Eyalet-i Ḳıbrıṣ Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire ← 1571-1660 1745-1748 → Ottoman Cyprus in 1609 Capital Nicosia History  - Established 1571  - Disestablished 1748 Today part of  Cyprus

The Eyalet of Cyprus was the name given to the conquered island of Cyprus which fell into Ottoman hands in 1571^[1]. The Ottomans change the way they administered Cyprus multiple times. It was a sanjak of the Eyalet of the Archipelago from 1660 to 1703, and again from 1784 onwards; a fief of the Grand Vizier (1703-1745 and 1748-1784), and again an eyalet for the short period 1745-1748.^[2]

Ottoman raids and conquest[link]

Throughout the period of Venetian rule, Ottoman Turks raided and attacked the peoples of Cyprus at will. The Greek population of Cyprus were given weapons by their rulers the Venetians and fought the attacking Ottomans.

In 1489, the first year of Venetian control, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula, pillaging and taking captives to be sold into slavery^[3] In 1539 the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol^[4]. Fearing the ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey.

In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Lala Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. The city fell--September 9, 1570--20,000 Nicosian Greeks were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold as slaves were spared.^[5][6] Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.

The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces of the Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in one of the decisive battles of world history. The victory over the Turks, however, came too late to help Cyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries.

In 1570, the Turks first occupied Cyprus, and Lala Mustafa Pasha became the first Turkish Governor of Cyprus, challenging the claims of Venice. Simultaneously, the Pope formed a coalition between the Papal States, Malta, Spain, Venice and several other Italian states, with no real result. In 1573 the Venetians left, removing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.

Social history[link]

Traditional clothing of (from right to left) a Christian resident of Ammochostos (Famagusta, Cyprus), a Christian woman of Magossa, and a Greek monk of the Monastery of Tchiko, near Lefka. Photo of 1873.

The Ottoman occupation brought about two radical results in the history of the island. Since the Phoenicians in the 9th century BC, a new ethnic element appeared, the Turks. The population of Cyprus, Greeks, had now a new ruler: the Ottomans.

The Ottoman Empire gave timars--land grants--to soldiers under the condition that they and their families would stay there permanently. An action of far-reaching importance because the predefined soldiers became the nucleus of the island's Turkish community. During the 17th century the Turkish population grew rapidly, partly by conversion. Most of the Turks who had settled on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus--although not sovereignty--was ceded to Britain in 1878. Many, however, left for Turkey during the 1920s. By 1970, ethnic Turks represented 18% of the total population of the island, with ethnic Greeks representing the remainder^{[citation needed]}. The distinction between the two groups was by both religion and language.

The Ottoman occupation detached Cyprus from the direct influence, cultural and economic, of the West. The Ottomans applied the millet system to Cyprus, which allowed religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities. This system reinforced the position of the Orthodox Church and the cohesion of the ethnic Greek population. The Church of Cyprus was liberated^{[citation needed]} because the Turks were afraid of the presence of the Catholic Church as it might instigate an attack of Western Europe against them^{[citation needed]}. Gradually the Archbishop of Cyprus became not only religious but ethnic leader as well, something the Ottoman Turks promoted, wanting to have somebody responsible for the loyalty of the Greek flock. In this way the Church undertook the task of the guardian of the Greek cultural legacy, although diminished since the country's independence.

The occupation brought Cyprus directly under Ottoman despotism. The heavy taxes and the abuses against the population on the part of the Ottoman conquerors in the early years after the Ottoman occupation gave rise to opposition, following which the Sultan, by order addressed to the Governor, the "Kadi" and the Treasurer, prohibited the oppression of his subjects and commanded the officers to govern with justice^{[citation needed]}. While the Sultan's orders indicated his goodwill towards the local population^{[citation needed]}, the Ottoman local administration proved indifferent, arbitrary and often corrupt, taking no measures whatsoever for the benefit of the people and the situation was aggravated by the heavy burden of taxes. Those collecting the taxes were trying by all means to extract as much money as they could by exploiting the local population.

Following the Ottoman conquest, many Greek Cypriots and Latins, in order to escape heavy taxation, converted to Islam. Many Greek Cypriots who had been officially converted to Islam remained actually Christians in secret. They were normally called "linobambaki". According to a view expressed for the first time in 1863 AD, and then adopted in the following years, this word was taken metaphorically from a cloth woven with linen and cotton and which had two different sides corresponding thus to the two aspects of their faith. The "linobambaki" turned up during daytime as Muslims, and in the evenings they appeared as Christians, keeping to Christianity, its customs and its habits.

The inhabitants of Cyprus, disappointed at the mismanagement of home affairs by the Ottoman governors, soon turned to Europe in search for help for liberation. Very characteristic is the appeal by Archbishop Timotheos to Philip II of Spain for liberation of the island, in which, among other things, the following is stated:

There have recently been repeated cases of abuse on the part of the organs of the conqueror; in a greedy manner they attempt to confiscate and seize the property of the inhabitants; Christian houses are broken into and domiciles violated, and all sorts of dishonest acts against wives and daughters are committed. Twice until now churches and monasteries have been plundered, multiple and heavy taxes have been imposed whose collection is pursued by systematic persecutions, threats and tortures, which lead many persons to the ranks of Islam, while at the same time the male children of Cypriot families are seized (in order to form the brigades of Jannissaries). This most hard practice is the worst of the sufferings to which the people of Cyprus is subjected by the Ottoman administration.

Between 1572 and 1668 about 28 uprisings took place on the island and in many of these both Greeks and Turks (poor Turks were also exploited by the ruling class) took part. All of them ended in failure.

About 1660, in order to eliminate the greed of the Ottoman administration and stop the oppression and injustice against the people (who they called rayahs, sheep for milking), the Sultan recognised the Archbishop and the Bishops as "the protectors of people" and the representatives of the Sultan. In 1670, Cyprus ceased to be a pashalik for the Ottoman Empire and came under the jurisdiction of the Admiral of the Ottoman fleet. In his turn, the Admiral sent an officer to govern in his place.

In 1703 Cyprus came under the jurisdiction of the Grand Vizier who sent to the island a military and civil administrator. The title and function of this officer were awarded to the person who paid the highest amount of money in exchange. As a result, heavier taxation was imposed and the Cypriots became the subject of harder exploitation. About 1760 a combination of a plague epidemic, bad crops, and earthquakes drove many Cypriots to emigrate. In addition, the newly-appointed Pasha doubled the taxes in 1764. In the end Chil Osman and 18 of his friends were killed by Greek and Turkish Cypriots alike but the two ethnic elements had to pay a huge sum of money to the Sultan and the families of the victims. It was assessed that each Christian had to pay 14 piastres and each Turk 7. The latter did not accept this judgement and broke into an open rebellion having Khalil Agha, the commander of the guard of the castle of [Kyrenia] as their leader. Finally the uprising was crushed and Khalil Agha was beheaded.

Greek independence movement[link]

1821-1829[link]

Many Cypriots supported the Greek independence effort that began in 1821, leading to severe reprisals by the Ottoman Empire. The Greek War of Independence of 1821 had its repercussions on the situation in Cyprus. With the Sultan's consent, the Ottoman administration in the island under governor Küçük Mehmet, executed 486 Greek Cypriots on 9 July 1821, accusing them of conspiring with the rebellious Greeks. They included four Bishops, many clergymen and prominent citizens, who were beheaded in the central square of Nicosia, while Archbishop Kyprianos was hanged. The French consul M. Méchain reported on 15 September 1821 that the local pasha, Küçük Mehmet, carried out several days of massacres in Cyprus since July 9 and continued on for 40 days, despite the Vizier's command to end the plundering since 20 July 1821. On 15 October 1821, a massive Turkish mob seized and hanged an Archbishop, five Bishops, thirty six ecclesiastics, and hanged most of the Greek and Turkish Cypriots in Larnaca and the other towns. By September 1822, sixty two Cypriot villages and hamlets had entirely disappeared. ^[7][8] The property of the Church was plundered and the Greek Cypriots were forced to pull down the upper storeys of their houses, an order that remained in force until the British put the island under their control almost sixty years later. When Greece became independent in 1829, many Cypriots sought the incorporation of Cyprus into Greece, but it remained part of the Ottoman Empire.

1849-1878[link]

Between the years 1849 and 1878 Cyprus witnessed some slow change for the better in the administration section. District councils were set up and consisted of Greek and many Ottoman members. Many reforms, however, which were supposed to have been introduced were frustrated by unwilling administrators.

In 1878, three centuries of Ottoman occupation came to an end. During their long presence on the island, the architectural remains left by the Turks included the small fort of Paphos dating to the late 16th century and largely based on a Lusignan plan, the tomb that was built where Umm Haram, a relative of Muhammad, died in the mid-seventh century, which dates to the late 18th century and over which a tekke and a mosque were built 1816, and an aqueduct constructed by Abu Bekr Pasha in 1747 in order to bring fresh water to Larnaca. In Nicosia, the capital, there is a 16th century inn called a Khan, a 17th century Tekke of the Mevleri or the Dancing Dervishes and the Arab Ahmet Pasha mosque of the 18th century.

In 1869 the Suez Canal opened, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland showed increasing interest in the island, which is situated in what had suddenly become a very convenient location. When the Turks were defeated by the Russians in 1877 and the Berlin Congress took place the next year in order to revise the treaty of St Stefano which was signed by Russia and the Ottoman Empire according to terms dictated by the former, it was officially announced on 9 July 1878 that on the 4th of preceding June, the British and the Sultan had secretly countersigned the Convention of Constantinople by virtue of which the possession and administration of Cyprus was vested in Great Britain. As exchange for control of Cyprus, the UK agreed to support Turkey in the Russian-Turkish war. This agreement was formalised as the Cyprus Convention.

After the Greek revolution of 1821 and the establishment of the Greek state, the Greek Cypriots expressed practically the wish of 'Union' with Greece, as it happened with the Ionian Islands and later with Crete.

This feeling of the Greek Cypriots began to be formed since the era of the Turkish occupation and was expressed later at the time of the British occupation. These expectations for 'Union' were expressed by the 'Ethnarchy' (supreme ecclesiastical authority, which represented the Greek Cypriots in the political sector since the first moment of the British presence in Cyprus). The development of the 'Union' movement of the Greek Cypriots was a sequence of the close ties between Cyprus and Greece due to the common cultural and religious history. During Turkish occupation the manifestation of nationalism was clandestine and feeble due to oppression. On the contrary, during the British occupation, the freedom of expression allowed by the British gave the possibility to the Greek political and religious leaders to nurture the idea of 'Enosis' (Union). The demand for 'Enosis' was initially propounded by the Church and then by the politicians in the Legislative Council, and the various committees formed for the promotion of the national cause.

See also[link]

• Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion

References[link]

• Cyprus under Ottoman Empire by Official Republic of Cyprus Web site.
• Foglietta, U. The sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London:Waterlow, 1903.
• Gazioglu, Ahmet C. The Turks in Cyprus: A province of the Ottoman Empire (1571-1878). London: Rustem & Bro., 1990.
• Jennings, Ronald C. Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean world, 1571-1640. New York: New York University Press, 1993.
• Katsiaounis, Rolandos. Labour, society and politics in Cyprus during the second half of the nineteenth century. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1996.
• Koumoulides, John. Cyprus and the war of Greek Independence, 1821-1829. London: Zeno, 1974.
• Kyrris, Costas, P. The Kanakaria documents, 1666-1850. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Center, 1978.
• Luke, Harry. Cyprus under the Turks, 1571-1878. London: Hurst, 1969.(Reprint of 1921 edition.)
• Mariti, Giovanni. Travels in the island of Cyprus. (C. D. Cobham translator). London: Zeno, 1971. (Reprint of 1909 edition.)
• Michael, Michalis N.; Kappler, Matthias; Gavriel, Eftihios (eds.). Ottoman Cyprus. A Collection of Studies on History and Culture. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009.
• Papadopoullos, T. Social and historical data on population:1570-1881. Nicosia: Zavallis Press, 1965.
• Proxenika egrafa tou 19o aionos. (Consular documents of the 19th century.) Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1980.
• Ross, L. A journey to Cyprus. (February and March 1845). (C. D.Cobham translator). Nicosia: Government Printing House, 1910.
• Salvator, Louis. Levkosia: The capital of Cyprus. London Trigraph,1983. (Reprint of 1881 edition.)
• Sant Cassia, Paul. "Religion, politics and ethnicity in Cyprus during the Turkocratia(1571-1878)." Archives Europeennes de Sociologie, Tome XXVII, No. 1, 1986

v t e Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire   Eyalets (1363–1864) Africa Algiers Egypt Habesh Tripolitania Tunis Anatolia Adana Aidin Anatolia Ankara Archipelago Diyarbekir Dulkadir Erzurum Hüdavendigâr Karaman Karasi Kars Kastamonu Rum Trebizond Van Asia Aleppo Baghdad Basra Childir Cyprus Damascus Lahsa Mosul Rakka Sharazor Sidon Tripoli Yemen Europe Adrianople Bosnia Budin Crete Egir Herzegovina Kanije Kefe Monastir Morea Niš Yanina Podolia Rumelia Salonica Silistra Temeşvar Uyvar Varat Widdin Zigetvar   Vilayets (1864–1922) Anatolia Adana Aidin Ankara Archipelago Bitlis Diyâr-ı Bekr Erzurum Hüdavendigâr Istanbul Kastamonu Konya Mamuret-ul-Aziz Sivas Trebizond Van Europe Adrianople Bosnia Crete Danube Janina Kosovo Monastir Salonica Scutari Elsewhere Aleppo Baghdad Basra Beirut Hejaz Mosul Syria Tripolitania Yemen   Vassals and autonomies Cossack Hetmanate Cretan State Crimean Khanate Khedivate of Egypt Sharifate of Mecca Principality of Moldavia Republic of Ragusa Eastern Rumelia Principality of Samos Serbian Despotate Duchy of Syrmia Principality of Transylvania Principality of Wallachia See also the list of short-lived Ottoman provinces

Republic of Cyprus Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία (Greek) Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
Coat of arms of Cyprus Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  Ýmnos is tin Eleftherían Ὕμνος εἰς τὴν Ἐλευθερίαν Hymn to Liberty
Location of  Cyprus (including the North)  (green) in the European Union  (light green)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Nicosia (Λευκωσία, Lefkoşa) 35°08′N 33°28′E / 35.133°N 33.467°E / 35.133; 33.467
Official language(s)		Greek Turkish[1]
Ethnic groups (2011)		77% Greeks 18% Turkish 5% others[2]
Demonym		Cypriot
Government		Unitary presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Dimitris Christofias
Legislature		House of Representatives
Independence
-	Zürich and London Agreement	19 February 1959
-	from the United Kingdom	16 August 1960
Area
-	Total	9,251 km2 (167th) 3,572 (Includes North) sq mi
-	Water (%)	Negligible
Population
-	2011 estimate	1,099,341 (Whole island) 838,897[3] (Does not include North) (159th)
-	Density	117/km2 (115th) 221/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$23.728 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$29,074[4]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$24.949 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$30,570[4]
Gini (2005)		29 (low) (19th)
HDI (2011)		0.840 (very high) (31st)
Currency		Euro (EUR)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the		Left
ISO 3166 code		CY
Internet TLD		.cy1
Calling code		357
1	The .eu domain is also used, shared with other European Union member states.

Cyprus ⁱ/ˈsaɪprəs/ (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾos]; Turkish: Kıbrıs, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs]), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [cipɾiaˈci ðimokɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs dʒumhuɾijeˈti]), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea,^[5][6] east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria, Lebanon, northwest of Israel and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Republic of Cyprus is a member state of the European Union.

The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this period include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, which has been declared a World Heritage Site with an "enhanced protection" status in the event of armed conflict^[7] by UNESCO, along with the archaeological sites of Paphos and the Painted Churches of the Troodos Region. Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.^[8]

Cyprus was part of the Hittite Empire until it was settled by Mycenean Greeks in the 2nd millennium BC. As a strategic location in the Middle East,^{[9][10][11][12]} it was subsequently occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 B.C by Alexander the Great. Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Roman Empire, the Byzantines, Arab caliphates for a short period, the French Lusignan dynasty, and the Venetians, was followed by the Ottoman conquest in 1571. It remained under Ottoman control for over three centuries. Cyprus was placed under British administration in 1878 until it was granted independence in 1960,^[13] becoming a member of the Commonwealth the following year.

In 1974, following the intercommunal violence between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots,^[14] an attempted coup d'état by Greek Cypriot nationalists^[15][16] and elements of the Greek military junta^[17] with the aim of achieving enosis (union of the island with Greece) took place.^[17] Turkey used this as a pretext to invade the northern portion of the island. Turkish forces remained after a cease-fire, resulting in the partition of the island; an objective of Turkey since 1955.^[17] The intercommunal violence and subsequent Turkish invasion led to the displacement of over two hundred thousand Greek Cypriots,^[18] and the establishment of a separate Turkish Cypriot political entity in the north. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of ongoing dispute.

The Republic of Cyprus has de jure^[19] sovereignty over the island of Cyprus and its surrounding waters, except for the British military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts; the area under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus, comprising about 59% of the island's area, and the Turkish-controlled area in the north,^[20] calling itself the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and recognised only by Turkey, covering about 36% of the island's area.

Cyprus is the third most populous island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of its most popular tourist destinations.^[21] An advanced,^[22] high-income economy with a very high Human Development Index,^[23][24] the Republic of Cyprus was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.^[25][26] On 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the Eurozone.

Etymology[link]

The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek ku-pi-ri-jo,^[27] meaning "Cypriot", written in Linear B syllabic script.^[28] The classical Greek form of the name is Κύπρος Kupros.

The etymology of the name is unknown. Suggestions include:

• the Greek word for the Mediterranean cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens), κυπάρισσος (kypárissos)
• the Greek name of the henna plant (Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros)
• an Eteocypriot word for copper. Georges Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (zubar) or for bronze (kubar), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island.

Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to the Classical Latin word for copper through the phrase aes Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum.^[29]

Cyprus, more specifically the seashore at Paphos, was also one of the birthplaces given in Greek mythology for Aphrodite, who was known as Kupria. This was because Astarte, goddess of love and beauty in Phoenician mythology, for whom Cyprus was an important cult centre, was later identified with Aphrodite.

The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is Cypriot. The terms Cypriote and Cyprian are also, less frequently, used.

History[link]

Ancient times[link]

Sanctuary of Apollo Hylates, Kourion.

The earliest confirmed site of human activity on Cyprus is Aetokremnos, situated on the south coast, indicating that hunter-gatherers were active on the island from around 10,000 BC,^[30] with settled village communities dating from 8200 BC. The arrival of the first humans correlates with the extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants.^[31] Water wells discovered by archaeologists in western Cyprus are believed to be among the oldest in the world, dated at 9,000 to 10,500 years old.^[8]

Remains of an 8-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus.^[32] The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, predating ancient Egyptian civilization and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly.^[33] The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia is a UNESCO World Heritage Site dating to approximately 6800 BC.^[34]

The island was part of the Hittite Empire during the late Bronze Age until the arrival of two waves of Greek settlement.^[35] The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC.^[36][37] A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following the Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece in the period 1100–1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period.^[37][38] Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis, and home to King Cinyras, Teucer and Pygmalion.^[39] Beginning in the 8th century BC Phoenician colonies were founded on the south coast of Cyprus, near present day Larnaca and Salamis.^[37]

Cyprus was ruled by Assyria for a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Persian rule in 545 BC.^[37] The Cypriots, led by Onesilus, king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in the Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenid Empire. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained oriented towards the Greek world.^[37]

The island was conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 B.C. Following his death and the subsequent division of his empire between his successors, Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt. It was during this period that the island was fully Hellenized. In 58 B.C. Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic.^[37]

Middle Ages[link]

Fort Pafos.

When the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 395, Cyprus became part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire, and would remain part of it until the Crusades some 800 years later. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community.^[37] Beginning in 649, Cyprus suffered from devastating raids launched by Arab armies from the Levant, which continued for the next 300 years.^[37] Many were quick piratical raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were slaughtered and great wealth carried off or destroyed.^[37]

Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Cyprus.

There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period; thousands of people were killed, and many cities – such as Salamis – were destroyed and never rebuilt.^[37] Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea.^[37] In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus^[40] He used it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens. A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan. His brother and successor Amalric was recognized as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.^[37]

Following the death in 1473 of James II, the last Lusignan king, the Republic of Venice assumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro, reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine.^[37] The Venetians fortified Nicosia by building the famous Venetian Walls, and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta and Kyrenia.^[37]

During the almost four centuries of Latin rule, there existed two societies on Cyprus. The first consisted of Frankish nobles and their retinue, as well as Italian merchants and their families. The second, the majority of the population, consisted of Greek Cypriots, serfs and laborers. Although a determined effort was made to supplant native traditions and culture, the effort failed.^[37]

Ottoman Empire[link]

In 1570, a full scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted.^[41] The previous Latin elite was destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place when Ottoman Janissaries were settled on the island.^[15]

Historical map of Cyprus by Piri Reis.

The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities.^[41] Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials, and during this period the island fell into economic decline.^[41]

In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias whose maternal ancestors were Greek Cypriots,^[42][43] called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.^[44] Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none was successful. By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000 comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians.^[45] Centuries of neglect by the Turks, the unrelenting poverty of most of the people, and the ever-present tax collectors fuelled Greek nationalism, and by 19th century the idea of enosis, or union, with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots.^[41]

British Empire[link]

Hoisting the British flag at Nicosia.

In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Congress of Berlin, Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, it remained a de jure Ottoman territory until 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan) in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression.^[37] The island would serve Britain as a key military base in its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of World War I and the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of the Central Powers, the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus, Egypt and Sudan on 5 November 1914 as a response.^[37]

Cypriot demonstrations for Enosis (Union) with Greece in 1930.

In 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Constantine I of Greece on condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British, which he declined. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne, the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus, and in 1925 it was declared a British crown colony.^[37] Many Greek Cypriots fought in the British Army during both World Wars, in the hope that Cyprus would eventually be united with Greece.^[46] During World War II many enlisted in the Cyprus Regiment.

In January 1959, the Church of Cyprus organized a referendum, which was boycotted by the Turkish Cypriot community, where over 90%^{[clarification needed]} voted in favor of "enosis", meaning union with Greece.^[47][48] Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955 the EOKA organisation was founded, seeking independence and union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight.^[49] Turmoil on the island was met with force by the British.

Independence[link]

The first president of Cyprus Makarios III.

On 16 August 1960, Cyprus attained independence after the Zürich and London Agreement between the United Kingdom, Greece and Turkey. The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving the minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights.

In 1963, inter-communal violence broke out, partially sponsored by both "motherlands". As a result, Turkish Cypriots were forced into enclaves and Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for unilateral constitutional changes as a means to ease tensions over the whole island. The United Nations deployed forces in Cyprus (UNFICYP) at flash points.^[50]

In 1964, Turkey tried to intervene in Cyprus^[51] in response to the ongoing Cypriot intercommunal violence. But Turkey was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from the US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the United States would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory.^[52]

Contemporary era[link]

On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out a coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece. The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson.^[53] Five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island on the pretext of restoring the constitutional order of the Republic of Cyprus by claiming a right to intervene as one of the guarantors of the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee.

The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions on Cyprus, hundreds of paratroops were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established, while off the Kyrenia coast, 30 Turkish troop ships protected by destroyers landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks, and armored vehicles.

Three days later, when a ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself. The junta in Athens, and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia, Glafkos Clerides assumed the presidency and constitutional order was restored, removing the pretext for the Turkish invasion. But during the negotiations, the Turks reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and prepared for a second invasion. The invasion began on 14 August and resulted in the seizure of Morphou, Karpass, Famagusta and the Mesaoria. The Greek-Cypriot forces were unable to resist the Turkish advance.

International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 37% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north.^[54] At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots moved to the areas under the control of the Turkish Forces and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using American-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974.^[55]

After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, the Turkish troops remained on the island occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, Turkish Cypriots proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey. As of today, there are 1,534 Greek Cypriots^[56] and 502 Turkish Cypriots^[57] missing as a result of the fighting. The events of the summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations. Around 150,000 settlers from Turkey are believed to be living in the north in violation of the Geneva Convention and various UN resolutions.^[58][59] Following the invasion and the capture of its northern territory by Turkish troops, the Republic of Cyprus announced that all of its ports of entry in the north were closed, as they were effectively not under its control.^{[citation needed]}

The Turkish invasion and occupation and the self-declaration of independence of the TRNC have been condemned by several United Nations Resolutions. The Security Council reaffirms this every year.^[60] The last major effort to settle the Cyprus dispute was the Annan Plan in 2004. It gained the support of the Turkish Cypriots but was rejected by the Greek Cypriots, who perceived it to disproportionately favor Turks.^[61]

On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union together with nine other countries.^[62] In July 2006, the island served as a safe haven for people fleeing Lebanon because of the conflict between Israel and Hezbollah.^[63]

In March 2008, a wall that for decades had stood at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and the UN buffer zone was demolished.^[64] The wall had cut across Ledra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials.^[65]. The Evangelos Florakis Naval Base explosion was the worst peacetime military accident ever recorded in Cyprus. The incident occurred on 11 July 2011.

Geography[link]

Topographic map of Cyprus. Troodos Mountains in the southwest, Mesaoria plain in the middle, Kyrenia Mountains in the north.

The Troodos Mountains experience heavy snowfall in winter.

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia (both in terms of area and population). It is also the world's 81st largest by area and world's 49th largest by population. It measures 240 kilometres (149 mi) long from end to end and 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide at its widest point, with Turkey 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the north. It lies between latitudes 34° and 36° N, and longitudes 32° and 35° E.

Other neighbouring territories include Syria and Lebanon to the east (105 kilometres (65 mi) and 108 kilometres (67 mi), respectively), Israel 200 kilometres (124 mi) to the southeast, Egypt 380 kilometres (236 mi) to the south, and Greece to the northwest: 280 kilometres (174 mi) to the small Dodecanesian island of Kastelorizo (Megisti), 400 kilometres (249 mi) to Rhodes, and 800 kilometres (497 mi) to the Greek mainland.

The physical relief of the island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the smaller Kyrenia Range, and the central plain they encompass, the Mesaoria. The Mesaoria plain is drained by the Pedieos River, the longest on the island. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The highest point on Cyprus is Mount Olympus at 1,952 m (6,404 ft), located in the centre of the Troodos range. The narrow Kyrenia Range, extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower, reaching a maximum of 1,024 m (3,360 ft).

Geopolitically, the island is subdivided into four main segments. The Republic of Cyprus occupies the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies the northern third (34.85%), and the United Nations-controlled Green Line provides a buffer zone that separates the two and covers 2.67% of the island. Lastly, two bases under British sovereignty are located on the island: Akrotiri and Dhekelia, covering the remaining 2.74%.

Climate[link]

Petra tou Romiou ("Rock of the Greek"), where according to mythology the goddess Aphrodite emerged from the sea.

The sandy beaches are often used as habitats for Green Turtles

Cyprus has a subtropical climate – Mediterranean and Semi-arid type (in the north-eastern part of island) – according to Köppen climate classification signes Csa and Bsh,^[66][67] with very mild winters (on the coast) and warm to hot summers. Snow is possible only in the Troodos Mountains in the central part of island. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.

Cyprus has the warmest climate (and warmest winters) in the Mediterranean part of the European Union.^{[citation needed]} The average annual temperature on the coast is around 24 °C (75 °F) during the day and 14 °C (57 °F) at night. Generally – summer's/holiday season lasts about 8 months, begins in April with average temperatures of 21–23 °C (70–73 °F) during the day and 11–13 °C (52–55 °F) at night, ends in November with average temperatures of 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) during the day and 12–14 °C (54–57 °F) at night, although also in remaining 4 months temperatures sometimes exceeds 20 °C (68 °F). Among all cities in the Mediterranean part of the European Union, Limassol has the warmest winters, in the period January–February average temperature is 17–18 °C (63–64 °F) during the day and 8–9 °C (46–48 °F) at night, in other coastal locations in Cyprus is generally 16–17 °C (61–63 °F) during the day and 7–9 °C (45–48 °F) at night. In March and December in Limassol average temperatures is 19–20 °C (66–68 °F) during the day and 10–11 °C (50–52 °F) at night, in other coastal locations in Cyprus is generally 17–19 °C (63–66 °F) during the day and 8–11 °C (46–52 °F) at night. Middle of summer is hot – in July and August on the coast the average temperature is usually around 33 °C (91 °F) during the day and around 23 °C (73 °F) at night (inside the island, in the highlands average temperature exceeds 35 °C (95 °F)) while in the June and September on the coast the average temperature is usually around 30 °C (86 °F) during the day and around 20 °C (68 °F) at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. Temperatures inside the island are more stringent, with colder winters and more hot summers compared with the coast of the island.^[68]

Average annual temperature of sea is 21–22 °C (70–72 °F), from 17 °C (63 °F) in February to 27–28 °C (81–82 °F) in August (depending on the location). In total 7 months – from May to November – the average sea temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F).^[69]

Sunshine hours on the coast is around 3,400 per year, from average 5–6 hours of sunshine / day in December to average 12–13 hours in July.^[69] This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe, for comparison: London – 1,461,^[70] however in winter up to some times more sunshine, for comparison: London has 37 hours^[70] while coastal locations in Cyprus has around 180 hours of sunshine in December (that is, as much as in May in London).

Water supply[link]

Kouris Dam is the largest of a network of 107 dams in Cyprus.

Cyprus is suffering from an ongoing shortage of water. The country relies heavily on rain to provide household water and for many years now, the average annual rainfall seemed to be falling. Between 2001 and 2004, exceptionally heavy annual rainfall pushed water reserves up, with supply exceeding demand, allowing total storage in the island's reservoirs to rise to an all time high by the start of 2005. However, since then demand has increased annually – a result of local population growth, foreigners relocating to Cyprus and the number of visiting tourists – while supply has fallen. Cyprus has a total of 107 dams (plus one currently under construction) and reservoirs, with a total water storage capacity of about 330,000,000 m³ (1.2×10¹⁰ cu ft).^[71] Dams remain the principal source of water both for domestic and agricultural use. Water desalination plants are gradually being constructed in order to deal with recent years of prolonged drought. The Government has invested heavily in the creation of water desalination plants which have supplied almost 50 percent of domestic water since 2001. Efforts have also been made to raise public awareness of the situation and to encourage domestic water users to take more responsibility for the conservation of this increasingly scarce commodity.

Politics[link]

Cyprus is a Presidential republic. The head of state and of the government is elected by a process of Universal suffrage for a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in the House of Representatives whilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature. The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative and judicial branches as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive was led by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives who were also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls.

Cyprus has been a member state of the European Union since 2004

Following clashes between the two communities the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House remain vacant since 1965. Turkish Cypriots refused to establish the state of affairs before the invasion of Cyprus as is evident in the Secretary-General of the United Nations who said "The Turkish Cypriot leaders have adhered to a rigid stand against any measures which might involve having members of the two communities live and work together, or which might place Turkish Cypriots in situations where they would have to acknowledge the authority of Government agents. Indeed, since the Turkish Cypriot leadership is committed to physical and geographical separation of the communities as a political goal, it is not likely to encourage activities by Turkish Cypriots which may be interpreted as demonstrating the merits of an alternative policy. The result has been a seemingly deliberate policy of self-segregation by the Turkish Cypriots."^[72] By 1974 the two communities had returned to a more tolerant state of living.^[72]

In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto when the Turkish army occupied the northern third of the island. The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but were recognized only by Turkey. In 1985 the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the entire island of Cyprus.

The House of Representatives currently has 59 members elected for a five year term, 56 members by proportional representation and 3 observer members representing the Armenian, Latin and Maronite minorities. 24 seats are allocated to the Turkish community but remain vacant since 1964. The political environment is dominated by the communist AKEL, the liberal conservative Democratic Rally, the centrist^[73] Democratic Party, the social-democratic EDEK and the centrist EURO.KO. On 17 February 2008 Dimitris Christofias of the AKEL was elected President of Cyprus, on AKEL's first electoral victory without being part of a wider coalition. Christofias took over government from Tassos Papadopoulos of the Democratic Party who had been in office since February 2003.

Administrative divisions[link]

The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts:^[74] Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos. These are not the same as those of Northern Cyprus.

District Map of Cyprus	Districts	Greek name	Turkish name
	Famagusta	Αμμόχωστος (Ammochostos)	Gazimağusa/Mağusa
	Kyrenia	Κερύvεια (Keryneia)	Girne
	Larnaca	Λάρνακα (Larnaka)	Larnaka/İskele
	Limassol	Λεμεσός (Lemesos)	Limasol/Leymosun
	Nicosia	Λευκωσία (Lefkosia)	Lefkoşa
	Paphos	Πάφος (Pafos)	Baf/Gazibaf

Exclaves and enclaves[link]

Episkopi Cantonment in south-southwest Cyprus.

Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou. The third is the Dhekelia Power Station which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an exclave, like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an exclave although it has no territorial waters of its own.^[75]

The UN Buffer Zone runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side off Ayios Nikolaos and is connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor. In that sense the buffer zone turns the Paralimni area on the southeast corner of the island into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.

Foreign relations[link]

The island nation Cyprus is member of: Australia Group, CN, CE, CFSP, EBRD, EIB, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, NSG, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO.^[76][77]

Human rights[link]

In "Freedom in the World 2011", Freedom House rated the democracy of Cyprus as "free".^[78] The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues. Prostitution is rife in both the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish-controlled regions leading to the government being criticised for its lack of controls^[79] and for the role of Cyprus in the sex trade as one of the main destinations for human trafficking from Eastern Europe.^[80]

There have been reports of mistreatment to the Turkish Cypriots in the Republic of Cyprus.^[81][82] The US Department of State report about human rights in Cyprus in 2002 said that:^[83]

Some of the approximately 300 Turkish Cypriots living in the government-controlled area faced difficulties in obtaining identification cards and other government documents, especially if they were born after 1974. Turkish Cypriots also appeared to be subjected to surveillance by the Greek Cypriot police.

Domestic violence legislation remains largely unimplemented^[84] and mistreatment of domestic staff, mostly immigrant workers from developing countries, are sometimes reported in the Cypriot press^[81] and are the subject of several campaigns by the anti-racist charity KISA.

Military[link]

Soldiers of Cypriot National Guard marching in Rome.

The Cypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is a combined arms force, with land, air and naval elements. The National Guard is a required 24 month service for all men upon completing their 18th birthday. The land forces of the Cypriot National Guard comprise the following units:

• First Infantry Division (Ιη Μεραρχία ΠΖ)
• Second Infantry Division (ΙΙα Μεραρχία ΠΖ)
• Fourth Infantry Brigade (ΙVη Ταξιαρχία ΠΖ)
• Twentieth Armored Brigade (ΧΧη ΤΘ Ταξιαρχία)
• Third Support Brigade (ΙΙΙη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ)
• Eighth Support Brigade (VIIIη Ταξιαρχία ΥΠ)

The air force includes the 449th Helicopter Gunship Squadron (449 ΜΑΕ) – operating SA-342L and Bell 206 and the 450th Helicopter Gunship Squadron (450 ME/P) – operating Mi-35P, BN-2B and PC-9. Current Senior officers include Supreme Commander, Cypriot National Guard, Lt. General Stylianos Nasis,^[85] and Chief of Staff, Cypriot National Guard: Maj. General Mihalis Flerianos.^{[citation needed]}

Economy[link]

The city of Larnaca

The Cypriot economy is prosperous and has diversified in recent years.^[86] According to the latest International Monetary Fund estimates, its per capita GDP (adjusted for purchasing power) at $28,381 is just above the average of the European Union.^[87] Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses for its highly developed infrastructure. Tourism, financial services, and shipping are significant parts of the economy. Economic policy of the Cyprus government has focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. The Cypriot government adopted the euro as the national currency on 1 January 2008.^[86]

Nicosia skylines by night

Nicosia is the island's financial hub.

In recent years significant quantities of offshore natural gas have been discovered in the area known as Aphrodite in Cyprus' exclusive economic zone (EEZ),^[88] about 175 km south of Limassol at 33°5′40″N and 32°59′0″E.^[89] Cyprus demarcated its maritime border with Egypt in 2003, and with Lebanon in 2007.^[90] Cyprus and Israel demarcated their maritime border in 2010,^[91] and in August 2011, the US-based firm Noble Energy entered into a production-sharing agreement with the Cypriot government regarding the block's commercial development.^[92] Turkey, which does not recognize the border agreements of Cyprus with its neighbors,^[93] threatened to mobilize its naval forces in the event that Cyprus would proceed with plans to begin drilling at Block 12.^[94] Cyprus' drilling efforts have the support of the US, EU, and UN, and on 19 September 2011 drilling in Block 12 began without any incidents being reported.^[95]

Graphical depiction of Cyprus's product exports in 28 color coded categories.

The economy of the Turkish-occupied areas operates on a free-market basis although it continues to be handicapped by the lack of private and public investment, high freight costs and shortages of skilled labor. Despite these constraints the economy turned in an impressive performance in 2003 and 2004 with growth rates of 9.6% and 11.4%. The average income in the area was $15,984 (S₣16,289) in 2008.^[96] Growth has been buoyed by the relative stability of the Turkish new lira and by a boom in the education and construction sectors. The island has witnessed a massive growth in tourism over the years and as such the property rental market in Cyprus has grown alongside. Added to this is the capital growth in property that has been created from the demand of incoming investors and property buyers to the island.^[97]

Transport[link]

A map showing the main roads of Cyprus

Port of Limassol, the busiest in Cyprus

Available modes of transport are by road, sea, and air. Of the 10,663 km (6,626 mi) of roads in the Republic of Cyprus as of 1998, 6,249 km (3,883 mi) were paved, and 4,414 km (2,743 mi) were unpaved. As of 1996 the Turkish occupied area had a similar ratio of paved to unpaved, with approximately 1,370 km (850 mi) of paved road and 980 km (610 mi) unpaved. Cyprus is one of only four EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road, a remnant of British colonisation, the others being Ireland, Malta and the United Kingdom.

There are several modern motorways in Cyprus. A series of motorways runs along the coast from Paphos east to Ayia Napa, with two motorways running inland to Nicosia, one from Limassol and one from Larnaca.

• A1 Nicosia to Limassol
• A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca
• A3 Larnaca to Agia Napa
• A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca
• A6 Pafos to Limassol
• A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis

Per capita private car ownership is the 5th highest in the world. There are approximately 344,000 privately owned vehicles, and a total of 517,000 registered motor vehicles in the Republic of Cyprus.^[98] In 2006 extensive plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank. In 2010 the new revised and expanded bus network was implemented.^[99]

Cyprus has several heliports and two international airports: Larnaca International Airport and Paphos International Airport. A third airport, Ercan International Airport operates in the Turkish Cypriot administered area with direct flights only to Turkey (No other country or nation recognizes the so-called TRNC nor its airports or ports). Nicosia International Airport has been closed since 1974.

The main harbours of the island are Limassol and Larnaca, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships.

Communications[link]

Cyta, the state-owned telecommunications company, manages most Telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following the recent liberalisation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies have emerged including MTN, Cablenet, OTEnet Telecom, Omega Telecom and PrimeTel. In the Turkish-controlled area of Cyprus, three companies are also present. These are Turkcell, Vodafone and Turk Telekom.

Demographics[link]

Ethnographic map of Cyprus showing the distribution of the population during the 1960 census.

Population growth (numbers for the entire island, excluding in recent years some 150,000 Turkish settlers residing in Northern Cyprus).

Population structure

It has traditionally been accepted that Greek Cypriots form up to 80%, Turkish Cypriots 18% (not including Turkish settlers, citation needed), and Christian minorities (including Maronites, Latin Catholic and Armenians) 2% of the Cypriot population.^{[100][101][102][103]}

According to the first population census after the declaration of independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turkish, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.^[104][105]

Due to the inter-communal ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974, an island-wide census was regarded as impossible. Nevertheless, the Greek Cypriots conducted one in 1973, without the Turkish Cypriot populace.^[106] According to this census, the Greek Cypriot population was 482,000. One year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the total population of Cyprus at 641,000; of whom 506,000 (78.9%) were Greeks, and 118,000 (18.4%) Turkish.^[107] After the partition of the island in 1974, Greeks conducted four more censuses: in 1976, 1982, 1992 and 2001; these excluded the Turkish population which was resident in the northern part of the island.^[104]

According to the Republic of Cyprus's latest estimate, in 2005, the number of Cypriot citizens currently living in the Republic of Cyprus is around 871,036 In addition to this the Republic of Cyprus is home to 110,200 foreign permanent residents^[108] and an estimated 10,000–30,000 undocumented illegal immigrants currently living in the south of the island.^[109]

According to the 2006 census carried out by Northern Cyprus, there were 256,644 (de jure) people living in Northern Cyprus. 178,031 were citizens of Northern Cyprus, of whom 147,405 were born in Cyprus (112,534 from the north; 32,538 from the south; 371 did not indicate what part of Cyprus they were from); 27,333 born in Turkey; 2,482 born in the UK and 913 born in Bulgaria. Of the 147,405 citizens born in Cyprus, 120,031 say both parents were born in Cyprus; 16,824 say both parents born in Turkey; 10,361 have one parent born in Turkey and one parent born in Cyprus.^[110]

In 2010, the International Crisis Group estimated that the total population of Cyprus was 1.1 million,^[111] of which there was an estimated 300,000 residents in the north, perhaps half of whom were either born in Turkey or are children of such settlers.^[112] One source claims that the population in the north has reached 500,000,^[113] 50% of which are thought to be Turkish settlers or Cypriot-born children of such settlers.^[114]

The village of Pyla in the Larnaca District is the only settlement in the Republic of Cyprus with a mixed Greek and Turkish Cypriot population.^{[citation needed]}

Y-Dna haplogroups are found at the following frequencies in Cyprus : J (43.07% including 6.20% J1), E1b1b (20.00%), R1 (12.30% including 9.2% R1b), F (9.20%), I (7.70%), K (4.60%), A (3.10%).^[115] J, K, F and E1b1b haplogroups consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe while R1 and I are typical in West European populations.

Outside Cyprus there is a significant and thriving Greek Cypriot diaspora and Turkish Cypriot diaspora in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the United States, Greece and Turkey.

Largest cities[link]

v t e Largest cities or towns of Cyprus geonames.org
	Rank	City name	District	Pop.
Nicosia Limassol	1	Nicosia	Nicosia	398,293	Larnaca Famagusta
	2	Limassol	Limassol	235,056
	3	Larnaca	Larnaca	72,000
	4	Famagusta	Famagusta	42,526
	5	Paphos	Paphos	32,754
	6	Kyrenia	Kyrenia	26,701
	7	Protaras	Famagusta	20,230
	8	Morphou	Nicosia	14,833
	9	Aradhippou	Larnaca	13,349
	10	Paralimni	Famagusta

Religion[link]

Almost all Greek Cypriots are members of the autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus,^{[2][116][117]} whereas most Turkish Cypriots are adherents of Sunni Islam. According to Eurobarometer 2005,^[118] Cyprus is one of the most religious states in the European Union, alongside Malta, Romania, Greece, and Poland. The first President of Cyprus, Makarios III, was an archbishop.

Lefkara's orthodox church in Troodos Mountains (left) and Hala Sultan Tekke near Larnaca Salt Lake (right).

Given the special legal status of the Church of Cyprus, the country is also one of only six EU states to have an established state church, alongside Finland (Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church and Finnish Orthodox Church), Denmark (Danish National Church), Greece (Church of Greece), Malta (Roman Catholic Church), and, within the United Kingdom, England (Church of England). In addition to the Greek Orthodox and Muslim communities, there are also small Hindu, Sikh, Bahá'í, Jewish, Protestant (including Pentecostal), Catholic (including Latin Rite and Maronite) and Armenian Apostolic communities in Cyprus.

Hala Sultan Tekke, situated near the Larnaca Salt Lake, is considered by some secular orientalists as the third holiest site in Sunni Islam^{[119][120][121][122][123][124][125]} and an object of pilgrimage for both Muslims and Christians.^[126][127]

The current leader of the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus is Archbishop Chrysostomos II. He is known for his right-wing nationalist views, branding for example, illegal immigrants as "'interlopers' who do not belong on the island" and admits espousing several other political ideas of Cyprus' National People's Front (ELAM).^[128][129]

According to the 2001 census carried out in the Government controlled area,^[130] 94.8% of the population are Christian Orthodox, 0.9% Armenians and Maronites, 1.5% Roman Catholics, 1.0% Church of England, and 0.6% Muslims. The remaining 1.3% adhere to other religious denominations or did not state their religion.

Languages[link]

The country has two official languages: Greek and Turkish.^[1] Armenian, Cypriot Maronite Arabic and Romani are also recognized as minority languages.^[131] In addition to these languages – according the Eurobarometer by European Commission – 76% of the population of Cyprus speak English, 12% speak French, and 5% speak German.^[132]

Education[link]

Faneromeni School is the oldest all-girl primary school in Cyprus.

Cyprus has a highly developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. The high quality of instruction can be attributed to a large extent to the above-average competence of the teachers^{[citation needed]} but also to the fact that nearly 7% of the GDP is spent on education which makes Cyprus one of the top three spenders of education in the EU along with Denmark and Sweden.^[133]

State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions. However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take.

The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities. It is noteworthy that Cyprus currently has the highest percentage of citizens of working age who have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%. In addition 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU. The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus.

Culture[link]

Typical Cypriot architecture in old part of Nicosia, Cyprus

The culture of Cyprus is divided between the two distinct cultures of Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Each community maintains its own culture, linked to the cultures of Greece and Turkey, and there is little cultural interchange between the two groups. The Greek culture first has been present on the island since antiquity.^[37] The Turkish culture arrived with the invasion of the Ottoman Empire in 1570, and it was under this rule that the divide between the two communities became prominent and encouraged by government policies. The British did nothing to change this, leaving the island in its divided state with no unified culture.^[134]

Art[link]

Aphrodite; Greek goddess of love, beauty and sexuality, is said to have been born in Cyprus.

The art history of Cyprus can be said to stretch back up to 10,000 years, following the discovery of a series of Chalcolithic period carved figures in the villages of Khoirokoitia and Lempa^[135] and the island is also the home to numerous examples of high quality religious icon painting from the Middle Ages. Cypriot architecture was heavily influenced by French Gothic and Italian renaissance introduced in the island during the era of Latin domination (1191–1571).

In modern times Cypriot art history begins with the painter Vassilis Vryonides (1883–1958) who studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice.^[136] Arguably the two founding fathers of modern Cypriot art were Adamantios Diamantis (1900–1994) who studied at London's Royal College of Art and Christopheros Savva (1924–1968) who also studied in London, at St Martins School of Art.^[137] In many ways these two artists set the template for subsequent Cypriot art and both their artistic styles and the patterns of their education remain influential to this day. In particular the majority of Cypriot artists still train in England^[138] although art schools in Greece are also popular and local art institutions such as the Cyprus College of Art, University of Nicosia and the Frederick Institute of Technology are becoming more popular.

One of the features of Cypriot art is a tendency towards figurative painting although conceptual art is being rigorously promoted by a number of art "institutions" and most notably the Nicosia Municipal Art Centre [16]. Municipal art galleries exist in all the main towns and there is a large and lively commercial art scene. Cyprus was due to host the international art festival Manifesta in 2006 but this was cancelled at the last minute following a dispute between the Dutch organizers of Manifesta and the Cyprus Ministry of Education and Culture over the location of some of the Manifesta events in the Turkish sector of the capital Nicosia.^[139][140]

Other notable Cypriot artists include Rhea Bailey, Mihail Kkasialos, Ioannis Kissonergis, Theodoulos Gregoriou, Helene Black, George Skoteinos, Kalopedis family, Nicos Nicolaides, Stass Paraskos, Arestís Stasí, Telemachos Kanthos, Konstantia Sofokleous and Chris Achilleos.

Music[link]

Lute; dominant instrument of the Cypriot traditional music.

The traditional folk music of Cyprus has several common elements with Greek, Turkish, and Arabic music including Greco-Turkish dances such as the sousta, syrtos, zeibekikos, tatsia, and karsilamas as well as the Middle Eastern-inspired tsifteteli and arapies. There is also a form of musical poetry known as chattista which is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations. The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the bouzouki, oud ("outi"), violin ("fkiolin"), lute ("laouto"), accordion, Cyprus flute ("pithkiavlin") and percussion (including the "toumperleki"). Composers associated with traditional Cypriot music include Evagoras Karageorgis, Marios Tokas, Solon Michaelides and Savvas Salides.

Popular music in Cyprus is generally influenced by the Greek Laïka scene with several artists including Anna Vissi, Evridiki, and Sarbel earning widespread popularity in Cyprus, Greece and parts of the Middle East. Hip Hop, R&B and reggae are also very popular genres on the island and have been supported by the emergence of Cypriot rap and the urban music scene at Ayia Napa. Cypriot rock music and Éntekhno rock is often associated with artists such as Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis. Metal also has a small following in Cyprus represented by bands such as Armageddon(rev.16:16), Blynd, Winter's Verge and Quadraphonic.

Literature[link]

Zeno of Citium, founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.

Ioannis Kigalas ( ca. 1622–1687) was a Nicosia born Greek Cypriot scholar and professor of Philosophy who was largely active in the 17th century.^[141]

Literary production of the antiquity includes the Cypria, an epic poem, probably composed in the late seventh century BC and attributed to Stasinus. The Cypria is one of the very first specimens of Greek and European poetry.^[142] The Cypriot Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic School of Philosophy.

Epic poetry, notably the "acritic songs", flourished during Middle Ages. Two chronicles, one written by Leontios Machairas and the other by Georgios Voustronios, cover the entire Middle Ages until the end of Frankish rule (4th century – 1489). Poèmes d'amour written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from 16th century. Some of them are actual translations of poems written by Petrarch, Bembo, Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro.^[143] Many Cypriot scholars fled Cyprus at troubled times such as Ioannis Kigalas ( ca. 1622–1687) who migrated from Cyprus to Italy in the 17th century, several of his works have survived in books of other scholars.^[144]

Hasan Hilmi Efendi, a Turkish Cypriot poet, was rewarded by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and said to be the "sultan of the poems".^[145]

Modern literary figures from Cyprus include the poet and writer Kostas Montis, poet Kyriakos Charalambides, poet Michalis Pasiardis, writer Nicos Nicolaides, Stylianos Atteshlis, Altheides, Loukis Akritas^[146] and Demetris Th. Gotsis. Dimitris Lipertis, Vasilis Michaelides and Pavlos Liasides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in the Cypriot-Greek dialect.^[147][148] Lawrence Durrell lived in Northern Cyprus from 1952 until 26 August 1956 and wrote the book Bitter Lemons concerning his time there which won the second Duff Cooper Prize in 1957. The majority of the play Othello by William Shakespeare is set on the island of Cyprus. Cyprus also figures in religious literature such as the Acts of the Apostles according to which the Apostles Barnabas and Paul preached on the island.

Cinema[link]

The most renowned Cypriot director who worked abroad is Michael Cacoyannis. The Cypriot cinema was born much later than other countries and in the last decades the first coordinated steps have been taken to create a distinct Cypriot cinematography. The main reason for this delay was the belated entry of Cyprus into international society as an independent state in 1960, and the dramatic events that followed which left the island divided in a Greek and Turkish zones that remain divided.

During the late 60s and early 70s production showed a richer crop of films. George Filis produced and directed Gregoris Afxentiou, Etsi Prodothike i Kypros (Cyprus Betrayal), and the Mega Document.

Cinematographic production in Cyprus received a boost in 1994 with the establishment of the Cinema Advisory Committee. The annual amount currently set aside (2000) in the national budget stands at Cy Pounds 500,000 (about 850,000 Euros). In addition to government grants Cypriot co-productions are eligible for funding from the Eurimages Fund, a Council of Europe institution financing European film co-productions. To date four feature-length films in which a Cypriot was executive producer have received funding from Eurimages. The first was I Sphagi tou Kokora (1992) which has been completed in 1996, Hellados (And the trains fly to the sky, 1995), which is currently in the post-production phase and O Dromos gia tin Ithaki (The Road to Ithaka, 1997) of Costas Demetriou which was premiered in March 2000. In September 1999, To Tama (The Promise) of Andreas Pantzis has also received funding from the Eurimages Fund.^[149]

Cuisine[link]

Orange in a tree in Omodos. The Mediterranean climate of Cyprus is suitable for orange production.

Halloumi cheese originated in Cyprus^[150][151] and was initially made during the Medieval Byzantine period,^[152] subsequently gaining popularity throughout the Middle-East. Halloumi (Hellim) is commonly served sliced, either fresh or grilled, as an appetiser.

Modern Cypriot style tavern in Sirena Bay, Paralimni

Seafood and fish dishes of Cyprus include squid, octopus, red mullet, and sea bass. Cucumber and tomato are used widely in salads. Common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, asparagus and Taro. Other traditional delicacies of the island are meat marinated in dried coriander, seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such as lountza (smoked pork loin), charcoal-grilled lamb, souvlaki (pork and chicken cooked over charcoal), and sheftalia (minced meat wrapped in mesentery). Pourgouri (bulgur, cracked wheat) is the traditional carbohydrate other than bread, and is used to make the Cypriot delicacy koubes.

Fresh vegetables and fruits are common ingredients in Cypriot cuisine. Frequently used vegetables include courgettes, green peppers, okra, green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans, broad beans, peas, black-eyed beans, chick-peas and lentils. The commonest among fruits and nuts are pears, apples, grapes, oranges, mandarines, nectarines, mespila, blackberries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, hazelnut.

Cyprus is also well known for its desserts, including lokum (also known as Turkish Delight) and Soutzoukos.^[153] This island has protected geographical indication (PGI) for its lokum produced in the village of Geroskipou.^[154]

Sports[link]

Petter Solberg driving his Citroën Xsara WRC in Cyprus Rally.

Marcos Baghdatis, Cypriot professional tennis player

Governing bodies of sports in Cyprus include the Cyprus Football Association, Cyprus Basketball Federation, Cyprus Volleyball Federation, Cyprus Automobile Association, Cyprus Badminton Federation,^[155] Cyprus Cricket Association and the Cyprus Rugby Federation.

Football is by far the most popular spectator sport. The Cyprus League is nowadays considered as quite competitive and includes notable teams such as APOEL FC, Anorthosis Famagusta FC, AC Omonia, AEL Lemesos, Apollon FC, Nea Salamis Famagusta FC and AEK Larnaca FC. Stadiums or sports venues in Cyprus include the GSP Stadium (the largest in the Republic of Cyprus-controlled areas of Cyprus), Tsirion Stadium (second largest), Neo GSZ Stadium, Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium, Ammochostos Stadium and Makario Stadium. Cyprus, also has a football national team which in the last decade has evolved to a promising squad within the European rankings.

Anorthosis Famagusta FC was the first Cypriot team to qualify for the UEFA Champions League Group stage in the season 2008–2009. The next season it was APOEL FC turn to qualify for the UEFA Champions League Group stage. The next big step for the Cypriot football is currently taking place with APOEL FC playing for the last 8 of the 2011-12 UEFA Champions League after finishing top of its Group in the Group stage and beating French giants Olympique de Lyonnais in the Round of 16.

Apart from the main interest in football, Cyprus has exhibited certain accomplishments in other sports. Marcos Baghdatis is one of the most successful tennis players in international stage.^{[citation needed]} He was a finalist at the Australian Open in 2006, and reached the Wimbledon semi-final in the same year. Also Kyriakos Ioannou a Cypriot high jumper achieved a jump of 2.35 m at the 11th IAAF World Championships in Athletics held in Osaka, Japan, in 2007 winning the bronze medal. He was recently ranked as 3rd at international level and 2nd in Europe.

See also[link]

	Geography portal
	Asia portal
	Mediterranean portal
	European Union portal
	Cyprus portal

• Outline of Cyprus
• Index of Cyprus-related articles
• List of international rankings
• Reduction of military conscription in Cyprus

References[link]