For other Anglo-Saxon women of the same name, see Æthelflæd (disambiguation)

Æthelflæd (Old English: Æðelflæd (869 / 870–918), was the eldest daughter of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and Ealhswith, wife of Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, and after his death, ruler of Mercia (911–918). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle styles her "Lady of the Mercians" (Myrcna hlæfdige).

Early career[link]

Æthelflæd is mentioned by King Alfred's biographer Asser, who calls her the first-born child of Alfred and Ealhswith and a sister to Edward, Æthelgifu, Ælfthryth and Æthelweard.^[1] By the time he wrote, roughly about the year 890, she was already married to Æthelred, then ealdorman of Mercia.^[1]

They had one daughter, Ælfwynn.

Mercia and the Vikings[link]

During a sustained campaign of repeated attack between 865 and 878 the Danish Vikings overran most of the English Kingdoms such as Northumbria, Eastern Mercia, East Anglia and even threatened the very existence of Wessex. Alfred and his descendants reconquered these lands from the Danes by 937.^[2] The aid given him in this by Mercia had to be acknowledged. Instead of making the dominion of Wessex over Mercia seem like a conquest, Alfred married Æthelflæd to Æthelred of Mercia and gave his son-in-law the title Ealdorman or Earl of Mercia, thus allowing some ongoing autonomy. Since much of Western Mercia was never under the control of the Danes, and remained strong, this was a prudent move. Further prudence prevailed when the kingdoms were finally absorbed; they were not absorbed into Wessex or greater Wessex but into England. The term Anglo-Saxon thus reflects King Alfred's diplomatic integration of the Mercians Angles and the Saxons.

Lady of the Mercians (911–918)[link]

While her husband was alive, she signed agreements, leading some to think that she was the real leader. On her husband's death in 911 after the Battle of Tettenhall, she was elevated to the status of "Lady of the Mercians". This title was not a nominal position; she was a formidable military leader and tactician. Æthelflæd ruled for approximately eight years (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).^[3]

The events of her reign are best recorded in the Abingdon version of the Chronicle. The earliest ones mainly consist of building burhs: 910: Bremesbyrig (unidentified). 912: Scergeat (unidentified) and Bridgnorth. 913: Tamworth, Stafford. 914: Eddisbury, Warwick. 915: Chirbury, Weardbyrig (unidentified), Runcorn.^[3]

Subsequently, she engaged in hostile expeditions: 916: into Wales, breaking down Brecenan Mere, perhaps at Llangorse Lake. 917: capture of the Danish stronghold of Derby. 918: capture of Leicester.^[3]

She allied herself to her brother Edward the Elder, whose son Æthelstan she fostered.^[4] Together, they steadily pushed the Danes back to the river Humber. In 918, the York-folk pledged their loyalty to her and she died less than two weeks before the city did its promised homage.^[5] Edward the Elder issued coinage with novel reverses of extraordinary designs, and it is speculated that this series of coinage was for circulation in that part of Mercia under the rule of Edward and his sister, with the design of the coinage perhaps showing the influence of Aethelflaed.

She died at Tamworth in 918, and was buried at St Peter's Church (now St Oswald's priory) in Gloucester,^[3] a city she had reconstructed from Roman ruins, and laid out the core street plan, which is still in existence today. She was succeeded as lady of the Mercians by her young daughter Ælfwynn.

Ælfwynn[link]

The dominion of Mercia descended to Ælfwynn, Æthelflæd's heiress. Chroniclers have noticed the right of Ælfwynn so precisely as to leave no doubt concerning her claim; and this fact is of considerable value in showing that, contrary to the practice of other Germanic peoples, the sovereign authority amongst the Anglo-Saxons might descend to a female; or, according to the Anglo-Saxon expression, which the French have adopted, "fall to the spindle side".

However, Ælfwynn was compelled to submit to her mother's brother, King Edward the Elder of Wessex. The succession of Edward the Elder finalised the union of the two formerly separate kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia and gives some insight into the emergence of a unified England.

In this instance, however, the weaker heir was compelled to yield to a more powerful opponent, and one from whom no enmity could have been feared. Ælfwynn was conducted as a captive into Wessex three weeks before Christmas 919, by her uncle Edward, who was engaged in successful warfare against the Danes; and we do not hear anything more concerning her in history. She seems to have lived the rest of her life in a nunnery.

Legacy[link]

Æthelflæd is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor.^[6][7] A statue dedicated to her stands outside Tamworth Castle.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

• Kings of Mercia family tree

Footnotes[link]

Primary sources[link]

• Asser, Vita Ælfredi, ed. W.H. Stevenson, Asser's Life of King Alfred. Oxford, 1904; tr. S.D. Keynes and M. Lapidge, Alfred the Great. Harmondsworth, 1983.
• Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (MSS A, B, C, D and E), ed. D. Dumville and S. Keynes, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition. Vols. 3–7. Cambridge, 1983.
• Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, ed. and tr. Joan N. Radner, Fragmentary annals of Ireland. Dublin, 1978.
• Anglo-Saxon charters: S 221(AD 901), S 223 (AD 884 x 901), S 224 (AD 901), S 225 (AD 878 for 915), S 367 (AD 903), S 1280 (AD 904).

Secondary sources[link]

• Sir Francis Palgrave. History of the Anglo-Saxons. 1876. Paperback edition on Senate. p. 164.
• Lacey, Robert (2007). Great Tales from English History. Abacus. 

Further reading[link]

• Costambeys, Marios. 2004. "Æthelflæd (d. 918)." In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
• Wainwright, F.T. 1975. "Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians." Scandinavian England. 305–24.
• Wainwright, F. T. (1959). "Æthelflæd Lady of the Mercians". In Peter Clemoes. The Anglo-Saxons: Studies presented to Bruce Dickens. London: Bowes and Bowes. 
• Szarmach, P.R. 1998. "Æðelflæd of Mercia, mise en page." In Words and works: studies in medieval English language and literature in honour of Fred C. Robinson, ed. P.S. Baker and N. Howe. 105–26.
• Keynes, Simon. 1998. "King Alfred and the Mercians." In Kings, currency and alliances: history and coinage of southern England in the ninth century, ed. M.A.S. Blackburn and D.N. Dumville. 1–46.
• Ian W. Walker. 2001. Mercia and the Making of England.
• Sir Frank Stenton. Anglo-Saxon England (2001)
• Justin Pollard. Alfred the Great: the Man Who Made England (2005)
• Don Stansbury. The Lady Who Fought Vikings (1993)
• Jane Wolfe. Aethelflaed: Royal Lady, War Lady (2001)
• C. Heighway and R. Bryant. The Golden Minster (1999)

Popular culture[link]

• Haley Elizabeth Garwood, Swords across the Thames, Bruceton Mills, 1999. ISBN 978-0-9659721-8-5
• Penny Ingham, 'The King's Daughter' published by Cava Books, 2010. ISBN 97809555997. A novel about Aethelflaed, previously published as "Lady of the Mercians.
• Rebecca Tingle, Far Traveler, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-399-23890-5: A semi-fictional account of the life of Aelfwynn
• Bernard Cornwell's The Saxon Stories series of books features her, most prominently in Sword Song (2007 ISBN 978-0-00-721971-1) and The Burning Land (2009 ISBN 978-0-00-721975-9).
• Rebecca Tingle'sThe Edge on the Sword is a story about the teenage Æthelflæd.
• Chris Kirwan, Chris Kirwan's novel Shadowers Crossing (2008 ISBN 978-0-9558709-0-3) features Ethelfleda's final, successful fortification at Castle Rock, Runcorn, in AD 915.

v t e Monarchs of Mercia Kingdom of Mercia 527–918 Icel Cnebba Cynewald Creoda Pybba Cearl Penda Eowa Peada Oswiu of Northumbria Wulfhere Æthelred I Coenred Ceolred Ceolwald Æthelbald Beornred Offa1 Ecgfrith Coenwulf1 Cynehelm Ceolwulf I1 Beornwulf2 Ludeca Wiglaf Ecgberht of Wessex Wigmund Wigstan Ælfflæd Beorhtwulf Burgred Ceolwulf II Æthelred II3 Æthelflæd3 Ælfwynn3 Later monarchs Æthelstan4 Eadgar4 1Also King of Kent and East Anglia 2Also King of East Anglia 3Recognising West Saxon overlordship 4Titular King of Mercia following the creation of the Kingdom of England

External links[link]

 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Æthelflaed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Coordinates: 50°59′20″N 1°29′48″W / 50.989°N 1.4966°W / 50.989; -1.4966

Romsey
Romsey  Romsey shown within Hampshire
District	Test Valley
Shire county	Hampshire
Region	South East
Country	England
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Post town	ROMSEY
Postcode district	SO51
Dialling code	01794
Police	Hampshire
Fire	Hampshire
Ambulance	South Central
EU Parliament	South East England
UK Parliament	Romsey and Southampton North
Website	Romsey Town Council
List of places: UK • England • Hampshire

Romsey (occasionally pronounced "Rumsey"^[1]) is a small market town in the county of Hampshire, England.

It is 8 miles (13 km) northwest of Southampton and 11 miles (18 km) southwest of Winchester, neighbouring the village of North Baddesley. Just under 15,000 people live in Romsey, which has an area of about 4.93 square kilometres.^[2]

Romsey lies on the River Test, which is famous for fly fishing, predominantly trout.^[3] It is one of the principal towns in the Test Valley Borough. A large Norman abbey dominates the centre of the town.

Romsey was home of the 20th-century soldier and statesman Lord Mountbatten of Burma, the 19th-century British prime minister Lord Palmerston, and the 17th-century philosopher and economist William Petty.

Romsey is twinned with Paimpol in Brittany, France, and Battenberg, Germany.^[4]

History[link]

Romsey town centre

Middle Ages to the Civil War[link]

The name Romsey is believed to have originated from the term Rūm's Eg, meaning "Rūm's area surrounded by marsh". Rūm is probably an abbreviated form of a personal name, like Rūmwald (glorious leader).

What was to become Romsey Abbey was founded in 907. Nuns, led by Elflaeda daughter of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, founded a community — at his direction — in what was then a small village. Later, King Edgar refounded the nunnery, about 960, as a Benedictine house under the rule of St. Ethelflaeda whose devotional acts included chanting psalms while standing naked in the cold water of the River Test.

The village swelled alongside the religious community. The Vikings sacked Romsey in 993, burning down the church. But the village recovered, and the abbey was rebuilt in stone in about 1000. The religious community flourished as a seat of learning, especially for the children of the nobility. A market was established outside the abbey gates.

The Normans built the large current abbey that dominates the town (between c. 1120 and 1140) on the site of the original Saxon church. By 1240, 100 nuns lived in the convent.

King Henry I granted Romsey its first charter. This allowed a market to be held every Sunday, and a four-day annual fair in May. In the 13th century, Henry III permitted an additional fair in October.

The lucrative woollen industry appears to have powered Romsey's growth during the Middle Ages. Wool was woven and then fulled or pounded with wooden hammers whilst being washed. It was dyed, and then exported from nearby Southampton.

Romsey continued to grow and prosper until plague struck the town in 1348-9. The Black Death is thought to have killed up to half of the Romsey's population of 1000. The number of nuns fell as low as 19. Prosperity never returned to the abbey. It was finally suppressed by Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539. Many religious buildings were destroyed during this time.

But the abbey was saved from demolition because part of it was a parish church for the people of Romsey. The town purchased the abbey from the Crown for £100 in 1544. Ironically, the part of the abbey that had saved the abbey, the church of St Lawrence, was then demolished.

By the mid-16th century Romsey's population was about 1,500; its woollen and tanning industries fuelled growth. On 6 April 1607 King James I granted the town a charter making it a borough. This gave official status to an informal local government that had been running the affairs of the town since the Dissolution of Romsey Abbey in 1539. Romsey could now have a corporation comprising a mayor, six aldermen and twelve chief burgesses, with a town clerk for 'office work'. Furthermore, there was to be a local law court under a Court Recorder, assisted by two sergeants-at-mace. Over all, was the prestigious position of High Steward, the first of whom was the Earl of Southampton. (Lord Brabourne, grandson of Lord Mountbatten of Burma, is the current High Steward.)

Romsey changed hands several times during the English Civil War. Both Royalist and Parliamentary or Roundhead troops occupied and plundered the town. Royalists remained in control of the borough until January 1645.

18th to 20th centuries[link]

The town's woollen industry survived until the middle of the 18th century, but was beaten by competition from the north of England. However, new fast-growing enterprises soon filled the gap with brewing, papermaking and sackmaking, all reliant upon the abundant waters of the Test.

By 1794 a canal connected Romsey to Redbridge — at the mouth of the River Test — and Andover to the north but within 50 years had largely fallen into disuse. Industry continued to grow. Romsey was a reasonably large town for the early 19th century: its population was 4,274 in the first census of 1801, compared with just 8,000 for Southampton.

Despite the arrival of the railway in 1847 (the trackbed being substantially supplied by the now redundant canal) the expansion slowed and whilst its population had grown to 5,654 in 1851 it then stagnated and by the time of the census half a century later (1901) the population was just 5,597.

Lord Palmerston, the 19th-century British Prime Minister, was born and lived at Broadlands, a large country estate on the outskirts of the town. His statue stands in the Market Place outside the Town Hall.

The Willis Fleming family of North Stoneham Park were major landowners at Romsey from the 17th until early 20th centuries, and were lords of the manors of Romsey Infra and Romsey Extra.^[5]

Romsey was famous for making collapsible boats during the 19th and early 20th centuries, invented by the Rev. Edward Lyon Berthon in 1851. The Berthon Boatyard in Romsey made the boats from 1870 until 1917. They were used as lifeboats on ocean-going liners.

Broadlands later became the home of Lord Mountbatten of Burma, known locally as "Lord Louis". He was buried in Romsey Abbey after being killed in an IRA bomb explosion in Ireland on 27 August 1979. In 1947, Mountbatten was given his earldom and the lesser title "Baron Romsey, of Romsey in the County of Southampton".

After Lord Mountbatten of Burma died, his titles passed to his elder daughter, Lady Brabourne, who thus became Lady Mountbatten of Burma. Her eldest son was styled by the courtesy title "Lord Romsey" until he inherited the title of Lord Brabourne in 2005.^[6]

The Prince and Princess of Wales spent the first night of their honeymoon at Broadlands.

Embley Park, a country estate located on the outskirts of Romsey was the home of Florence Nightingale, most famous for her pioneering work as a nurse and sanitary reform during the Crimean war and for laying the foundation of modern nursing. Florence is said to have had her calling from God whilst being sat under a giant cedar tree in the grounds of Embley Park on 7 February 1837. The site is now home to a private school, reminders of Florence's formative years are all around the house and estate.^[7]

Nightingale is buried in the family vault at St. Margaret Church in East Wellow, located on the outskirts of Romsey. Her coffin was taken by train from London to Romsey Station where a horse drawn carrage completed the journey to the church for a simple funeral at the request of Florence.^[8]

During 2007 Romsey celebrated the 400th Anniversary of the granting of its Charter by King James I with a programme of events from March through September, including a visit on 8 June from the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.^[9] Subsequently. the cost of the visit has created some local political controversy.^[10]

Present[link]

Romsey today appears to be in sound economic health. Whilst there is significant commuting out of the town for work - particularly to Southampton and Winchester, and also, to some extent, London - it could not be described as a dormitory town.

Whilst heavy industry in the town has long since declined, three industrial and trading estates focus mainly on service industries and small-scale manufacturing. Three major scientific and high technology employers — Roke Manor Research, Southampton Science Park and IBM — have large establishments in the nearby countryside.

The recently renovated town centre contains a Waitrose supermarket, a small department store, and over 100 other retail outlets of various kinds, including both high street chains and local independent shops.

There is concern about the decline of local independent shops due to the high business rates, and threat from large supermarkets, which may be increased as Tesco unveiled plans in January 2012 to build an out of town supermarket on six acres of leased land on the Broadlands Estate.^[11]

Mills and milling[link]

Watermills have played an important part in Romsey's history as an industrial town. The Domesday Book of 1086 provides the earliest record of watermills in Romsey, which identifies three (possibly four) mills.

Sadler's Mill is probably the best known of Romsey's surviving mills and is apparently the only mill to be developed on the main course of the River Test. The existence of Sadler's Mill is first recorded in the 16th century, when it was owned by the manor of Great and Little Spursholt. Functioning as a corn and grist mill, it has passed through a succession of owners including Lord Palmerston who rebuilt it in 1747 and sold it in 1777 to one Benjamin Dawkins. Following another succession of owners it returned to the Broadlands estate in 1889. Milling ceased in 1932, when the mill building became redundant. The Broadlands estate sold the building in 2003, at which point it was close to collapse having been derelict for many years. The new owners, Anthony and Sarah de Sigley, restored the building in 2005, rebuilding much of the original structure. During the restoration evidence of an earlier structure was found; carbon 14 dating established the age of this to be circa 1650.

Governance[link]

Romsey has its own parliamentary constituency. Its current MP is Caroline Nokes of the Conservative Party. Elected in the general election on 6 May 2010, she ousted the Liberal Democrat MP Sandra Gidley with a 4.5% swing to Conservative from Liberal Democrat and a majority of 4,156 votes. Gidley had held the seat since a by-election in 2000.^[12]

Notable buildings[link]

Romsey Abbey[link]

Romsey Abbey is a Norman abbey, originally built as a Benedictine foundation, housing a community of Benedictine nuns. The abbey is open daily to visitors as well as being the Anglican Parish church of Romsey.

King John's House[link]

King John's House

King John's House & Tudor Cottage was allegedly a hunting lodge used by King John of England whilst hunting in the New Forest. However, the existing building dates from much later. It does contain a number of extremely unusual and exciting historical features, including medieval wall decorations and graffiti, as well as a floor made of animal bones.

Selected places of interest[link]

• Broadlands - Stately home
• Sir Harold Hillier Gardens - Gardens and arboretum
• Mottisfont Abbey - National Trust property with nationally renowned rose collection
• Paultons Park - Children's theme park
• Romsey Rapids - Leisure pool and gym

Events[link]

The Mayor's Picnic takes place in early-mid summer and is held in Romsey's Memorial Park. There is music performed by local schools, a variety of stalls, and the popular Duck Race, in which numbered plastic ducks 'race' each other along the river Test, to be scrupulously retrieved before awarding a prize to whoever chose the winning duck.

The Beggars Fair is held in the streets and pubs of Romsey on the second Saturday in July. It is a free festival featuring all types of music, together with dance and other street entertainment.

Romsey Carnival takes place during a week in July with the highlight being the procession through the streets of Romsey on the final Sunday afternoon.

The Romsey Show is a large agricultural show that takes place every September at Broadlands. In addition, Broadlands has twice hosted the CLA Game Fair, the largest agricultural show in the world, most recently in July 2006.

The Winter Carnival takes places each year when Romsey's Christmas lights are switched on.

The Romsey Arts Festival occurs every 3 years, showcasing talent from local area.

Romsey Charter Celebrations 1607-2007 Programme of Events ran from 21 March to 30 September 2007.

Notable people[link]

• Reverend W. Awdry - clergyman, railway enthusiast and author of The Railway Series of books in which the character Thomas the Tank Engine originated
• Robert Brydges - Quiz-show contestant who became the third winner of the TV game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
• Charles Butler ^[13] - author of children's books
• Martin Butler - composer
• Laura Carmichael - actress, Downton Abbey
• Charlie Cochrane - novelist
• Andy Cook - footballer
• Harry Dennis - footballer
• Charlie Dimmock - TV gardening expert and presenter, brought up in Romsey^[14]
• David Gower - retired cricketer and television personality
• Anthony Hayward - journalist and author
• Ben Mansfield - actor
• William Petty ^[15] - economist, scientist, and philosopher
• David Scanlan - Paranormal Investigator & Author ^[16]
• The Sharp family Richard Sharp (politician)
• Tim Sills - footballer
• Nigel Spackman - footballer
• Subgiant - trance-based band
• Kerrie Taylor - actress

Education[link]

State[link]

Primary:

• Braishfield School
• Cupernham Infant School
• Cupernham Junior School
• Halterworth Primary School
• Romsey Primary School
• Romsey Abbey C of E Primary School

Secondary:

• The Mountbatten Academy a Sports and Language College
• The Romsey School

Independent[link]

Primary:

• Stroud School
• Hampshire Collegiate Junior School

Secondary:

• Hampshire Collegiate Senior School
• Stanbridge Earls

Transport[link]

Romsey is within 10 miles (16 km) of both the M27 and M3 motorways, providing fast links along the south coast and to London, and to the Midlands and the North via the A34. The A36 runs a few miles west of the town, providing a direct but not particularly quick route to the West of England and South Wales. There are cycle links to Southampton.

Romsey has a railway station with frequent services (operated by First Great Western) running on the route between Portsmouth and Cardiff, via Southampton, Salisbury and Bristol.

In 2004, an hourly South West Trains local service was introduced, running to Chandler's Ford and Eastleigh and then down to Southampton and Totton. The noise from these new services attracted many complaints from local residents, who demanded their withdrawal, and there were also suggestions that some of the journeys regularly carried no passengers. However, its future is assured under the new South West Trains franchise, which saw the service altered from December 2007 to run from Romsey to Southampton via Eastleigh as currently, then back to Romsey via Millbrook and Redbridge and on to Salisbury. The result is more train services for Romsey than at any other time in its history, with particular improvements for passengers travelling to Southampton or Salisbury.

A dedicated shuttle bus used to link Romsey with fast London trains at Winchester. The ticket bought from the bus driver in Romsey covered the entire journey from Romsey Bus Station to London Waterloo with a combined journey time of 90 minutes, making the service popular with commuters. This service was discontinued in 2009 despite a vigorous campaign to save the service.^[17]

Other bus services are provided by Wilts & Dorset within the town and to Salisbury, BlueStar to Southampton and Eastleigh and Stagecoach within the town and to Winchester.

For more details on bus routes in Romsey see List of bus routes in Eastleigh & Romsey.

Sport and leisure[link]

The Wessex League football club Romsey Town FC play at The Bypass Ground,South Front.

Romsey Rugby Football Club is based at Romsey Sports Centre. It fields teams of all ages each weekend of the playing season.

The town contains a swimming pool, the Romsey Rapids.

Miscellaneous[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The body of King William II "Rufus" was carried through Bell Street in Romsey on its way to Winchester, after he had been killed whilst hunting in the New Forest.

The town's memorial park contains a Japanese World War II artillery gun, one of a pair captured by the British and brought back to Romsey by Lord Mountbatten of Burma. One was donated to the town by Lord Mountbatten, and the other was retained in the grounds of his country estate, Broadlands.

Published every Friday, The Romsey Advertiser is the town's newspaper printed at Redbridge, Southampton.

The local amateur dramatics group, Romsey Amateur Operatic and Dramatic Society (RAODS) is highly unusual in owning its own fully equipped 230-seat theatre, The Plaza, in which it stages about ten productions each year. The Plaza, previously a cinema in the 1930s and then a bingo hall until the 1980s, is also hired out for other local productions, concerts, and functions.

In the 1980 and 1990s, Romsey was used as the location of 'Kingsmarkham' in the television series The Ruth Rendell Mysteries. Filmed by TVS and later by Meridian TV, numerous Romsey locations appear throughout the series concerning Inspector Wexford played by George Baker. For example, the location used for the fictional police station was in fact the former Romsey Magistrates Court in Church Street.

In the "New Year's" episode of the BBC comedy Absolutely Fabulous (1995), Patsy Stone and Edina Monsoon are discussing a New Year's Eve Party to which they have been invited and is so posh and exclusive that its whereabouts are unknown to all but the rich and famous. Patsy finally reveals it to be located in "an underground car park in Romsey." There is no underground car park in Romsey.

Romsey Abbey and Celtic cross

Romsey is well known as one of the most haunted locations in Hampshire, with most sightings occurring in Romsey Abbey. The most famous of these hauntings is that of the former Swan Inn (now the Conservative Club) in the Town Square, said to be haunted by two Roundhead soldiers. The soldiers were hanged from the iron sign bracket but one managed to cut himself loose and run into an alleyway, where he eventually died. There have been many sightings of the hanging and the man cutting himself down before racing to his death in the alley.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Romsey

• Transition Town Romsey Romsey is now an official Transition Towns
• Hampshire County Council page on the town
• RomseySchools.net Information on all schools in Romsey

v t e Towns, villages and hamlets in the Test Valley District of Hampshire, England Abbotswood · Abbotts Ann · Abbotts Ann Down · Ampfield · Amport · Andover · Andover Down · Anna Valley · Appleshaw · Ashfield · Awbridge · Barton Stacey · Bossington · Braishfield · Broughton · Charlton · Chattis Hill · Chilbolton · Chilbolton Down · Clanville · Crampmoor · Dunbridge · East Anton · Embley · East Cholderton · East Dean · East Tytherley · Faberstown · Faccombe · Finkley · Finkley Down · Forton · Fox Amport · Foxcotte · Fullerton · Fyfield · Goodworth Clatford · Gore End · Grateley · Hatherden · Hillyfields · Houghton · Houghton Down · Hurstbourne Tarrant · Kimbridge · Kimpton · King's Somborne · Knights Enham · Leckford · Lickenholt · Little Down · Little Hatherden · Little Somborne · Lockerley · Longparish · Longstock · Longstock Park · Marsh Court · Michelmersh · Middle Wallop · Monxton · Mottisfont · Nether Wallop · Newton Stacey · North Baddesley · North Houghton · Nursling · Over Wallop · Penton Corner · Penton Grafton · Picket Piece · Picket Twenty · Pill Heath · Plaitford · Quarley · Ragged Appleshaw · Ramridge Park · Red Post Bridge · Red Rice · Redenham · Romsey · Sherfield English · Shipton Bellinger · Shootash · Smannell · South Harewood · Stockbridge · Tangley · Thruxton · Up Somborne · Upper Clatford · Upper Enham · Vernhams Dean · Vernham Street · Wellow · West Tytherley · Wherwell · Wherwell Wood · Wildhern

A reconstruction of the helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging to Raedwald of East Anglia, who died around 624. Based on a Roman parade-helmet design, it has decorations similar to those found in contemporary Swedish helmets found at Old Uppsala.

The term Anglo-Saxon is used by some historians to designate the Germanic tribes who invaded and settled the south and east of Britain beginning in the early 5th century and the period from their creation of the English nation up to the Norman conquest. The Anglo-Saxon era denotes the period of English history between about 550 and 1066.^[1][2] The term is also used for the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England (and part of southeastern Scotland) between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century.^[3]

The Benedictine monk Bede, writing in the early 8th century, identified the English as the descendants of three Germanic tribes:^[4]

• the Angles, who may have come from Angeln (in modern Germany): Bede wrote that their whole nation came to Britain,^[5] leaving their former land empty. The name England (Old English: Engla land or Ængla land) originates from this tribe;^[6]
• the Saxons, from Lower Saxony (in modern Germany; German: Niedersachsen) and the Low Countries;
• the Jutes, possibly from the Jutland peninsula (in modern Denmark; Danish: Jylland).

Their language, Old English, which derived from Ingvaeonic West Germanic dialects, transformed into Middle English from the 11th century. Old English was divided into four main dialects: West Saxon, Mercian, Northumbrian and Kentish.

Etymology[link]

The term Anglo-Saxon can be found in documents produced in the time of Alfred the Great, who seems to have frequently used the titles rex Anglorum Saxonum and rex Angul-Saxonum (king of the English Saxons).^[7] The Old English terms ænglisc ('Angle-kin') and Angelcynn ('gens Anglorum') had already lost their original sense of referring to the Angles, as distinct from the Saxons, when they are first attested. In their earliest sense they referred to the nation of Germanic peoples who settled eastern Britain from the 5th century.^{[citation needed]} The indigenous Britons, who wrote in both Latin and Welsh, referred to these invaders as 'Saxones' or 'Saeson' – the word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for 'English people';^[8] the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach.

The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in continental writing nearly a century before Alfred's time, by Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, probably to distinguish the English Saxons from the continental Saxons (Ealdseaxe, literally, 'old Saxons').^{[citation needed]}

The Angles (Old English: Engle, Angle), took their name from their ancestral home in Jutland, Angul (modern Angeln), which has an area in the shape of a hook (Old English: angel, angul "fishhook", anga "hook").

History[link]

Anglo-Saxons, 500-1000 CE

The history of Anglo-Saxon England broadly covers early medieval England, from the end of Roman rule and the establishment of numerous Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th century until the Norman conquest of England by the Normans in 1066.

Origins (400–600)[link]

The migration of Germanic peoples to Britain from what is now northern Germany, the northern part of the Netherlands and southern Scandinavia is attested from the 5th century (e.g. Undley bracteate). Based on Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, the intruding population is traditionally divided into Angles, Saxons and Jutes, but their composition was likely less clear-cut and may also have included peoples such as the Frisii and the Franks. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle may contain the first recorded indications of the movement of these Germanic tribes to Britain.

Heptarchy (600–800)[link]

Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxons began in 597 and was at least nominally completed in 686. Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria.

Aethelbert and some of the later kings of the other kingdoms were recognised by their fellow kings as Bretwalda (ruler of Britain). The so-called 'Mercian Supremacy' dominated the 8th century, though again it was not constant. Aethelbald and Offa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status. This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use.

The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that theories of the 'heptarchy' are not grounded in evidence, and it is far more likely that power fluctuated between many more 'kingdoms'. Other politically important 'kingdoms' across this period include: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Kingdom of Lindsey and Middle Anglia.

Viking Age and the Norman Conquest (800–1066)[link]

In the 9th century, the Viking challenge grew to serious proportions. Alfred the Great's victory at Edington, Wiltshire, in 878 brought intermittent peace, but with their possession of Jorvik, the Danes gained a solid foothold in England.

Some of the earliest arrivals of invaders came in the form of small groups or companies of Danish heritage. It is widely believed they left their homelands for more religious freedom as they did not like Christianity being forced upon them. There was no prior indication for them being there before their arrival and thus little resistance if any at all from locals. They attacked various locations in England, and they were seemingly sporadic. For example these raiders attacked three different locations; Hampshire, Thanet, and Cheshire around 980, but no raids were recorded afterwards for another six years. The most notable event to come from these raids however was, that it was the first time that England came into contact with any form of diplomacy from Normandy.^[9]

They became hostile towards one another by summer in the year 990. Their feud became so great that Pope John XV had to send an envoy with a treaty in order to settle their quarrel. It was a Christmas Day in the year 990 the commission was presented to King Etherlred, and soon the council drew up a set of terms which were sent to the Duke of Normandy. The doctrine stated that neither shall befriend the others enemies, and that they should accept a reparation from any damage which either could sustain from the other nation.^[10]

An important development in the 9th century was the rise of the Kingdom of Wessex; by the end of his reign Alfred was recognised as overlord by several southern kingdoms. Æthelstan was the first king to achieve direct rule over what is considered "England".

Near the end of the 10th century, there was renewed Scandinavian interest in England, with the conquests of Sweyn of Denmark and his son Cnut the Great. By 1066 there were three lords with claims to the English throne, resulting in two invasions and the battles of Stamford Bridge and Hastings. The latter, which heralded the Norman conquest of England, resulted in the overthrow of the Anglo-Saxon polity and its replacement with Norman rule.

After the Norman Conquest[link]

Following the conquest, the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or joined the ranks of the peasantry.^[11] It has been estimated that only about 8 per cent of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087.^[12] Many Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia.^[13][14] The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries.^[15] The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century.^[16] However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.^[17]

Culture[link]

Architecture[link]

Reconstruction of the Anglo-Saxon royal palace at Cheddar around 1000 AD

Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers or sited to serve as ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.^[18]

There are few remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture, with but one secular work remaining above ground – a 10m. x 5m. houscarl's dwelling re-using local Roman materials.^[where?] This is still completely standing as an undivided single room with a single central north-facing door, belonging to the Godwin estates, so can be dated 1018–1066. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, with many more claimed to be, in part from their dedication to local Anglo-Saxon saints, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered. All surviving churches, except one timber church, are built of stone or brick and in some cases show evidence of re-used Roman work.

The character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings ranges from Celtic influenced architecture in the early period; basilica influenced Romanesque architecture; to in the later Anglo-Saxon period, an architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings.

Art[link]

Anglo-Saxon jewellery.

The Pentney hoard.

Anglo-Saxon art before roughly the time of Alfred (ruled 871–899) mostly in varieties of the Hiberno-Saxon or Insular style, a fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and motifs. The Sutton Hoo treasure is an exceptional survival of very early Anglo-Saxon metalwork and jewellery, from a royal grave of the early 7th century. The period between Alfred and the Norman Conquest, with the revival of the English economy and culture after the end of the Viking raids, saw a distinct Anglo-Saxon style in art, though one in touch with trends on the Continent.

Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts, including the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold (British Library) and Leofric Missal (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodl, 579), masterpieces of the late "Winchester style", which drew on Hiberno-Saxon art, Carolingian art and Byzantine art for style and iconography, and combined both northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions. The Harley Psalter was a copy of the Carolingian Utrecht Psalter — which was a particular influence in creating an Anglo-Saxon style of very lively pen drawings.

Manuscripts were far from the only Anglo-Saxon art form, but they have survived in much greater numbers than other types of object. Contemporaries in Europe regarded Anglo-Saxon goldsmithing and embroidery (Opus Anglicanum) as especially fine. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. The most common example of Anglo-Saxon art is coins, with thousands of examples extant. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork (see Fuller brooch for example) and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.

Language[link]

Old English, sometimes called Anglo-Saxon, was the language spoken under Alfred the Great and continued to be the common language of England (non-Danelaw) until after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when, under the influence of the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the Norman ruling class, it changed into Middle English roughly between 1150–1500.

Old English is far closer to early Germanic than Middle English. It is less Latinised and retains many morphological features (nominal and verbal inflection) that were lost during the 12th to 14th centuries. The languages today which are closest to Old English are the Frisian languages, which are spoken by a few hundred thousand people in the northern part of Germany and the Netherlands.

Before literacy in the vernacular Old English or Latin became widespread, a runic alphabet, the futhorc, was used for inscriptions. When literacy became more prevalent, a form of Latin script was used with a couple of letters derived from the futhorc: 'thorn' ‹þ› and 'wynn' ‹ƿ› (generally replaced with ‹w› in modern reproductions).

The letters regularly used in printed and edited texts of Old English are the following:

• a æ b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y

with only rare occurrences of j, k, q, v, and z.

Law[link]

Very few law codes exist from the Anglo-Saxon period to provide an insight into legal culture beyond the influence of Roman law and how this legal culture developed over the course of time. The Saxons chopped off hands and noses for punishment (if the offender stole something or committed another crime). If someone killed a Saxon, he had to pay money called wergild, the amount varying according to the social rank of the victim.

Literature[link]

First page of the epic Beowulf

Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research.

The most famous works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of important early English history. Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century is the earliest attested literary text in English.

Religion[link]

The indigenous pre-Christian belief system of the Anglo-Saxons was a form of Germanic paganism and therefore closely related to the Old Norse religion, as well as other Germanic pre-Christian cultures.

Christianity gradually replaced the indigenous religion of the English around the 7th and 8th centuries. Celtic Christianity was introduced into Northumbria and Mercia by monks from Ireland, but the Synod of Whitby settled the choice for Roman Christianity. As the new clerics became the chroniclers, the old religion was partially lost before it was recorded, and today historians' knowledge of it is largely based on surviving customs and lore, texts, etymological links and archaeological finds.

One of the few recorded references is that a Kentish King would only meet the missionary St. Augustine in the open air, where he would be under the protection of the sky god, Woden. Written Christian prohibitions on acts of paganism are one of historians' main sources of information on pre-Christian beliefs.

Despite these prohibitions, numerous elements of the pre-Christian culture of the Anglo-Saxon people survived the Christianisation process. Examples include the English language names for days of the week:

• Tiw, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Tyr: Tuesday
• Woden, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Odin: Wednesday
• Þunor, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Thor: Thursday
• *Fríge, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Frigg: Friday

Contemporary meanings[link]

"Anglo-Saxon" in linguistics is still used as a term for the original West Germanic component of the modern English language, which was later expanded and developed through the influence of Old Norse and Norman French, though linguists now more often refer to it as Old English. In the 19th century the term "Anglo-Saxon" was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present. In Victorian Britain, some writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley^[19] and Edward A. Freeman^[20] used the term "Anglo-Saxon" to justify racism and imperialism, claiming that the "Anglo-Saxon" ancestry of the English made them racially superior to the colonised peoples. Similar racist ideas were advocated in the 19th Century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh.^[21]

The term "Anglo-Saxon" is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group. The definition has varied from time to time and varies from place to place. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside the United Kingdom, the term is most commonly found in certain contexts, such as the term "White Anglo-Saxon Protestant" or "WASP". Such terms are often politicised, and bear little connection to the precise ethnological or historical definition of the term "Anglo-Saxon". It often encapsulates socio-economic identifiers more than ethnic ones.^{[citation needed]}

Outside Anglophone countries, both in Europe and in the rest of the world, the term "Anglo-Saxon" and its direct translations are used to refer to the Anglophone peoples and societies of Britain, the United States, and other countries such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand – areas which are sometimes referred to as the Anglosphere. The term "Anglo-Saxon" can be used in a variety of contexts, often to identify the English-speaking world's distinctive language, culture, technology, wealth, markets, economy, and legal systems. Variations include the German "Angelsachsen", French "Anglo-Saxon", Spanish "anglosajón", Portuguese "anglo-saxão", Italian "anglosassone", Catalan "anglosaxó", Japanese "Angurosakuson" and Ukrainian "aнглосакси" (anhlosaksy). As with the English language use of the term, what constitutes the "Anglo-Saxon" varies from speaker to speaker.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

• Angles
• Anglo-Frisian
• Anglo-Saxon architecture
• Anglo-Saxon dress
• Anglo-Saxon military organization
• Anglophile
• Britons
• Frisia
• Ingvaeones
• Jutes
• Saxons
• States in Medieval Britain
• Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain
• Staffordshire Hoard

Modern concepts:

• English people
• Anglo-Saxon economy

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British(2006). Constable and Robinson, London. ISBN 1-84529-158-1

Further reading[link]

• Clark, David, and Nicholas Perkins, eds. Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination (2010)
• F.M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd edition, (Oxford: University Press, 1971)
• J. Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons, (London: Penguin, 1991)
• E. James, Britain in the First Millennium, (London: Arnold, 2001)
• M. Lapidge et al., The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
• Donald Henson, The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons, (Anglo-Saxon Books, 2006)

Primary sources[link]

• D. Whitelock, ed. English Historical Documents c.500–1042, (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1955)
• Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, trans. L. Sherly-Price, (London: Penguin, 1990)

External links[link]

• Photos of over 600 items found in the Anglo-Saxon Hoard in Staffordshire Sept. 2009
• Anglo-Saxon gold hoard September 2009: largest ever hoard officially declared treasure
• Huge Anglo-Saxon gold hoard found, BBC News, with photos.
• Fides Angliarum Regum: the faith of the English kings
• Anglo-Saxon Origins: The Reality of the Myth by Malcolm Todd
• An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
• Simon Keynes' bibliography of Anglo-Saxon topics

David Beckham

Personal information
Full name	David Robert Joseph Beckham
Date of birth	(1975-05-02) 2 May 1975 (age 37)
Place of birth	Leytonstone, London, England
Height	6 ft 0 in (1.83 m)[1]
Playing position	Midfielder
Club information
Current club	Los Angeles Galaxy
Number	23
Youth career
	Tottenham Hotspur
	Brimsdown Rovers
1991–1993	Manchester United
Senior career*
Years	Team	Apps†	(Gls)†
1993–2003	Manchester United	265	(85)
1995	→ Preston North End (loan)	5	(2)
2003–2007	Real Madrid	116	(14)
2007–	Los Angeles Galaxy	81	(13)
2009	→ Milan (loan)	18	(2)
2010	→ Milan (loan)	11	(0)
National team‡
1992–1993	England U18	3	(0)
1994–1996	England U21	9	(0)
1996–2009	England	115	(17)
* Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only and correct as of 00:30, 14 April 2012. † Appearances (Goals). ‡ National team caps and goals correct as of 3 November 2009

David Robert Joseph Beckham, OBE^[2] (born 2 May 1975)^[3] is an English association footballer who plays for Los Angeles Galaxy. He has played for Manchester United, Preston North End, Real Madrid, Milan, and the England national team for which he holds the appearance record for an outfield player.^[4]

Beckham's career began when he signed a professional contract with Manchester United, making his first-team debut in 1992 aged 17.^[5] During his time there, United won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, and the UEFA Champions League in 1999.^[5] He left Manchester United to sign for Real Madrid in 2003, where he remained for four seasons,^[6] clinching the La Liga championship in his final season with the club.^[7] In January 2007, it was announced that Beckham would leave Real Madrid for the Major League Soccer club Los Angeles Galaxy,^[8] signing a five-year contract with them on 1 July 2007. While a Galaxy player, he spent two loan spells in Italy with Milan in 2009 and 2010. On 20 November 2011, he joined an elite group of players to have won three league titles in three different countries, when Los Angeles won their third MLS Cup.^[9]

In international football, Beckham made his England debut on 1 September 1996, at the age of 21. He was made captain from 15 November 2000^[10] until the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals,^[11] during which he played 58 times. He earned a much-publicised hundredth cap against France on 26 March 2008,^[12] and became the all-time outfield player appearance record holder on 28 March 2009 when he surpassed Bobby Moore's total of 108 caps.^[4] With 115 career appearances to date, he has stated that he does not intend to retire from international football. Having missed the 2010 World Cup through injury, Beckham has not played for England since 14 October 2009.^[13]

Beckham has twice been runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year^[5] and in 2004 was the world's highest-paid footballer when taking into account salary and advertising deals.^[14] Beckham was the first British footballer to play 100 Champions League matches.^[5] He is third in the Premier League's all time time assist provider chart, with 152 assists in 265 appearances.^[15] When joining the MLS in 2007 he was given the highest player salary in the league's history, with his playing contract with the Galaxy over the next three years being worth US$6.5m per year.^{[16][17][18][19]}

He is married to Victoria Beckham and they have four children, Brooklyn Joseph, Romeo James, Cruz David, and Harper Seven. As of 2009, the couple's joint wealth is estimated at £125 million.^[20]