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  Alan Guth
  Alan Harvey Guth (born February 27, 1947) is an American theoretical physicist and cosmologist. Guth has researched elementary particle theory (and how particle theory is applicable to the early universe). Currently serving as Victor Weisskopf Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he is the originator of the inflationary universe theory.
  He graduated from MIT in 1968 in physics and stayed to receive a master's and a doctorate, also in physics.
  As a junior particle physicist, Guth first developed the idea of cosmic inflation in 1979 at Cornell and gave his first seminar on the subject in January 1980. Moving on to Stanford University Guth formally proposed the idea of cosmic inflation in 1981, the idea that the nascent universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that was driven by a positive vacuum energy density (negative vacuum pressure). The results of the WMAP mission in 2006 made the case for cosmic inflation very compelling.
  Alan Guth was born on February 27, 1947 in New Brunswick, New Jersey. After his junior year at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he enrolled in a five-year program where he could get his bachelor’s and master’s after two more years. Guth obtained a bachelor’s and master’s degree in 1969 and a doctorate in 1972. In 1971, he married Susan Tisch, his high school sweetheart. They have two children: Lawrence (born 1977) and Jennifer (born 1983).
  
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  Andrei Linde
  Andrei Dmitriyevich Linde (Russian: Андрей Дмитриевич Линде; born March 2, 1948) is a Russian-American theoretical physicist and professor of Physics at Stanford University. Dr. Linde is best known for his work on the concept of the inflationary universe. He received his Bachelor of Science degree from Moscow State University. In 1975, Linde was awarded a Ph.D. from the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow. Among the various awards he's received for his work on inflation, in 2002 he was awarded the Dirac Medal, along with Alan Guth of MIT and Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University.
  Linde is best known for proposing "eternal chaotic inflation" to explain a number of problems in cosmology. This variant of cosmic inflation proposes that the false vacuum is eternally inflating in exponential growth powered by repulsive constant random zero point dark energy of negative pressure. This false vacuum is like supersaturated steam in which liquid bubbles of more stable vacuum form with Higgs-Goldstone fields that describe the cohering of most of the pre-inflationary random dark energy into the smooth fabric of curved spacetime. Our universe is only a small causal part of a single bubble, and there are 10^10^10^7 bubbles. In fact, there are 10^10^10^7 of universes like ours on a single bubble which is more like an expanding infinite sheet than a finite spherical surface (suppressing 1 space dimension for ease of visualization).
  
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• Anna Krylov
  Anna Krylov is a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Southern California working in the area of theoretical and computational quantum chemistry. Born in Donetsk, Ukraine (May 6, 1967), Anna Krylov received her M.Sc. (with honors) in Chemistry from Moscow State University and later her Ph.D. from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, working under the supervision of Professor Robert Benny Gerber. Her Ph.D. research at the Fritz Haber Center was focused on molecular dynamics in rare gas clusters and matrices. Upon completing her Ph.D. in 1996 (summa cum laude), she joined the group of Prof. Martin Head-Gordon at the University of California, Berkeley as a postdoctoral research associate, where she first became involved with electronic structure method development. In 1998, she joined Department of Chemistry at USC.
  
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• Bruno Zumino
  Bruno Zumino (April 28, 1923, Rome, Italy) is an Italian theoretical physicist and emeritus faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. He obtained his DSc degree from the University of Rome in 1945.
  He is renowned for his rigorous proof of the CPT theorem with Gerhart Lüders; his pioneering systematization of effective chiral Lagrangians; the discoveries, with Julius Wess, of the Wess–Zumino model, widely viewed as the first four dimensional supersymmetric quantum field theory outside the Soviet Union, and initiator of the field of supersymmetric radiative restrictions; and for his deciphering of structured flavor-chiral anomalies, codified in the Wess–Zumino–Witten model of conformal field theory.
  
  
  
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  Bryce DeWitt
  Bryce Seligman DeWitt (January 8, 1923 – September 23, 2004) was a theoretical physicist renowned for advancing gravity and field theories.
  He systematically approached the quantization of general relativity, in particular, developed canonical quantum gravity and manifestly covariant methods that use the heat kernel. B. DeWitt formulated the Wheeler-deWitt equation for the wavefunction of the Universe with John Archibald Wheeler and advanced the formulation of the Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. With his student Larry Smarr he originated the field of numerical relativity.
  He received his bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees from Harvard University. His Ph.D. (1950) supervisor was Julian S. Schwinger. Afterwards he worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of Texas at Austin. He was awarded the Dirac Prize in 1987, the American Physical Society's Einstein Prize in 2005, and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
  
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  Carlo Rubbia
  Carlo Rubbia Knight Grand Cross (born on 31 March 1934) is an Italian particle physicist and inventor who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1984 with Simon van der Meer for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN.
  Carlo Rubbia studied at Scuola Normale in Pisa and graduated doing cosmic ray experiments at Pisa University in 1959. He then went to the United States where he spent about one and a half years at Columbia University performing experiments on the decay and the nuclear capture of muons. This was the first of a long series of experiments that Rubbia has performed in the field of weak interactions and which culminated in the Nobel Prize-winning work at CERN. He received his PhD in physics from Columbia in 1959.
  In 1960 he moved back to Europe, attracted by the newly founded CERN, where he worked on experiments on the structure of weak interactions. CERN had just commissioned a new type of accelerator, the Intersecting Storage Rings, using counter-rotating beams of protons colliding against each other. Rubbia and his collaborators conducted experiments there, again studying the weak force. The main results in this field were the observation of the structure in the elastic scattering process and the first observation of the charmed baryons. These experiments were crucial in order to perfect the techniques needed later for the discovery of more exotic particles in a different type of particle collider.
  
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• Christopher Isham
  Christopher Isham is a theoretical physicist at Imperial College London. His main research interests are quantum gravity and foundational studies in quantum theory. He was the inventor of an approach to temporal quantum logic called the HPO formalism, and has worked on loop quantum gravity and quantum geometrodynamics. Together with John Baez, Isham is known as a proponent of the utility of category theory in theoretical physics. In recent years, he has been working on a new approach to quantum theory based on topos theory.
  Isham has appeared in several NOVA television programs as well as a film about Stephen Hawking. Physicist Paul Davies has described Isham as "Britain's greatest quantum gravity expert." As a practicing Christian, Isham has also written about the relationships among philosophy, theology, and physics.
  
  
  
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• Curtis Callan
  Curtis Callan (born in 1942 in North Adams, Massachusetts) is a theoretical physicist and a professor at Princeton University. He has conducted research in gauge theory, string theory, instantons, black holes, strong interactions, and many other topics. He was awarded the Sakurai Prize in 2000 ("For his classic formulation of the renormalization group, his contributions to instanton physics and to the theory of monopoles and strings") and the Dirac Medal in 2004.
  Callan received his B.Sc. in physics from Haverford College. Later he studied physics under Sam Treiman at Princeton and in 1964 received his doctorate degree. His Ph.D. students include Philip Argyres, Vijay Balasubramanian, William E. Caswell, Peter Woit, Igor Klebanov, Juan Maldacena and Larus Thorlacius.
  Callan is best known for his work on broken scale invariance (Callan–Symanzik equation) and has also made leading contributions to quantum field theory and string theory in the areas of dyon-fermion dynamics, string solitons and black holes.
  
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• Daniel Frank Walls
  Daniel Walls (1942–1999) was a theoretical physicist specialising in quantum optics.
  Dan Walls gained a BSc in physics and mathematics and a first class honours MSc in physics at the University of Auckland. He then went to Harvard as a Fulbright Scholar, obtaining his PhD in 1969, under Roy J. Glauber (who later won a Nobel prize). After holding post-doctoral positions in Auckland and Stuttgart, Walls became a senior lecturer in physics at the University of Waikato in 1972, where he became professor in 1980. In 1987 he moved to the University of Auckland as professor of theoretical physics.
  His major research interests centered on the interaction and similarities between light and atoms. He was notable for his wide-ranging expertise in relating theory to experiment, and was involved in all major efforts to understand non-classical light. A seminal paper (J Phys B 9, 1199 (1976)) by Walls with his first graduate student Howard Carmichael, showed how to create antibunched light, in which photons arrive at regular intervals, rather than randomly.
  
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• Daniel Z. Freedman
  Daniel Z. Freedman is an American theoretical physicist. He is a Professor of Physics and Applied Mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He is known for his work in supergravity.
  Daniel Freedman completed his undergraduate degree from Wesleyan University and completed his Ph.D from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He was appointed Professor of Applied Mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1980 and joint Professor of Physics in 2001. Before joining MIT, he was a professor at Stony Brook University.
  In 1976, Daniel Z. Freedman codiscovered (with Sergio Ferrara and Peter van Nieuwenhuizen) supergravity. Freedman, van Nieuwenhuizen and Ferrara were on the faculty of the Stony Brook University. Supergravity, which generalizes Einstein's theory of general relativity by incorporating the then-new idea of supersymmetry, quickly became a pillar of theoretical physics. In the following decades its many implications for physics beyond the Standard Model, for superstring theory and for mathematics have become more and more evident, so that now, nearly thirty years later, supergravity is as much a subject of interest as ever. For his work on supergravity, Freedman, a former Sloan and twice Guggenheim fellow, received in 1993 the Dirac Medal and Prize, gave the 2002 Andrejewski Lectures in Mathematical Physics, and received in 2006 the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics (like the Dirac Medal together with Sergio Ferrara and Peter van Nieuwenhuizen) "for constructing supergravity."
  
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• David Deutsch
  David Elieser Deutsch, FRS (born 1953 in Haifa, Israel) is a British physicist at the University of Oxford. He is a non-stipendiary Visiting Professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) in the Clarendon Laboratory of the University of Oxford. He pioneered the field of quantum computation by being the first person to formulate a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer. He is also a proponent of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.
  In the Royal Society of London's announcement of Deutsch becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008, the Society described Deutsch's contributions thus:
  David Deutsch laid the foundations of the quantum theory of computation, and has subsequently made or participated in many of the most important advances in the field, including the discovery of the first quantum algorithms, the theory of quantum logic gates and quantum computational networks, the first quantum error-correction scheme, and several fundamental quantum universality results. He has set the agenda for worldwide research efforts in this new, interdisciplinary field, made progress in understanding its philosophical implications (via a variant of the many-universes interpretation) and made it comprehensible to the general public, notably in his book The Fabric of Reality.
  
  wn.com/David_Deutsch
• David Olive
  David Olive (born 1937) CBE FLSW FRS, is a British theoretical physicist. Olive made fundamental contributions to the string theory and duality theory. He was Professor of physics at Imperial College, London. He later moved to Swansea University to help set up the new theoretical physics group.
  He was awarded the Dirac Prize and Medal of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in 1997. He is a Founding Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales.
  Montonen–Olive duality
  
  
  
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• David Thouless
  David James Thouless (born in 1934 in Bearsden, Scotland) is a condensed matter physicist and Wolf Prize winner.
  Thouless earned his PhD at Cornell University under Hans Bethe. He was a professor of mathematical physics at Birmingham University in the United Kingdom before becoming a professor of physics at the University of Washington in Seattle in 1980. Thouless has made many theoretical contributions to the understanding of extended systems of atoms and electrons, and of nucleons. Areas that his work has impacted include superconductivity phenomena, properties of nuclear matter, and excited collective motions within nuclei.
  Thouless is a Fellow of the Royal Society, Fellow of the American Physical Society, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Among his many awards are the Wolf Prize for Physics (1990), the Paul Dirac Medal of the Institute of Physics (1993), and the Lars Onsager Prize of the American Physical Society (2000).
  
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  Edward Witten
  Edward Witten (born August 26, 1951) is an American theoretical physicist with a focus on mathematical physics who is currently a professor of Mathematical Physics at the Institute for Advanced Study.
  Witten is a researcher in superstring theory, a theory of quantum gravity, supersymmetric quantum field theories and other areas of mathematical physics.
  He has made contributions in mathematics and helped bridge gaps between fundamental physics and various areas of mathematics. In 1990 he was the world's first physicist to be awarded a Fields Medal by the International Union of Mathematics. In 2004, Time magazine stated that Witten was widely thought to be the world's greatest living theoretical physicist.
  Witten was born in Baltimore, Maryland. He is the son of Lorraine W. Witten and Louis Witten, a theoretical physicist specializing in gravitation and general relativity.
  Witten attended the Park School of Baltimore (class of '68), and received his Bachelor of Arts with a major in history and minor in linguistics from Brandeis University in 1971. He published articles in The New Republic and The Nation. In 1968 Witten published an article in The Nation arguing that the New Left had no strategy. He worked briefly for George McGovern, a Democratic presidential nominee in 1972. McGovern lost the election in a landslide to Richard Nixon.
  
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• Edwin Salpeter
  Edwin Ernest Salpeter FRS (3 December 1924, Vienna – 26 November 2008,Ithaca, New York) was an Austrian-Australian-American astrophysicist. Born to a Jewish family, he emigrated from Austria to Australia while in his teens to escape the Nazis. He attended Sydney University, where he obtained his bachelor's degree in 1944 and his master's degree in 1945. In the same year he was awarded an overseas scholarship and attended Birmingham University, England, where he earned his doctorate in 1948 under the supervision of Sir Rudolf Peierls. He spent the remainder of his career at Cornell University, where he was most recently the James Gilbert White Distinguished Professor of the Physical Sciences, Emeritus. Salpeter died of leukemia at his home in Ithaca on November 26, 2008.
  In 1950 he married Miriam (Mika) Mark (1929-2000), a neurobiologist born in Riga, Latvia; she was chairwoman of the department of neurobiology and behavior at Cornell from 1982 to 1988. The Society for Neuroscience created the Mika Salpeter award in her memory; it "recognizes an individual with outstanding career achievements in neuroscience who has also significantly promoted the professional advancement of women in neuroscience." The Salpeters had two daughters, Judy Salpeter and Dr. Shelley Salpeter.
  
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• Efim S. Fradkin
  Efim Samoilovich Fradkin (Russian: Ефим Самойлович Фрадкин) (November 30, 1924 - March 25, 1999) was a Russian physicist.
  Fradkin was born in Schedrin near Zhlobin (now Belarus), then in the Soviet Union in 1924.
  He was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1953 (Stalin Prize of First Degree), Igor Tamm Prize of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1980, the Dirac Prize of ICTP in 1989.
  
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  Frank Wilczek
  Frank Anthony Wilczek (born May 15, 1951) is a theoretical physicist from the United States and a Nobel laureate. He is currently the Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
  Wilczek, along with David Gross and H. David Politzer, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004 for their discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction.
  Born in Mineola, New York, of Polish and Italian origin, Wilczek was educated in the public schools of Queens, attending Martin Van Buren High School. It was around this time Wilczek's parents realized that he was exceptional - in part as a result of Frank Wilczek having been administered an IQ test.
  He received his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics at the University of Chicago in 1970, a Master of Arts in Mathematics at Princeton University, 1972, and a Ph.D. in physics at Princeton University in 1974. Wilczek holds the Herman Feshbach Professorship of Physics at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics. He worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
  
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• George Sudarshan
  Ennackal Chandy George Sudarshan (also known as E. C. G. Sudarshan; born 16 September 1931) is a prominent Indian-American physicist, author and professor at the University of Texas at Austin.
  George Sudarshan was born in a Syrian Christian family in Pallam, Kottayam district, Kerala, India. He studied at CMS College Kottayam, and graduated with honours from the Madras Christian College in 1951. He obtained his master's degree at the University of Madras (India) in 1952. Then he moved to Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and worked there for a brief period with Homi Bhabha as well as others. Subsequently he moved to University of Rochester in New York with Robert Marshak as a graduate student. In 1958, he received his Ph.D. degree from the University of Rochester. At this point he moved to Harvard University to join Julian Schwinger as a postdoctoral fellow.
  Sudarshan has made significant contributions to several areas of physics. He was the originator (with Robert Marshak) of the V-A theory of the weak force (also done later by Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann), which eventually paved the way for the electroweak theory. Feynman said in 1963 : "The V-A theory that was discovered by Sudarshan and Marshak, publicized by Feynman and Gell-Mann".
  
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  Giorgio Parisi
  Giorgio Parisi (born August 4, 1948) is an Italian theoretical physicist. He is best known for his works concerning statistical mechanics, quantum field theory and various aspects of physics, mathematics and science in general^[which?].
  Giorgio Parisi's research focused mainly on disordered systems, in particular on spin glass modelling. He also found many applications of spin glass theory to optimization theory, Biology and Immunology. Giorgio Parisi has been awarded several honors; the Boltzmann Medal and the Dirac Medal. He is one of the two Italian physicists to be member of the American National Academy of Sciences.
  Giorgio Parisi is one of the top-rated physicists on the h-index standing.^{[citation needed]}
  Giorgio Parisi graduated in University of Rome La Sapienza in 1970, supervised by Nicola Cabibbo. He became a researcher at the Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati (1971–1981) while visiting Columbia University in New York (1973–1974), the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques (1976–1977), and the École Normale Supérieure (1977–1978). He got Professor ordinarius position in 1981 at University of Rome Tor Vergata, and in 1992 at University of Rome La Sapienza, where he actually teaches "Statistical mechanics and critical phenomena".
  
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• Helen Quinn
  Helen Rhoda Quinn (born 19 May 1943 in Melbourne) is an Australian-born particle physicist. She went to school in Victoria, Australia and entered college at the University of Melbourne before moving to the USA and transferring to Stanford University. She received her Ph.D. from Stanford in 1967, at a time when less than 2% of physicists were women. She did her postdoctoral work at the DESY (the German Synchrotron Laboratory) in Hamburg, Germany. She next spent seven years at Harvard University before returning to Stanford where she is now a professor of physics at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.
  Working with Howard Georgi and Steven Weinberg, Helen showed how the three types of particle interactions (strong, electromagnetic, and weak), which look very different as we see their impact in the world around us, become very similar in extremely high-energy processes and so might be three aspects of a single unified force. She also suggested a possible near-symmetry of the universe (now known as Peccei–Quinn symmetry) to explain how strong interactions can maintain CP-symmetry (the symmetry between matter and antimatter) when weak interactions do not. One consequence of this theory is a particle known as the axion which has yet to be observed but is one candidate for the dark matter that pervades the universe.
  
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  Herbert A. Hauptman
  Herbert Aaron Hauptman (February 14, 1917 – October 23, 2011) was an American mathematician and Nobel laureate. He pioneered and developed a mathematical method that has changed the whole field of chemistry and opened a new era in research in determination of molecular structures of crystallized materials. Today, Hauptman's direct methods, which he has continued to improve and refine, are routinely used to solve complicated structures. It was the application of this mathematical method to a wide variety of chemical structures that led the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to name Hauptman and Jerome Karle recipients of the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
  He was born in New York City, the oldest child of Israel Hauptman and Leah Rosenfeld. He was married to Edith Citrynell since November 10, 1940, with two daughters, Barbara (1947) and Carol (1950).
  He was interested in science and mathematics from an early age which he pursued at Townsend Harris High School, graduated from the City College of New York (1937) and obtained an M.A. degree in mathematics from Columbia University in 1939.
  
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• Howard Georgi
  Howard Mason Georgi III, born January 6, 1947 in San Bernardino, California, is Harvard College Professor and Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics at Harvard University. He is best known for early work in Grand Unification and gauge coupling unification within SU(5) and SO(10) groups (see Georgi-Glashow model).
  Georgi has for many years taught an advanced freshman physics course, "Physics 16" in the fall semester. He is also Director of Undergraduate Studies in Physics and has been Co-Master of Leverett House with his wife, Ann Blake Georgi, since 1998. He graduated from Harvard College in 1967 and obtained his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1971. He was Junior Fellow in the Harvard Society of Fellows from 1973-1976 and a Senior Fellow from 1982-1998. In 1995 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and received the Sakurai Prize; in 2000 he shared the Dirac Medal with Jogesh Pati and Helen Quinn. He has advised a number of notable students, including Andrew G. Cohen, Adam Falk, Benjamin Grinstein, John Hagelin, Lawrence J. Hall, David B. Kaplan, Michael Luke, Aneesh Manohar, Ann Nelson, Brian Greene, Sally Dawson and Lisa Randall.
  
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• Iosif Khriplovich
  Iosif Benzionovich Khriplovich (Russian: Иосиф Бенционович Хриплович) (born 1937) is a Russian theoretical physicist who has made deep contributions in quantum field theory, atomic physics, and general relativity.
  He is a Chief Researcher at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Novosibirsk, and holds a Chair of Theoretical Physics at Novosibirsk State University. Dr. Khriplovich was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2000, and remains a Corresponding Member. He was awarded the 2004 "Silver Dirac Medal for the Advancement of Theoretical Physics" by University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, and shared the 2005 Pomeranchuk Prize with Arkady Vainshtein For outstanding contribution to the understanding the properties of the standard model, especially for illuminating work on weak and strong interactions of quarks, a prize awarded by the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics of Moscow.
  Khriplovich was the first to correctly calculate the beta-function for the coupling renormalization in a non-Abelian Yang-Mills theory, although at that time (1969) asymptotic freedom was not yet recognized as a property of the strong interactions.
  
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• James Binney
  James Jeffrey Binney, FRS, FInstP (born 1950) is a British astrophysicist. He is currently a Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford, where he is head of the Sub-Department of Theoretical Physics as well as a Professorial Fellow at Merton College. Binney is known principally for his work in theoretical galactic and extragalactic astrophysics, but he has made a number of contributions to areas outside of astrophysics as well.
  Binney took a first class BA in the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge in 1971, then moved to the University of Oxford, reading for a DPhil at Christ Church under Dennis Sciama, which he completed in 1975. After holding several post-doctoral positions, including a Junior Research Fellowship at Magdalen College, and a position at Princeton University, Binney returned to Oxford as a University Lecturer and Fellow and Tutor in Physics at Merton College in 1981. He was subsequently made Ad Hominem Reader in Theoretical Physics in 1991 and Professor of Physics in 1996.
  
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  James Bjorken
  James Daniel "BJ" Bjorken (born 1934) is an American theoretical physicist. He was a Putnam Fellow in 1954, received a BS in physics from MIT in 1956, and obtained his PhD from Stanford University in 1959. He is Emeritus Professor at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, and was a member of the Theory Department of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (1979–1989).
  Bjorken discovered what is known as light-cone scaling, (or "Bjorken scaling") a phenomenon in the deep inelastic scattering of light on strongly interacting particles, known as hadrons (such as protons and neutrons). This was critical to the recognition of quarks as actual elementary particles (rather than just convenient theoretical constructs), and led to the theory of strong interactions known as quantum chromodynamics. In Bjorken's picture, the quarks become point-like, observable objects at very short distances (high energies).
  Richard Feynman subsequently reformulated this concept into the parton model, used to understand the quark composition of hadrons at high energies. The predictions of Bjorken scaling were confirmed in the early late 1960s electroproduction experiments at SLAC, in which quarks were seen for the first time. The general idea, with small logarithmic modifications, is explained in quantum chromodynamics by "asymptotic freedom".
  
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• Jan Martin
  Jan Elizabeth Martin (born 21 November 1959) is a retired female field hockey player from New Zealand, who was a member of the national team that finished sixth at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California. She was born in Auckland.
  
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• Jeffrey Goldstone
  Jeffrey Goldstone (born 3 September 1933) is a British-born theoretical physicist and an emeritus physics faculty at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics.
  He worked at the University of Cambridge until 1977.
  He is famous for the discovery of the Nambu-Goldstone boson.
  He is currently working on quantum computation.
  He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge, (B.A. 1954, Ph.D. 1958). He worked on the theory of nuclear matter under the guidance of Hans Bethe, and developed modifications of Feynman diagrams for non-relativistic many-fermion systems, which are currently referred to as Goldstone diagrams.
  Goldstone was a research fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1956–60 and held visiting research posts at Copenhagen, CERN and Harvard. During this time, his research focus shifted to particle physics and he investigated the nature of relativistic field theories with spontaneously broken symmetries. With Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg, he proved that in such theories zero-mass particles (Nambu-Goldstone bosons) must exist.
  
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• Jogesh Pati
  Jogesh C. Pati (born 1937 in Baripada, Orissa, India) is an Indian American theoretical physicist at the University of Maryland, College Park.
  Pati has made pioneering contributions to the notion of a unification of elementary particles – quarks and leptons – and of their gauge forces force: weak, electromagnetic, and strong. His formulation, carried out in collaboration with nobel laureate Abdus Salam of Pakistan, of the original gauge theory of quark–lepton unification, and their resulting insight that violations of baryon and lepton numbers, especially those that would manifest in proton decay, are likely consequences of such a unification, provide cornerstones of modern particle physics today. The suggestions of Pati and Salam (The Pati-Salam model) of the symmetry of SU(4)–color, left–right symmetry, and of the associated existence of right-handed neutrinos, now provide some of the crucial ingredients for understanding the observed masses of the neutrinos and their oscillations.
  Pati, was awarded the Dirac Medal for his seminal contributions to a “Quest for Unification” in the year 2000 along with Howard Georgi and Helen Quinn.
  
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• John Cardy
  John Lawrence Cardy FRS is a British theoretical physicist at the University of Oxford. He is best known for his work in theoretical condensed matter physics and statistical mechanics, and in particular for research on critical phenomena and conformal field theory.
  He was an undergraduate and postgraduate student at the University of Cambridge, before moving to the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he joined the faculty in 1977. In 1993, he moved to the University of Oxford, where he is a Fellow of All Souls College and a Professor of Physics in the Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics.
  He was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1991, received the Dirac Medal of the IoP in 2000, was awarded the Lars Onsager Prize by the APS in 2004, the Boltzmann Medal by IUPAP in 2010, and the Dirac Medal of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in 2011.
  He is most known for his contributions to conformal field theory. The famous Cardy formula is named after him.
  
  
  
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  John Clive Ward
  John Clive Ward (August 1, 1924 – May 6, 2000), was a British-Australian physicist. His most famous creation was the Ward-Takahashi identity, originally known as "Ward Identity" (or "Ward Identities"). This celebrated result, in quantum electrodynamics, was inspired by a conjecture of Dyson and was disclosed in a one-half page letter typical of Ward's succinct style. In their recent book entitled Quantum Electrodynamics, Greiner and Reinhardt state in their discussion of charge renormalization: "Yet the Ward Identity has a much more fundamental significance: it ensures the universality of the electromagnetic interaction."
  Andrei Sakharov classified Ward as one of the "titans" of quantum electrodynamics alongside Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga. In this regard, it has been said that physicists have made use of his principles and developments "often without knowing it, and generally without quoting him."
  In a 1947 paper, published in Nature (with Maurice Pryce), Ward was the first to calculate the probability amplitudes for the polarization of two entangled photons moving in opposite directions. He then derived the subsequent correlation of the quantum polarizations of the two photons propagating in opposite directions. This prediction was experimentally confirmed by Wu and Shaknov in 1950. In current terminology this result corresponds to a pair of entangled photons and is directly relevant to a typical Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox, or situation.
  
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• John Iliopoulos
  John Iliopoulos (Greek language: Ιωάννης Ηλιόπουλος; 1940, Kalamata) is a Greek physicist and the first person to present the Standard Model of particle physics in a single report. He is best known for his prediction of the charm quark with Sheldon Lee Glashow and Luciano Maiani (the "GIM mechanism"). He is currently an honorary member of Laboratory of theoretical physics of École Normale Supérieure, Paris.
  In 2002, Iliopoulos was the first recipient of the Aristeio prize, which has been instituted to recognize Greeks who have made significant contributions towards furthering their chosen fields of science. Iliopoulos and Maiani were jointly awarded the 1987 Sakurai Prize for theoretical particle physics. In 2007 Iliopoulos and Maiani received the Dirac Medal of the ICTP "(f)or their work on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles."
  
  
  
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• John Pendry
  Sir John Brian Pendry, FRS FInstP (born 4 July 1943) is an English theoretical physicist known for his research into refractive indexes and creation of the first practical "Invisibility Cloak". He is now a chair in Theoretical solid state physics at Imperial College London where he was head of the department of physics (1998–2001) and principal of the faculty of physical sciences (2001–2002). He is an honorary fellow of Downing College, Cambridge (where he was an undergraduate) and an IEEE fellow.
  Below is a list of highly cited articles of which Sir Pendry was author or co-author. PDF copies of the articles are linked to the title.
  
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• Kenneth G. Wilson
  Kenneth Geddes Wilson (born June 8, 1936) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel Prize winner.
  As an undergraduate at Harvard, he was a Putnam Fellow. He earned his PhD from Caltech in 1961, studying under Murray Gell-Mann.
  He joined Cornell University in 1963 in the Department of Physics as a junior faculty member, becoming a full professor in 1970. In 1974, he became the James A. Weeks Professor of Physics at Cornell. He was a co-winner of the Wolf Prize in physics in 1980, together with Michael E. Fisher and Leo Kadanoff. He was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics for his seminal approach, combining quantum field theory and the statistical theory of critical phenomena of second-order phase transitions, i.e., for his constructive theory of the renormalization group. In this theory he not only gave important insights into the field of critical statics and dynamics in statistical physics, but also indirectly helped to answer basic questions like: "What is quantum field theory?" and "What does renormalization mean?". He also gave a constructive answer to another important "renormalization" problem from solid-state physics, the Kondo effect.
  
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• Kenneth Ruud
  Kenneth Ruud is professor of chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Tromsø, Norway.
  He is author or coauthor of more than 150 scientific articles and director of the Centre for Theoretical and Computational Chemistry in Tromsø. In 2008, he was the recipient of the Dirac medal from the World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists.
  He is one of the main contributors to the DALTON program package.
  
  
  
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  Klaus von Klitzing
  Klaus von Klitzing (28 June 1943 in Schroda) is a German physicist known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall Effect, for which he was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics.
  In 1962, von Klitzing passed the Abitur at Artland Gymnasium in Quakenbrück, Germany, before studying physics at the Braunschweig University of Technology, where he received his diploma in 1969. He continued his studies at the University of Würzburg, completing his PhD thesis Galvanomagnetic Properties of Tellurium in Strong Magnetic Fields in 1972, and habilitation in 1978. This work was performed at the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford and the Grenoble High Magnetic Field Laboratory in France, where he continued to work until becoming a professor at the Technical University of Munich in 1980. Von Klitzing has been a director of the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research in Stuttgart since 1985.
  The von Klitzing constant, R_K = h/e² = 25,812.807449(86) Ω, is named in honor of von Klitzing's discovery of the quantum Hall effect, and is listed in the National Institute of Standards and Technology Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. The inverse of the von Klitzing constant is equal to half that of the conductance quantum value.
  
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  Luciano Maiani
  Luciano Maiani (born 16 July 1941 in Rome) is a San Marino citizen physicist best known for his prediction of the charm quark with Sheldon Lee Glashow and John Iliopoulos (the "GIM mechanism").
  In 1964 Luciano Maiani received his degree in physics and he became a research associate at the Istituto Superiore di Sanità in Italy. During that same year he collaborated with R. Gatto's Theoretical Physics group at the University of Florence. He crossed the pond in 1969 to do a post-doctoral fellowship at Harvard's Lyman Laboratory of Physics. In 1976 Maiani became a Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Rome, however he traveled widely during this period, holding visiting professorships at the Ecole Normale Supérieure of Paris (1977) and CERN (1979–1980 and 1985–1986). Maiani also took an interest in the direction of particle physics research start on CERN's Scientific Policy Committee from 1984 to 1991. Then in 1993 he became President of Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN). From 1993 to 1996 Maiani served as a scientific delegate in CERN Council and then as that council's president in 1997. Thereafter he became Director General of CERN, serving from 1 January 1999 through the end of 2003. From 1995-1997 Maiani chaired the Italian Comitato Tecnico Scientifico, Fondo Ricerca Applicata. At the end of 2007 he was proposed as President of Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, but his nomination was suspended temporally after he signed a letter criticizing the rector of 'La Sapienza' University in Rome, who invited the Pope Benedict XVI to give a Lectio Magistralis in 2008. However he became the President of CNR since 2008.
  
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  Ludwig Faddeev
  Ludvig Dmitrievich Faddeev (Russian: Лю́двиг Дми́триевич Фадде́ев), also Ludwig Dmitriyevich (born March 23, 1934) is a Soviet and Russian theoretical physicist and mathematician. He is famous for the discovery of the Faddeev equations in the theory of the quantum mechanical three-body problem and for the development of path integral methods in the quantization of non-abelian gauge field theories, including the introduction (with Victor Popov) of Faddeev–Popov ghosts. He led the Leningrad School, in which he along with many of his students developed the quantum inverse scattering method for studying quantum integrable systems in one space and one time dimension. This work led to the invention of quantum groups by Drinfel'd and Jimbo.
  Faddeev was born in Leningrad to a family of mathematicians. His father, Dmitry Faddeev, was a well known algebraist, professor of Leningrad University and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His mother was known for her work in numerical linear algebra. Faddeev attended Leningrad University, receiving his undergraduate degree in 1956. He enrolled in physics, rather than mathematics, "to be independent of [his] father". Nevertheless, he received a solid education in mathematics as well "due to the influence of V. A. Fock and V. I. Smirnov". His doctoral work, on scattering theory, was completed in 1959 under the direction of Olga Ladyzhenskaya.
  
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  Nicola Cabibbo
  Nicola Cabibbo (10 April 1935 – 16 August 2010) was an Italian physicist, best known for his work on the weak interaction. He was also the president of the Italian National Institute of Nuclear Physics from 1983 to 1992, and from 1993 until his death he was the president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He was born in Rome.
  Cabibbo's major work on the weak interaction originated from a need to explain two observed phenomena:
  Cabibbo solved the first issue by postulating weak universality, which involves a similarity in the weak interaction coupling strength between different generations of particles. He solved the second issue with a mixing angle θ_C (now called the Cabibbo angle), between the down and strange quarks. Modern measurements show that θ_C = 13.04°.
  Before the discovery of the third generation of quarks, Cabibbo's work was extended by Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa to the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix. In 2008, Kobayashi and Maskawa shared one half of the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work. Some physicists had bitter feelings that the Nobel Prize committee failed to reward Cabibbo for his part. Asked for a reaction on the prize, Cabibbo preferred to give no comment. According to sources close to him, he was very embittered.
  
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  Nicolaas Bloembergen
  Nicolaas Bloembergen (born Dordrecht, March 11, 1920) is a Dutch-American physicist and Nobel laureate.
  He received his Ph.D. degree from University of Leiden in 1948; while pursuing his PhD at Harvard, Bloembergen also worked part-time as a graduate research assistant for Edward Mills Purcell at the MIT Radiation Laboratory [1]. He became a professor at Harvard University in Applied Physics.
  Bloembergen enrolled in 1938 at the University of Utrecht to study physics. Bloembergen left the war ravaged Netherlands in 1945 to pursue graduate studies at Harvard University. Six weeks before his arrival, Harvard Professor Edward M. Purcell (along with his graduate students Torrey and Pound) discovered nuclear magnetic resonance. Bloembergen was hired to develop a first NMR machine. While at Harvard he enjoyed classes from J. Schwinger, J. H. van Vleck, and E. C. Kemble. His thesis Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation was submitted in Leiden, where he passed qualifying criteria. After a brief postdoctoral appointment with C. J. Gorter in the Netherlands, he joined Harvard where he was named a junior fellow of Society of Fellows in 1949 and Associate Professor in 1951.
  
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• Nikolai Bogoliubov
  Nikolay Nikolayevich Bogolyubov (Russian: Никола́й Никола́евич Боголю́бов; 21 August 1909, Nizhny Novgorod – 13 February 1992, Moscow), also transliterated as Bogoliubov, was a Soviet mathematician and theoretical physicist known for a significant contribution to quantum field theory, classical and quantum statistical mechanics, and to the theory of dynamical systems; a recipient of the Dirac Prize (1992).
  Nikolay Bogolyubov was born on 21 August 1909 in Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Empire to Russian Orthodox Church priest and seminary teacher of theology, psychology and philosophy Nikolay Mikhaylovich Bogolyubov, and Olga Nikolayevna Bogolyubova, a teacher of music. The Bogolyubovs relocated to the village of Velikaya Krucha in the Poltava Governorate (now in Poltava Oblast, Ukraine) in 1919, where the young Nikolay Bogolyubov began to study physics and mathematics. The family soon moved to Kiev in 1921, where they continued to live in poverty as the elder Nikolay Bogolyubov only found a position as a priest in 1923.
  
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• Norman F. Ramsey
  Norman Foster Ramsey, Jr. (August 27, 1915 – November 4, 2011) was an American physicist. A physics professor at Harvard University since 1947, Ramsey also held several posts with such government and international agencies as NATO and the United States Atomic Energy Commission. He was awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention, in 1949, of the separated oscillatory field method, which had important applications in the construction of atomic clocks. The Prize was shared with Hans G. Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul. Among his other accomplishments are helping to found the United States Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory and Fermilab.
  In 1949, while working at Harvard, Ramsey applied a key insight to improve Columbia University physicist Isidor Rabi's method of studying atoms and molecules. In 1937, Rabi used alternating magnetic fields to characterize atomic matter. Ramsey exposed the atoms to the magnetic field only as they entered or exited his device. Ramsey called it the separated oscillatory fields method; today it is simply called the Ramsey Method.
  
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• Patrick A. Lee
  Patrick A. Lee is a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
  
  
  
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  Paul Dirac
  
  Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, OM, FRS ( /dɪˈræk/ di-RAK; 8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984) was an English theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to the early development of both quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. He held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, was a member of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami, and spent the last decade of his life at Florida State University.
  Among other discoveries, he formulated the Dirac equation, which describes the behaviour of fermions, and predicted the existence of antimatter.
  Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1933 with Erwin Schrödinger, "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory."
  Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac was born at his parents' home in Bristol, England, on 8 August 1902, and grew up in the Bishopston area of the city. His father, Charles Adrien Ladislas Dirac, was an immigrant from Saint-Maurice in the Canton of Valais, Switzerland, who worked in Bristol as a French teacher. His mother, Florence Hannah Dirac, née Holten, the daughter of a ship's captain, was born in Cornwall and worked as a librarian at the Bristol Central Library. Paul had a younger sister, Béatrice Isabelle Marguerite, known as Betty, and an older brother, Reginald Charles Félix, known as Felix, who committed suicide in March 1925. Dirac later recalled: "My parents were terribly distressed. I didn't know they cared so much. /.../ I never knew that parents were supposed to care for their children, but from then on I knew."
  
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  Peter Higgs
  Peter Ware Higgs, FRS, FRSE, FKC (born 29 May 1929), is a British theoretical physicist and an emeritus professor at the University of Edinburgh.
  He is best known for his 1960s proposal of broken symmetry in electroweak theory, explaining the origin of mass of elementary particles in general and of the W and Z bosons in particular. This so-called Higgs mechanism, which had several inventors besides Higgs at about the same time, predicts the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson (often described as "the most sought-after particle in modern physics"). Although this particle has not turned up in accelerator experiments so far, the Higgs mechanism is generally accepted as an important ingredient in the Standard Model of particle physics, without which particles would have no mass.
  Prof. Higgs has been honoured with a number of awards in recognition of his work, including the 1997 Dirac Medal and Prize for outstanding contributions to theoretical physics from the Institute of Physics, the 1997 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize by the European Physical Society, the 2004 Wolf Prize in Physics, and the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics.
  
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  Peter Zoller
  Peter Zoller (born 16 September 1952) is a theoretical physicist from Austria. He is Professor at the University of Innsbruck and works on quantum optics and quantum information and is best known for his pioneering research on quantum computing and quantum communication and for bridging quantum optics and solid state physics.
  
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  Robert Hofstadter
  Robert Hofstadter (February 5, 1915 – November 17, 1990) was an American physicist. He was the joint winner of the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics (together with Rudolf Mössbauer) "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his consequent discoveries concerning the structure of nucleons."
  Hofstadter was born in New York City on Feb. 5, 1915, to Louis Hofstadter, a salesman, and the former Henrietta Koenigsberg. He attended elementary and high schools in New York City and entered City College of New York, graduating with a B.S. degree magna cum laude in 1935 at the age of 20, and was awarded the Kenyon Prize in Mathematics and Physics. He also received a Charles A. Coffin Foundation Fellowship from the General Electric Company, which enabled him to attend graduate school at Princeton University, where he earned his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1938. He did his post-doctoral research at the University of Pennsylvania before joining Stanford University. Hofstadter taught at Stanford University from 1950 to 1985.
  
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• Robert Kraichnan
  Robert Harry Kraichnan (January 15, 1928 – February 26, 2008), a resident of Santa Fe, New Mexico, was an American theoretical physicist best known for his work on the theory of fluid turbulence.
  Kraichnan received his Ph.D. from MIT, graduating in 1949. He became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in 1949/50, and was one of the last assistants to Albert Einstein.
  After his appointment at Princeton, he worked in Columbia University and the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University. From 1962 on, he was supported by research grants and worked as a freelance consultant for the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Princeton University, the Office of Naval Research, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and NASA. He had a keen passion for hiking, so he lived in the mountains of New Hampshires and later in White Rock, New Mexico and eventually to Santa Fe, New Mexico near Los Alamos. In 2003, he returned to academia when he was appointed Homewood Professor in the Whiting School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, but by this time he had already fallen ill.
  
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  Roger Penrose
  Sir Roger Penrose OM, FRS (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College. He has received a number of prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics which he shared with Stephen Hawking for their contribution to our understanding of the universe. He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.
  He was born in Colchester, Essex, England, Roger Penrose is a son of Lionel S. Penrose and Margaret Leathes. Penrose is the brother of mathematician Oliver Penrose and of chess Grandmaster Jonathan Penrose. Penrose attended University College School and University College, London, where he graduated with a first class degree in mathematics. In 1955, while still a student, Penrose reintroduced the E. H. Moore generalized matrix inverse, also known as the Moore–Penrose inverse, after it had been reinvented by Arne Bjerhammar (1951). Penrose earned his Ph.D. at Cambridge (St John's College) in 1958, writing a thesis on "tensor methods in algebraic geometry" under algebraist and geometer John A. Todd. He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s, describing it as "impossibility in its purest form" and exchanged material with the artist M. C. Escher, whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it. Escher's Waterfall, and Ascending and Descending were in turn inspired by Penrose. As reviewer Manjit Kumar puts it:
  
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• Roman Jackiw
  Roman W. Jackiw (b. 1939) is a theoretical physicist and Dirac Medallist. Born in Poland, Jackiw received his PhD from Cornell University in 1966 under Hans Bethe and Kenneth Wilson. He has been a professor at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics since 1969.
  Jackiw is famous for the discovery of the so-called axial anomaly, also known as Adler-Bell-Jackiw anomaly, also known as the Chiral anomaly. In 1969, Roman Jackiw and John Stewart Bell published their explanation, which was later expanded and clarified by Stephen L. Adler, of the (observed) decay of a neutral pion into two photons. This decay is forbidden by a symmetry of classical electrodynamics, but Bell and Jackiw showed that this symmetry cannot be preserved at the quantum level. Their introduction of an "anomalous" term from quantum field theory required that the sum of the charges of the elementary fermions had to be zero. This work also gave important support to the color-theory of quarks. Jackiw is also known for Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity also called the "R=T model".
  
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• Rudolf Peierls
  Sir Rudolf Ernst Peierls, CBE (June 5, 1907, Berlin – September 19, 1995, Oxford) was a German-born British physicist. Rudolf Peierls had a major role in Britain's nuclear program, but he also had a role in many modern sciences. His obituary in Physics Today describes him as "a major player in the drama of the eruption of nuclear physics into world affairs...".
  The son of assimilated Jewish parents, he assisted Egon Orowan in understanding the force required to move a dislocation which would be expanded on by Frank Nabarro and called the Peierls–Nabarro force. In 1929, he studied solid-state physics in Zurich under the tutelage of Werner Heisenberg and Wolfgang Pauli. His early work on quantum physics led to the theory of positive carriers to explain the thermal and electrical conductivity behaviors of semiconductors. He was a pioneer of the concept of "holes" in semiconductors. He actually established "zones" before Léon Brillouin despite Léon's name being currently attached to the idea and applied it to phonons. Doing this, he discovered the Boltzmann equations for phonons and the Umklapp process. Physics Today states "His many papers on electrons in metals have now passed so deeply into the literature that it is hard to identify his contribution to conductivity in magnetic fields and to the concept of a hole in the theory of electrons in solids".
  
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• Sergio Ferrara
  Sergio Ferrara (born 1945) is an Italian physicist working on theoretical physics of elementary particles and mathematical physics. He is renowned for the discovery of theories introducing supersymmetry as a symmetry of elementary particles (Super-Yang-Mills theories, together with Bruno Zumino ) and of supergravity, the first significant extension of Einstein's general relativity, based on the principle of "local supersymmetry" (Together with Daniel Z. Freedman, and Peter van Nieuwenhuizen ). He is a senior staff member at CERN and a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles.
  Sergio Ferrara was born on 2 May 1945 in Rome, Italy. He graduated from the University of Rome in 1968. Since then he has worked as a CNEN and INFN researcher at the Frascati National Laboratories; as a CNRS Visiting Scientist at the Laboratoire de Physique Théorique, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, and at the Theoretical Studies Division at CERN, Geneva.
  In 1976, Sergio Ferrara, Daniel Z. Freedman, and Peter van Nieuwenhuizen discovered Supergravity at Stony Brook University in New York. It was initially proposed as a four-dimensional theory. The theory of supergravity generalizes Einstein's theory of general relativity by incorporating the principles of supersymmetry.
  
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  Sidney Coleman
  Sidney Richard Coleman (7 March 1937 – 18 November 2007) was an American theoretical physicist who studied under Murray Gell-Mann.
  Sidney Coleman grew up on the Far North Side of Chicago. In 1957, he received his undergraduate degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology.
  He received his PhD from Caltech in 1962, and moved to Harvard University that year, where he spent his entire career, meeting his wife Diana there in the late 1970s. They were married in 1982.
  "He was a giant in a peculiar sense, because he's not known to the general populace," Nobel laureate Sheldon Glashow told the Boston Globe. "He's not a Stephen Hawking; he has virtually no visibility outside. But within the community of theoretical physicists, he's kind of a major god. He is the physicist's physicist."
  In 1966, Antonino Zichichi recruited Coleman as a lecturer at the then-new summer school at International School for Subnuclear Physics in Erice, Sicily. A legendary figure at the school throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Coleman was awarded the title "Best Lecturer" on the occasion of the school's fifteenth anniversary (1979). His explanation of spontaneous symmetry breaking in terms of a little man living inside a ferromagnet has often been cited by later popularizers. The classic particle physics text Aspects of Symmetry (1985) is a collection of Coleman's lectures at Erice. A quote from his introduction to the book is worth sharing here:
  
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• Stanley Mandelstam
  Stanley Mandelstam (b. December 12, 1928, Johannesburg) is a South African-born theoretical physicist. He introduced the relativistically invariant Mandelstam variables into particle physics in 1958 as a convenient coordinate system for formulating his double dispersion relations. The double dispersion relations were a central tool in the bootstrap program which sought to formulate a consistent theory of infinitely many particle types of increasing spin.
  Mandelstam, along with Tullio Regge, was responsible for the Regge theory of strong interaction phenomenology. He reinterpreted the analytic growth rate of the scattering amplitude as a function of the cosine of the scattering angle as the power law for the falloff of scattering amplitudes at high energy. Along with the double dispersion relation, Regge theory allowed theorists to find sufficient analytic constraints on scattering amplitudes of bound states to formulate a theory in which there are infintely many particle types, none of which are fundamental.
  
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  Stephen Hawking
  Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author. His key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding gravitational singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein–Hawking radiation).
  He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009. Subsequently, he became research director at the university's Centre for Theoretical Cosmology.
  Hawking has a motor neurone disease related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that has progressed over the years. He is now almost completely paralysed and communicates through a speech generating device. He has been married twice and has three children. Hawking has achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.
  
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• Tullio Regge
  Tullio Regge (born July 11, 1931 in Turin) is an Italian theoretical physicist. He obtained a degree in physics from the University of Turin in 1952, and a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Rochester in 1957 under the direction of Robert Marshak. From 1958 to 1959 Regge held a post at the Max Planck Institute for Physics where he worked with Werner Heisenberg. In 1961 he was appointed to chair of Relativity at the University of Turin. He also held an appointment at the Institute for Advanced Study from 1965 to 1979. At present he is emeritus professor at the Polytechnic University of Turin.
  In 1957, Regge discovered a mathematical property of potential scattering in the Schrödinger equation—that the scattering amplitude can be thought of as an analytic function of the angular momentum, and that the position of the poles determine power-law growth rates of the amplitude in the purely mathematical region of large values of the cosine of the scattering angle. This formulation is known as Regge theory.
  
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• Volker Heine
  Volker Heine FRS (born 19 September 1930 in Hamburg, Germany) is a New Zealand-British physicist.
  He was educated at Wanganui Collegiate School and the University of Otago, then Clare College, Cambridge where he became a fellow and professor. He obtained his PhD in physics (1956) in Cambridge as student of Sir Nevill Mott.
  He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. He retired in 1997.
  
  
  
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  Yakov Zel'dovich
  Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich FRS (Belarusian: Якаў Барысавіч Зяльдовіч, Russian: Я́ков Бори́сович Зельдо́вич) (8 March 1914 – 2 December 1987) was a prolific Soviet physicist born in Belarus. He played an important role in the development of Soviet nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, and made important contributions to the fields of adsorption and catalysis, shock waves, nuclear physics, particle physics, astrophysics, physical cosmology, and general relativity.
  He was born Jewish in Minsk (now Belarus). Four months later his family moved to Saint Petersburg. They remained in that city (known as Leningrad from 1924–1991) until August 1941, when together with the institute where Zel'dovich worked, they were evacuated to Kazan to avoid the Axis Invasion of the Soviet Union. They remained in Kazan until the summer of 1943, when Zel'dovich moved to Moscow. In May 1931, at age seventeen, Zel'dovich became a laboratory assistant at the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He was associated with the Institute until the end of his life. In 1936 he defended his dissertation, which was on the adsorption and catalysis on heterogeneous surfaces, for his Candidate of Science (equal to PhD). The most important point of it was the research on the Freundlich (or classical) adsorption isotherm. Zel'dovich discovered the theoretical foundation of this empirical observation. In 1939 he received the degree of Doctor of Science (Physics and Mathematics), the doctor dissertation being on the oxidation of nitrogen. Zel'dovich discovered its mechanism, known in physical chemistry as Thermal NO Mechanism or Zel'dovich Mechanism.
  
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  Yoichiro Nambu
  Yoichiro Nambu (南部 陽一郎, Nambu Yōichirō^?, born January 18, 1921) is a Japanese-born American physicist, currently a professor at the University of Chicago. Known for his contributions to the field of theoretical physics, he was awarded a one-half share of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2008 for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics. The other half share was split equally between Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa "for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature."
  Nambu was born in Tokyo, Japan, in 1921. After graduating from the then Fukui Secondary High School in Fukui City, he enrolled in the Tokyo Imperial University and studied physics. He received his B.S. in 1942 and D.Sc. in 1952. In 1949 he was appointed to associate professor at the Osaka City University and promoted to professorship the next year at the age of 29.
  In 1952, he was invited by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, United States, to study. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1954 and was promoted to professor in 1958. From 1974 to 1977 he was also Chairman of the Department of Physics. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1970.
  
  wn.com/Yoichiro_Nambu
• Édouard Brézin
  Édouard Brézin (b. December 1, 1938 Paris) is a French theoretical physicist. He is professor at Université Paris 6, working at the laboratory for theoretical physics (LPT) of the École Normale Supérieure since 1986.
  Brézin studied at École polytechnique before doing a PhD. He worked at the theory division of the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique in Saclay until 1986.
  Brezin contributed to the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter and high energy physics. He was a leader in critical behavior theory and developed methods for distilling testable predictions for critical exponents. In using field theoretic techniques in the study of condensed matter, Brezin helped further modern theories of magnetism and the quantum Hall effect.
  Brézin was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences on February 18, 1991, and served as president of the academy in 2005-2006. He also is a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences (since 2003), a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (since 2002), a foreign member of the Royal Society (since 2006) and a member of the Academia Europaea (since 2003). He is a commander in the French National order of merit and an Officer in the Legion of Honor.
  
  wn.com/Édouard_Brézin

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