Caliphate of Córdoba خلافة قرطبة Khilāfat Qurṭuba (Arabic)
← 929–1031 →   →
Caliphate of Córdoba (green), c. 1000.
Capital	Córdoba
Language(s)	Classical Arabic, Berber, Mozarabic, Medieval Hebrew
Government	Monarchy
History
- Abd-ar-Rahman III proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba[1]	929
- Disintegrated into several independent taifa kingdoms	1031
Area
- 1000 est.	600,000 km2 (231,661 sq mi)
Today part of	Gibraltar (UK)  Morocco  Portugal  Spain

History of Al-Andalus 711–1492
711–732 Muslim conquest
Battles : Battle of Guadalete Battle of Toulouse | Battle of Tours
756–1031 Umayyads of Córdoba
Emirate of Córdoba Caliphate of Córdoba Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
1009–1106 First Taifa period
1085–1145 Almoravid rule
Almoravid conquest Battle of Sagrajas
1140-1203 Second Taifa period
1147–1238 Almohad rule
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1232–1287 Third Taifa period
1238–1492 Emirate of Granada
Nasrid dynasty Battle of Granada
connected articles
Map of Al-Andalus Reconquista

The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic: خلافة قرطبة‎; trans. Khilāfat Qurṭuba) ruled the Iberian peninsula (Al-Andalus) and part of North Africa, from the islamic Qurtuba (Córdoba) city, from 929 to 1031. This period was characterized by remarkable success in trade and culture; many of the masterpieces of Islamic Iberia were constructed in this period, including the famous Great Mosque of Córdoba. In January 929, Abd-ar-Rahman III proclaimed himself Caliph (Arabic: خليفة) of Qurtuba^[2] in place of his original title Emir of Córdoba (Arabic: أمير قرطبة 'Amīr Qurṭuba). Abd-ar-Rahman III was a member of the Umayyad dynasty; the same dynasty who held the titles of Emir of Córdoba since 756. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula. The Caliphate was practically disintegrated due to civil war (fitna) between descendants of the last legitimate Caliph Hisham II and the successors of his prime minister (hayib) Al-Mansur. The shell of the Caliphate existed until 1031 when, after years of infighting, it fractured into a number of independent Taifa kingdoms.^[3] Despite these fractures, the Islamic civilisation in Iberia, one of the most culturally florid periods of European civilisation, continued until 1492 when its last bastion, the Alhambra in Granada, was formally surrendered to the Christians.

The Umayyad Dynasty[link]

Rise[link]

Abd-ar-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756; fleeing for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of Caliph held in Damascus in 750. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate.^[4] In 806, however, occurred the first of a series of incursions to Corsica.

Rulers of the Emirate were content to use the title emir or sultan until the 10th century, when Abd-ar-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimids, a rival Islamic empire based in Cairo. Partially to help in his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, Abd-ar-Rahman III claimed the title of Caliph himself.^[5] This move helped Abd-ar-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained even after the Fatimids were repulsed.^[6]

Prosperity[link]

The Caliphate enjoyed immense prosperity throughout the 10th century. Abd-ar-Rahman III not only united al-Andalus, but brought the Christian kingdoms of the north, through force and diplomacy, under control. Abd-ar-Rahman stopped the Fatimid advance into Caliphate lands in Morocco and al-Andalus. This period of prosperity is marked by growing diplomatic relations with Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kings from the north, with France and Germany, and Constantinople.^[7] The death of Abd-ar-Rahman III led to the rise of his 46 year old son Al-Hakam II in 961. Al-Hakam II more-or-less followed in his father's footsteps, occasionally dealing with a few disruptive Christian kings and North African rebels, though trying not to be too severe. Unlike his father, al-Hakam's dependence upon his advisers was more distinct.^[8]

Fall[link]

The death of al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of the Caliphate of Córdoba. Before his death, al-Hakam named his 10 year old son Hisham II (976–1008) as successor. Seeing that the child was in no way competent to be Caliph, yet having sworn an oath of obedience to him, Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (the top adviser to Hisham's father, also known as Almanzor) pronounced him Caliph. Ibn Abi Aamir acted as guardian to the young Hisham, exercising the Caliph's powers until he was of age. While doing so however, he isolated Hisham in Córdoba while systematically eradicating opposition to his own rule.^[9] He allowed Berbers from Africa to immigrate steadily to al-Andalus in order to build up his base of support. He, and eventually after his death in 1008, his son Abd al-Malik (al-Muzaffar), and later his brother (Abd al-Rahman) retained the powers nominally held by Caliph Hisham. However, on a raid in the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba, and Abd al-Rahman never returned.^[10][11]

The decision to name Hisham II Caliph shifted power from the individual to the advisers. The title Caliph became only a symbol; it no longer held power and influence. The Caliphate would be rocked with violence, with different revolutionaries claiming to be the new Caliph. The last Córdoban Caliph was Hisham III (1027–1031). With different factions competing, the Caliphate finally crumbled in 1031 into independent taifa kingdoms.

Life Within the Caliphate[link]

Culture[link]

The interior of the Mezquita (Mosque), one of the finest examples of Ummayad Islamic architecture in Spain.

Córdoba was the cultural centre of al-Andalus.^[12] Mosques, such as The Great Mosque, were the focal point of many Caliphs' attentions. Also found in Córdoba is the Caliph's large palace found on the outskirts of the city. This palace had many rooms filled with riches and prizes from the East. Córdoba was the intellectual centre of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek texts to Arabic, Latin and Hebrew. The 10th-century library of Al-Ḥakam II was one of the largest libraries in the world, housing at least 400,000 volumes. Throughout the period of al-Andalus civlisation, Jews and Arabs lived in harmony: Jewish stonemasons have left their marks incised into many columns of the great Mosque at Córdoba. It was not until the fall of al-Andalus in 1492 that the incoming Christians banished the Jews from Spain.

Appreciable advances in science, history, geography, philosophy and grammar occurred during the Caliphate.^[13] Al-Andalus became susceptible to eastern cultural influences as well. Ziryab is credited on bringing hair and clothing styles to the Iberian peninsula (as well as toothpaste and deodorant).

Economy[link]

The economy of the Caliphate was very diverse and successful, primarily consisting of trade and plundering. Muslim trade routes connected al-Andalus with the rest of the Mediterranean and beyond. There were many areas of industry that were revitalized during the Caliphate: textiles, ceramics, glassware, metalwork, and agriculture all benefiting the state. The Arabs introduced new crops, such as rice, watermelon, banana, eggplant and hard wheat. They used better irrigation systems with the help of water wheels.

Society[link]

The exterior of the Mezquita.

The Caliphate of Cordoba had an ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse society. The society was composed of Muslims who were ethnically either of Arabic or Berber descent with some native converts, Christians, and a Jewish minority which represented about 5% of the population. The ethnically Arab were at the top of the social hierarchy; Muslims in general had a higher social standing. Although Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis, having to pay a specific tax levied on all non-muslims or jizya, they still enjoyed the possibility of social mobility. Conversion to Islam translated into a higher rate of social mobility for Christians and Jews alike. There is little documentation available to indicate the conversion rates of Jews in Al-Andalus, although the numbers of Jewish converts have been estimated as relatively small. This is perhaps due to the tightly-knit Jewish communities that had formed before the Muslim invasion. Christians on the other hand were more eager to convert to Islam. Many wished to secure higher rainking government positions; while others took such liking to Islamic teaching and culture that they felt compelled to convert^{[citation needed]}. Half of the Christians in Al-Andalus are reported to have converted to Islam by the 10th century, with more than 80% by the 11th century. Even Christians that did not accept Islam as their religion, became increasingly Arabized in terms of culture. These Christians became known as Mozarabs or musta’ribs, a word meaning ‘Arabized’, as they had adopted the Arabic language and customs.

List of rulers[link]

According to historians, the Emirs and Caliphes who made up the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus were all sons from concubine slaves, almost all of whom were Spanish and from the North of the Peninsula. The founder of this dynasty, Abd-ar-Rahman I, was the son of a Berber woman, and his son and Emir successor had a Spanish mother.^[14] Therefore, a genetic study concluded that the genome of Hisâm II, the tenth ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, "would have mostly originated from the Iberian Peninsula and would not be more than 0.1% of Arab descent, although the Y chromosome would still be of fully Arab origin".^[15]

Umayyad Emirs of Córdoba[link]

• Abd ar-Rahman I, 756–788
• Hisham I, 788–796
• al-Hakam I, 796–822
• Abd ar-Rahman II, 822–852
• Muhammad I, 852–886
• al-Mundhir, 886–888
• Abdallah ibn Muhammad, 888–912
• Abd ar-Rahman III, 912–929

Umayyad Caliphs of Córdoba[link]

• Abd ar-Rahman III, as caliph, 929–961
• Al-Hakam II, 961–976
• Hisham II, 976–1008
• Muhammad II, 1008–1009
• Sulayman II, 1009–1010
• Hisham II, restored, 1010–1012
• Sulayman II, restored, 1012–1016
• Abd ar-Rahman IV, 1017

The Umayyad dynasty was interrupted by the Hammudid dynasty:

• Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir, 1016–1018
• Al-Qasim ibn Hammud al-Ma'mu, 1018–1021
• Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali, 1021–1023
• Al-Qasim ibn Hammud al-Ma'mu, 1023 (restored)

The Umayyad dynasty returned to power:

• Abd-ar-Rahman V, 1023–1024
• Muhammad III, 1024–1025
• interreign of Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali, 1025–1026
• Hisham III, 1026–1031

See also[link]

• Caliphate
• History of Islam
• History of Gibraltar
• History of Algeria
• History of Portugal
• History of Morocco
• History of Spain
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• Septimania timeline

Notes and references[link]

• Richard Fletcher, Moorish Spain Hardcover: 208 pages

Publisher: Orion Publishing (November 15, 2001), English, ISBN 1-84212-605-9 ISBN 978-1-84212-605-9, another edition:(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, (1992), 189 pp,

Abbas Ibn Firnas (810–887 A.D.), also known as Abbas Abu Al-Qasim Ibn Firnas Ibn Wirdas al-Takurini and عباس بن فرناس (Arabic language), was a Muslim Andalusian polymath:^[1][2] an inventor, engineer, aviator, physician, Arabic poet, and Andalusian musician.^[2] Of Berber descent, he was born in Izn-Rand Onda, Al-Andalus (today's Ronda, Spain), and lived in the Emirate of Córdoba. He is known for an early attempt at aviation.^[3][4]

Work[link]

Ibn Firnas designed a water clock called Al-Maqata, devised a means of manufacturing colorless glass, invented various glass planispheres, made corrective lenses ("reading stones"), devised a chain of rings that could be used to simulate the motions of the planets and stars, and developed a process for cutting rock crystal that allowed Spain to cease exporting quartz to Egypt to be cut.^[3][4]

In his house, he built a room in which spectators witnessed stars, clouds, thunder, and lightning, which were produced by mechanisms located in his basement laboratory. He also devised "some sort of metronome."^[4]

Aviation[link]

He is also said to have made an attempt at flight using a set of wings. The only evidence for this is an account by the Moroccan historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (d. 1632), composed seven centuries later:^[5]

Al-Maqqari is said to have used in his history works "many early sources no longer extant", but in case of Firnas the only one cited by him was a 9th century poem written by Mu'min ibn Said, a court poet of Córdoba under Muhammad I (d. 886), who was acquainted with and usually critical of Ibn Firnas.^[4] The pertinent verse runs: "He flew faster than the phoenix in his flight when he dressed his body in the feathers of a vulture."^[5] No other surviving sources refer to the event.^[6]

It has been suggested that Ibn Firnas' attempt at glider flight might have inspired the attempt by Eilmer of Malmesbury between 1000 and 1010 in England but there is no evidence supporting this hypothesis.^[4]

The crater Ibn Firnas on the Moon is named in his honor.

Armen Firman[link]

Armen Firman may be the Latinized name of Abbas Ibn Firnas,^[7] or, alternatively, he may have been the man who inspired Ibn Firnas.^[3]

There is some contradiction in the modern record: According to some secondary sources, about 20 years before Ibn Firnas attempted to fly he may have witnessed Firman as he wrapped himself in a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts and jumped from a tower in Córdoba, intending to use the garment as wings on which he could glide. The alleged attempt at flight was unsuccessful, but the garment slowed his fall enough that he only sustained minor injuries.^[3]

However, there is no reference to Armen Firman in other secondary sources, all of which deal exhaustively with Ibn Firnas' flight attempt.^[4][8][9] Since this story was recorded only in a single primary source, al-Maqqari,^[4] and since Firman's jump is said to have been Ibn Firnas' source of inspiration,^[3] the lack of any mention of Firman in al-Maqqari's account may point to the conclusion that he never existed and that his tower jump was later confused with Ibn Firnas' gliding attempt in secondary writings.^[3]

See Also[link]

Aviation portal

	Book: Aviation
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• History of Aviation
• Evliya Çelebi

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• J. Vernet, Abbas Ibn Firnas. Dictionary of Scientific Biography (C.C. Gilespie, ed.) Vol. I, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970–1980. pg. 5.
• Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97–111 [100f.], doi:10.2307/3101411.
• Salim T.S. Al-Hassani (ed.), Elisabeth Woodcock (au.), and Rabah Saoud (au.). 2006. 1001 Inventions. Muslim Heritage in Our World. Manchester: Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation. See pages 308–313. (ISBN 978-0-9555035-0-4)