fleur-de-lis, symbol of French Canada.

Distribution in United States[link]

Distribution of French in the United States

In the United States, many cities were founded as colonial outposts of New France by French or French-Canadian explorers. They include New Orleans, Louisiana; Mobile, Alabama; Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; Prairie du Rocher and Belleville in Illinois; Dubuque, Iowa; Detroit, Michigan; Biloxi, Mississippi; St. Louis, Missouri; Creve Coeur, Missouri; La Baye, Prairie du Chien, La Crosse, and Milwaukee in Wisconsin, and Provo, Utah.

The majority of the French-Canadian population in the United States is found in the New England area, although there is also a large French-Canadian presence in Plattsburgh, New York, across Lake Champlain from Burlington, Vermont. Quebec and Acadian emigrants settled in industrial cities like Fitchburg, Worcester, Waltham, Lowell, Lawrence, Chicopee, Fall River, and New Bedford in Massachusetts; Woonsocket in Rhode Island; Manchester and Nashua in New Hampshire; Bristol in Connecticut; throughout the state of Vermont, particularly in Burlington, St. Albans, and Barre; and Biddeford and Lewiston in Maine. Smaller groups of French Canadians settled in the Midwest, notably in the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.

Some Metis still speak Michif, a language influenced by French, and a mixture of other European and Native American tribal languages.^{[citation needed]}

Language[link]

Quebec stop sign.

Canadian French is an umbrella term for the distinct varieties of French spoken by francophone Canadians: Québécois (Quebec French), Acadian French, Métis French, and Newfoundland French. Unlike Acadian French and Newfoundland French, the French of Ontario, the Canadian West, and New England all originate from what is now Quebec French and do not constitute distinct varieties from it, though there are some regional differences. French Canadians may also speak either Canadian English or American English.

In Quebec, about six million French Canadians are native French speakers. One million are English-speaking, i.e. Anglophones or English-speaking Quebecers, and others are Allophones (literally "other-speakers", meaning, in practice, immigrants who speak neither French nor English at home). In the United States, assimilation to the English language was more significant and very few Americans of French-Canadian ancestry or heritage speak French today.

Six million of Canada's native French speakers, of all origins, are found in the province of Quebec, where they constitute the majority language group, and another one million are distributed throughout the rest of Canada. Roughly 31% of Canadian citizens are French-speaking and 25% are of French-Canadian descent. Not all French speakers are of French descent, and not all people of French-Canadian heritage are exclusively or primarily French-speaking.

Francophones living in Canadian provinces other than Quebec have enjoyed minority language rights under Canadian law since at least 1969, with the Official Languages Act, and under the Canadian Constitution since 1982, protecting them from provincial governments that have historically been indifferent towards their presence.

Religion[link]

Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré, Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré, Quebec

The pre-revolutionary kingdom of France forbade non-Catholic settlement in New France from 1629 onward and almost all French settlers of Canada were Roman Catholic. In the United States, some French Catholics have converted to Protestantism. Until the 1960s, religion was a central component of French-Canadian national identity. The Church parish was the focal point of civic life in French-Canadian society, and religious orders ran French-Canadian schools, hospitals and orphanages and were very controlling of every day life in general. During the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, however, the practice of Catholicism dropped drastically.^[22] Church attendance in Quebec currently remains low. Rates of religious observance among French Canadians outside Quebec tend to vary by region, and by age. In general, however, those in Quebec are the least observant, while those in the United States of America and other places away from Quebec tend to be the most observant. There are also French Canadians who have Canadian citizenship and whose mother tongue is French whose families arrived in Canada over the last 75 year who are not Christian^{[citation needed]}. There are many people from France, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and other countries whose mother tongue is French and are either Muslim or Jewish.

History[link]

The French were the first Europeans to permanently colonize what is now Quebec, parts of Ontario, Acadia, and select areas of Western Canada, all in Canada (See French colonization of the Americas.) Their colonies of New France (also commonly called Canada) stretched across what today are the Maritime provinces, southern Quebec and Ontario, as well as the entire Mississippi River Valley.

Voyageurs Passing a Waterfall

The first permanent European settlements in Canada were at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608 as fur trading posts. The territories of New France were Canada, Acadia (later renamed Nova Scotia), and Louisiana. The inhabitants of Canada called themselves the Canadiens, and came mostly from northwestern France.^[23] The early inhabitants of Acadia, or Acadiens, came mostly but not exclusively from the Southwestern region of France. Canadien explorers and fur traders would come to be known as coureurs des bois, while those who settled on farms in Canada would come to be known as habitants. Many French Canadians are the descendants of the King's Daughters of this era.

During the mid-18th century, French explorers and Canadiens born in French Canada colonized other parts of North America in what are today the states of Louisiana (called Louisianais), Mississippi; Missouri; Illinois; Vincennes, Indiana; Louisville, Kentucky; the Windsor-Detroit region and the Canadian prairies (primarily Southern Manitoba).

Habitants by Cornelius Krieghoff (1852)

After the 1760 British conquest of New France in the French and Indian War (known as the Seven Years' War in Canada), the French-Canadian population remained important in the life of the colonies.

The British gained Acadia by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. In 1755, the beginning of the French and Indian War, the British—actually British Americans from Massachusetts—committed what historian John Mack Faragher calls the first genocide by devastating Acadia, deporting 75% of the Acadian population to other British colonies and France in a massive diaspora. Those Acadians deported to Southern colonies close to French Louisiana migrated there, creating "Cajun" culture. Bayond Acadia, French Canadians escaped this fate in part because of the capitulation act that made them British subjects.^{[citation needed]} It took the 1774 Quebec Act for them to regain the French civil law system, and in 1791 French Canadians in Lower Canada were introduced to the British parliamentary system when an elected Legislative Assembly was created.

The Legislative Assembly having no real power, the political situation degenerated into the Lower Canada Rebellions of 1837–1838, after which Lower Canada and Upper Canada were unified. Some of the motivations for the union was to limit French-Canadian political power and at the same time transferring a large part of the Upper Canadian debt to the debt-free Lower Canada. After many decades of British immigration, the Canadiens became a minority in the Province of Canada in the 1850s.

French-Canadian contributions were essential in securing responsible government for The Canadas and in undertaking Canadian Confederation. However, over the course of the late 19th and 20th centuries, French Canadians' discontent grew with their place in Canada because of a series of events, including the execution of Louis Riel, the elimination of official bilingualism in Manitoba, Canada's participation in the Second Boer War, Regulation 17 which banned French-language schools in Ontario, the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and the Conscription Crisis of 1944.

Between the 1840s and the 1930s, some 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the New England region. About half of them returned home. The generations born in the United States would eventually come to see themselves as Franco-Americans. During the same period of time, numerous French Canadians also emigrated and settled in Eastern and Northern Ontario. The descendants of those Quebec immigrants constitute the bulk of today's Franco-Ontarian community.

Since 1968, French has been one of Canada's two official languages. It is the sole official language of Quebec and one of the official languages of New Brunswick, Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The province of Ontario has no official languages defined in law, although the provincial government provides French language services in many parts of the province under the French Language Services Act.

Modern usage[link]

In English usage, the terms for provincial subgroups, if used at all, are usually defined solely by province of residence, with all of the terms being strictly interchangeable with French Canadian. Although this remains the more common usage in English, it is considered outdated to many Canadians of French descent, especially in Quebec. Most francophone Canadians who use the provincial labels identify with their province of origin, even if it is not the province in which they currently reside; for example, a Québécois who moved to Manitoba would not change his own self-identification to Franco-Manitoban.

Increasingly, provincial labels are used to stress the linguistic and cultural, as opposed to ethnic and religious, nature of French-speaking institutions and organizations. The term "French Canadian" is still used in historical and cultural contexts, or when it is necessary to refer to Canadians of French-Canadian collectively, such as in the name and mandate of a national organizations which serve minority francophone communities across Canada. Francophone Canadians of non-French-Canadian origin such as immigrants from francophone countries are not usually designated by the term "French Canadian"^{[citation needed]}; the more general term "francophones" is used for French-speaking Canadians across all ethnic origins.

Organizations[link]

National[link]

• Fédération culturelle canadienne-française (French Canadian Cultural Federation)
• Association francophone pour le savoir
• Fédération de la jeunesse canadienne-française (French Canadian Youth Federation)

French-Canadian flags[link]

See also[link]

	Canada portal
	Quebec portal
	New France portal

	Book: Canada
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• Quebec
• Canuck
• English Canadian
• Speak White
• French American
• French people
• French in the United States
• French diaspora
• Pure laine
• Quebec diaspora
• Cajun
• Voyageurs
• Fransaskois

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: French Canadians

Look up french canadian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Multicultural Canada website includes seven full-text searchable French Canadian newspapers from Ontario and Quebec

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v t e French diaspora Africa Algeria · Madagascar · Mauritius · Namibia (Afrikaners) · Seychelles · South Africa (Afrikaners) North America Canada (Acadians · Québécois) · Jamaica · Mexico · Puerto Rico · United States (Cajuns · Huguenots) South America Argentina · Brazil · Chile · Peru · Uruguay Asia India · Japan · Korea · Lebanon · Pakistan · United Arab Emirates Europe Netherlands (Huguenots) · United Kingdom (Huguenots) Oceania Australia · New Caledonia · New Zealand See also Basque people · Breton people · Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico · Walloon people Migration of minorities in France (i.e. Basques) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).

Louis Marchand

Louis Marchand (2 February 1669 – 17 February 1732) was a French Baroque organist, harpsichordist, and composer. Born into an organist's family, Marchand was a child prodigy and quickly established himself as one of the best known French virtuosi of his time. He worked as organist of numerous churches and, for a few years, at the French court. Marchand had a violent temperament and an arrogant personality, and his life was filled with scandals, publicized and widely discussed both during his lifetime and after his death. Despite his fame, few of his works survive to this day, and those that do almost all date from his early years. Nevertheless, a few pieces of his, such as the organ Grand dialogue in C and Fond d'orgue in E minor, have been lauded as classic works of the French organ school.

Biography[link]

The composer was born in Lyon. Évrard Titon du Tillet, writing in 1732, described Marchand's father as a "mediocre organist". The son, however, was a child prodigy. According to the same source, Louis became organist of the Nevers Cathedral when he was just 14 years old; Titon du Tillet also states that ten years later, at the age of 24, Marchand obtained a similar position at the Auxerre Cathedral, but contemporary sources seem to indicate that the biographer was wrong, and Marchand settled in Paris before he turned 20. He married a Parisian, Marie Angélique Denis, in 1689, and worked as organist in numerous churches until 1707–8, when he became one of the King's organists at the court. Between 1713 and 1717 Marchand went on a long concert tour of Germany; after he returned, he settled in Paris once again and worked as organist at Église des Cordeliers until his death, augmenting his income with teaching.^[1]

Marchand was one of the most famous French virtuosi of his day. Virtually all contemporary sources speak very highly of his organ and harpsichord skills, and some may exaggerate, consciously or not, the way Titon du Tillet did when he spoke of the Auxerre Cathedral appointment. For instance, one account mentions that Marchand was not required to compete for the position of the organist to the King (as was customary). Another claims that, when Marchand first arrived to Paris, he was offered literally all posts that were vacant at the time.^[1] Marchand's skills as a performer were enough to fuel speculations in the press, but apparently he also possessed a volatile, flamboyant personality, and was a very difficult person to work with. For example, in 1691 Marchand attempted to displace Jean-François Dandrieu's uncle, Pierre Dandrieu, from the latter's position at St Barthélemy, by implying Dandrieu left a prostitute pregnant.^[2] Around 1717 he contested with François Couperin for the authorship of Les bergeries, a very popular piece from Couperin's Second livre de clavecin, published that year. Marchand was also rumored to be unfaithful to his wife and beat her. The couple separated in 1701, but for many years after this, Marie Angélique kept suing the composer for financial settlement. When Marchand left for Germany in 1713, it may have been to escape from his wife's legal threats—however, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg reported that Marchand left because Louis XIV exiled the composer for "impertinence."^[1] Still another account claims that after Marchand's wife had left him, Louis XIV ordered half the composer's salary to be withheld and paid to her. Marchand, in response, broke off in the middle of a mass where he was playing and, when the king questioned him, responded, "Sire, if my wife gets half my salary, she may play half the service." ^[3]

Perhaps the most famous anecdote about Marchand is the account of the competition he was supposed to have with Johann Sebastian Bach in Dresden in September 1717. According to Marpurg, Jakob Adlung, and other German sources (the story is not found in any French documents), the two composers were to have a contest in harpsichord performance, and Marchand fled before Bach's arrival, apparently out of fear of being defeated. This story, retold with various embellishments by Bach's later biographers such as Johann Nikolaus Forkel, was only subjected to close scrutiny by late 20th century scholars; no conclusive proof exists that Marchand ran away, or even that he knew the competition was to take place.^[4]

Works[link]

Marchand was evidently not interested in publishing his music, and so, despite his popularity, comparatively few of his compositions survive. The losses are particularly substantial in his vocal music: only one cantata survives, Alcione, three Cantiques spirituelles, and a few airs, which were published in various French anthologies of the first half of the 18th century. The opera Pyrame et Thisbé, mentioned by Titon du Tillet, is lost. Marchand's harpsichord music was previously known only by two early suites, published in 1702, and La vénitienne, a short work published in a 1707 anthology. These compositions are generally considered worthy examples of the French harpsichord style, but, as early works, lacking depth.^[1] A third book of harpsichord pieces, comprising 14 suites (12 in C minor, 2 in C major), most attributed to Marchand, was discovered in France in 2003.^[5]

Twelve of Marchand's organ works were published posthumously, but some 40 more survive in manuscript copies. Yet again most of these works seem to date from Marchand's early years (and stylistically look back to the 17th century, rather than the new galante style), but they include some of his most important music: the massive Grand dialogue in C (1696), which is usually placed as highly as offertories by François Couperin's and Nicolas de Grigny; the harmonically sophisticated Fond d'orgue in E minor, and the Quatuor—a rarely seen four-part contrapuntal French form.^[1] Modern scholar Geoffrey Sharp divided Marchand's organ output into three distinct groups: pieces influenced by vocal genres, pieces influenced by instrumental genres, and vocal-instrumental hybrid works. He singles out Marchand's manualiter trios and non-contrapuntal works as the composer's most successful pieces.^[6] A six-voice Plein jeu from the pieces published posthumously is important historically as the first instance of double pedals in French organ literature.^[7]

Legacy[link]

Jean-Philippe Rameau was among Marchand's admirers, and his pupils included Pierre Dumage and Louis-Claude Daquin.^[1] Dumage praised his teacher in the preface to his Premier livre d'orgue (1708), one of the most important works from the late years of the French organ school. Marchand's contemporary Pierre-Louis D'Aquin De Château-Lyon even compared the composer to François Couperin, claiming that, while Couperin had more art and application, Marchand had a more natural, spontaneous musicianship.^[8] In addition to his music, Marchand also wrote a treatise on composition, Règles de la composition, which theorist Sébastien de Brossard considered an excellent, albeit short, work.^[1]

Although today most of Marchand's extant pieces are regarded as unimportant by most scholars, a few have expressed the opposite view. French musicologist and writer Philippe Beaussant described the composer's work thus: "Though his compositions are skilfully written, their mastery is not obviously admirable as such. They need to be studied closely before they are found to be very great music."^[5]

Media[link]

	Basse de Trompette for Organ (excerpt)
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Apel, Willi. 1972. The History of Keyboard Music to 1700. Translated by Hans Tischler. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21141-7. Originally published as Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik bis 1700 by Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel.
• Aquin de Château-Lyon, Pierre-Louis d'. 1978. Siècle littéraire de Louis XV: ou, Lettres sur les hommes célèbres. New York: AMS Press.
• Fuller, David. "Dandrieu", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 4 December 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
• J.A. Fuller-Maitland, ed.. 1910. Grove's dictionary of music and musicians. New York: The Macmillan Company.
• Higginbottom, Edward. "Louis Marchand", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 21 October 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
• Sharp, Geoffrey B. 1969. Louis Marchand, 1669-1732. A Forgotten Virtuoso. The Musical Times 110, no. 1521 (November 1969): 1134-1137.
• Williams, Peter. 2007. J. S. Bach: A Life in Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

External links[link]

• Free scores by Louis Marchand in the Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)
• Free scores by Louis Marchand at the International Music Score Library Project
• More information on the Louis Marchand Sausagelynx Page (link to a copy at the Internet Archive, original page no longer available)
• Listen to a dozen organ pieces from the Premier Livre d’Orgue by Louis Marchand on French classical organs at Orgues Virtuels