Siege of Dubrovnik Part of the Croatian War of Independence Collage of the 1991 siege of Dubrovnik (clockwise from the top): Wire-guided missiles in a Serbian placement overlooking Dubrovnik and the Adriatic coast; Typical street scene during the war; After the onslaught; People queue for water at a standpipe. JNA soldiers checking papers at the coast. Date 1 October 1991 – May 1992 Location Dubrovnik area, Croatia Result Croatian victory Ceasefire signed Siege lifted Belligerents Yugoslav People's Army1 (Serb-controlled remnant) Yugoslav War Navy Croatian Army Commanders and leaders Pavle Strugar (Commander, JNA 2nd Operational Group) Miodrag Jokić Milan Zec Vladimir Kovačević Nojko Marinović (Commander of Dubrovnik defences) Janko Bobetko (posted to area in 1992) Strength Between 7,500 and 20,000 men[1] or 30,000[2] 1,230 armed men at the maximum and 60 at the minimal strength, depending on the phase[2] Casualties and losses About 150 soldiers[3] Almost 100 soldiers and 82–88 civilians killed[1][4] 1 The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) formations included units of the Montenegrin Territorial Defense Forces (TO).

v t e Croatian War of Independence Pakrac Plitvice Lakes Borovo Selo May 1991 Coast-91 Opera Orientalis Dalj Osijek Battle of Vukovar – Vukovar massacre Šibenik The Barracks Banski dvori Široka Kula Dalmatian channels Dubrovnik Lovas Gospić Saborsko Baćin Otkos 10 Škabrnja Erdut Orkan 91 Voćin Vihor Joševica Bruška ECMM helicopter downing Sarajevo Agreement Miljevci Tigar Maslenica Medak Pocket Winter '94 Flash Zagreb Summer '95 Storm Maestral Timeline of all major events Log Revolution Events in Serbia

The Siege of Dubrovnik (Croatian: Opsada Dubrovnika, Serbian: Blokada Dubrovnika, meaning "Blockade of Dubrovnik", a Serbian euphemism sometimes used to play down the real nature of the military campaign^[5][6][7]) is a term marking the battle and siege of the city of Dubrovnik and the surrounding area in Croatia as part of the Croatian War of Independence.^[8][9][10] Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) invaded the Dubrovnik area in October 1991 from Montenegro, Bosnia and even parts of Croatia, surrounding the city in order to conquer it. The three-month bombardment of the port city was one of the events which turned international opinion against the Serbs.^[11]

Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked in October 1991, with the major fighting ending in early 1992 and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid-1992, despite suffering heavy losses. The heaviest shelling of the city was on St. Nicholas Day, on 6 December 1991, when thirteen civilians were killed, which represented the greatest number of civilian deaths on a single day during the siege.^[4] According to the United Nations report, the siege caused at least 15,000 refugees, of which 7,000 were evacuated by sea in October 1991, whereas the city itself was without electricity or fresh water for at least two months, until the end of December 1991, since the JNA forces bombarded the district's electrical grid. The population at that time was dependent on ships for their water supply.^[4]

At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the prosecution alleged "It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro."^[12]

Background[link]

Walls of Dubrovnik

Dubrovnik is an old city located in the southernmost part of Dalmatia. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site and tourist destination, and under Communist Yugoslavia was demilitarized as it was considered that a military presence would not go hand in hand with tourism. When Croatia voted for independence in 1991, it was therefore one of the few major cities in Croatia not to have major JNA military forces in the area, which spared it during the Battle of the Barracks of September. In 1991, the city had a population of approximately 50,000 of whom 82.4% were Croats, 6.8% were Serbs, and 4% were Muslims.^[13]

The geographical position of the city was somewhat problematic. With the land borders between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and Montenegro (in 1991 both still part of Yugoslavia), Dubrovnik and the surrounding area found itself isolated. The southernmost part of Croatia is separated by the BiH's sea corridor at Neum. Furthermore, the geographical area around the city is very mountainous and unsuitable for military operations, creating a significant supply problem which was to limit the amount of forces involved. This meant that, in the case of a JNA attack from the neighbouring republics, Croatia's assistance would be limited to what could be transported to the area by sea.

At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte claimed that the purpose of the attack was to annex the area to Serbia and Montenegro by proclaiming a new Republic of Dubrovnik.^[14] Nojko Marinović claims that Dubrovnik was offered to become an autonomous republic within an enlarged Serbia.^[15] Former Yugoslav Ambassador to the European Union (EU), Mihailo Crnobrnja, speculated that the rationale for the siege was to gain an important bargaining chip to force Croatia to lift its blockades of JNA barracks. He also suggested that Montenegro may have wanted to hold Dubrovnik ransom for Croatian recognition of Prevlaka, a peninsula south of Dubrovnik, as Montenegrin territory.^[16]

Serbian propaganda activities[link]

Before the Siege of Dubrovnik, General Pavle Strugar^[18] made a concerted effort at misrepresenting the military situation on the ground and exaggerated the "threat" of a Croatian attack on Montenegro by "30,000 armed Ustashas and 7000 terrorists, including Kurdish mercenaries".^[1] This propaganda was widely spread by the state-controlled media of Serbia and Montenegro.^[19]

"Pobjeda"’s 1991 editorials tried to stage that "Croatia and Slovenia chose the war by opting for independence". This attitude was embraced by leading Montenegrin politicians at the time. Svetozar Marović saw the causes of the Yugoslav breakup in “the continuity of an aggressive imperialist Catholicism”.^[17] All this helped to instrumentalize the public and gave politicians a free hand to start the invasion of the Dubrovnik area.^[17]

During the Siege of Dubrovnik, while the Yugoslav army shelled the Croatian port town, Radio Television of Serbia showed Dubrovnik with columns of smoke explaining that the local people were burning automobile tires to simulate destruction of the city.^[5][20]

The siege[link]

Opposing forces[link]

Map of positions from which Dubrovnik was attacked

Croatian military forces in the area at September were virtually non-existent^[4][15] and were severely outgunned as the heaviest weapons available to them were four Soviet ZIS 76 millimeter artillery guns from 1942 of which only one had a telemetric device. The defenders also received two 85mm guns from the island of Korčula as well as three 120mm mortars.^[21][22] One of the reasons for their disadvantage was Tuđman's order from August 1991 which stipulated that no "defensive measures were to be taken in the region" of Dubrovnik, which was based on assurances of Veljko Kadijević and Milošević that the JNA would not attack that city.^[15]

The defenders included just one locally conscripted unit, the 163rd Infantry Brigade, which – along with local police forces and volunteers – numbered less than 1,500 men and had no tanks or heavy guns. Towards the end of the year, the defenders were reinforced with the IX (9th) HOS Infantry Battalion of less than 500 men.

These were pitted against several brigades of the JNA and Montenegro Territorial Defence Force of between 7,500 and 20,000 men, with tanks and artillery elements of the Naval District Corps and assorted other Corps formations of south Bosnia and Montenegro. The attack at the time was portrayed as an entirely Montenegrin affair (despite the mixed nationality of JNA troops, and Serb guidance, Montenegrins made the majority of troops) and was therefore presented in Montenegro as "War for Peace". Montenegrin prime minister Milo Đukanović said at the time that Montenegro had to definitively settle its borders with Croatia and fix the mistakes made by "Bolshevik cartographers".^[23]

City map with marked damage from the shelling by the Yugoslav People's Army.

JNA officers made a concerted effort at misrepresenting the military situation on the ground and exaggerated the "threat" of an attack on Montenegro by "30,000 armed Ustashas and 5,000 terrorists, including Kurdish mercenaries". There were said to be no mercenaries on the Croat side, and only one foreigner at all: a Dutchman, who was married to a lady from Dubrovnik and who was there during the war. He volunteered to join the Croatian army.^[1][15]

Initial attacks[link]

By October 1991, war had already started throughout Croatia. On 1 October 1991, JNA forces from Montenegro (swelled by mobilization called on 16 September in Montenegro) and south BiH advanced to attack the surrounding area and occupied Prevlaka, Konavle, Cavtat and the entire area around Dubrovnik, including the important international airport. The operation involved some amphibious landings.^[24] The airport was looted of valuable equipment which was taken to Montenegro – after independence in 2006, Montenegro has agreed to pay reparations for this.

On the way to attack Dubrovnik, JNA forces from Bosnia leveled the Croatian forces in the village of Ravno (in Bosnia) to the ground, making it the first casualty of the Bosnian War which officially started only six months later.

A combination of stiff resistance and international attention blocked the JNA's total attack and occupation of the city. The JNA occupied high terrain around the city instead, placing artillery there to shell the city – thus, the siege had started. At the same time, the Yugoslav Navy was actively involved in the bombardment, conducting amphibious operations and maintaining a sea blockade while shelling the city from the Adriatic Sea. Food, water and electricity supply to the city was cut during the earliest stages of the siege. The city was also crowded with 55,000 refugees from other war-torn areas in Croatia who had sought a safe haven there.^[21]

Siege and blockade[link]

Daily routine at Stradun during the war

The siege had immediately raised attention, as western reporters took pictures of the shelling (especially the Old City of Dubrovnik – a UNESCO World Heritage Site) – which drew international criticism of the JNA forces. The siege was heavily present in the international media and journalists have been heavily criticised for focusing and exaggerating damage to the old city to encourage military intervention, instead of focusing on human casualties.^[26] The concern with buildings over civilian deaths pushed the pivotal and much more brutal Battle of Vukovar out of public view.^[26] Even before the siege, the international community attempted several treaties to limit JNA advances into overwhelmingly Croat areas, yet these were systematically broken by JNA forces.^[1]

Negative though the international reaction was, it did nothing to quell the brutal bombardment, however, and the shelling continued until December. If the area around Dubrovnik is excluded, the Old Town itself was shelled on 23 October 30 October (when 6 civilians were killed, including a mother and her child), 1 November 2 November (when refugees were wounded), 3 November 4 November, 8–13 November, 2 and 6 December.^[4]

Towards the end of the year, the Croatian defenders staged a small counterattack aiming to displace the JNA from the surrounding mountains, but this did not end the bombardment entirely. Yugoslav poet Milan Milišić was one of the first casualties of shelling, on 5 October 1991. The Yugoslav Navy and Army also increased their pressure on neighbouring Croatians ports such as Slano, where they burned and destroyed the small transport Perast. Three seamen were killed in the attack, while the rest of the crew escaped to Dubrovnik. The ship was later found adrift by members of the Croatian Navy off Šipan island.^[27]

In November, the ferryboat Slavija, leading a large convoy of 40 fishing and tour boats docked at the town, taking 2,000 refugees from the city up the Croatian coast. The convoy, called by the Croatians Libertas or "Freedom 's convoy", had been initially stopped by the Yugoslav frigate JRM Split between the islands of Brač and Šolta and the next day by Yugoslav patrol boats off Korčula,^[28] but after several hours of negotiations between Yugoslav President Stjepan Mesić, aboard the Slavija, and his deputy minister of defense, the flotilla was allowed to proceed.^[29][30]

Hotel Grand, Kupari – destroyed during the siege.

On 11 November an old Maltese-flagged coaster, the Euro River, manned by a Croatian crew and bound for Ploce, a port located some miles north of Dubrovnik, was sunk by gunfire at the position 43°19′N 16°9′E / 43.317°N 16.15°E / 43.317; 16.15 (Sunken ship Euro River), not far from the area where the Slavija convoy was stopped for the first time. All people aboard were safely rescued.^[31] At the same period, a runabout from the Dubrovnik marina, the Sveti Vlaho (St. Blaise) was requisitioned by the Croatian authorities, thus becoming one of the first operational vessels of the new Croatian Navy as it represented the first craft of the Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik. She was outfitted with armor-plates and armed with machine guns. The Sveti Vlaho carried out several blockade-running missions smuggling weapons, ammunition and supplies into the besieged city before being hit and sunk by a 9K11 Malyutka missile on 6 December.^[32][33] The vessel has since been recovered and is currently on display at the city's port.^[34]

On 6 December, the heaviest shelling was reported on what came to be known as the St. Nicholas Day Bombardment, and 13 civilians were killed.^[4] During the siege, several yachts moored at the old harbour were destroyed or damaged by wire-guided missiles,^[35] while some larger ships at the port of Gruž, like the ferryboat Adriatic^[36] and the American-owned sailing ship Pelagic^[37] were set ablaze and destroyed by gunfire. By the end of December, Croatian Navy and coastal artillery had successfully repelled JNA Navy forces along Dalmatia, and the Navy withdrew to Montenegro's naval base at Boka Kotorska. The situation on the ground was still unfavorable, though. The last ceasefire went into effect at the end of the year and the shelling ended by 1992.

Croatian counterattack[link]

As part of the ceasefire agreement, the JNA formally left Croatia and moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina where the Bosnian War was to start in April – the notable exception was Dubrovnik where there weren't enough local Serb formations as in other parts of Croatia to replace them, so the JNA continued its presence there. Since many of the units involved in attacks on Dubrovnik were originally from Army formations stationed in Bosnia (specifically, Trebinje Corps), these were now returned to their home commands, as JNA forces planned a general offensive on the nearby BiH city of Mostar.

The units left behind near Dubrovnik were now to reserve strength and the Croatian army took advantage of the altered situation by redeploying elements of its elite guard brigades (1st, 2nd and 4th brigades) to the area, forming a command HQ under Janko Bobetko in April and starting a successful offensive which broke the blockade on 26 May 1992. During the course of the next two months, Operations Čagalj and Tigar were launched to push the remaining forces away from the city and liberate the entire surrounding area, which was achieved by the end of July. The important Prevlaka area was also taken – which effectively meant a blockade of the JNA Navy in Boka – but was recaptured by Montenegro forces later on. Following this, both sides agreed for United Nations supervision of the area, ending the battle for Dubrovnik.

Aftermath[link]

Shelling of the old city

In 1991, the American Institute of Architects condemned the bombardment of buildings.^[38] The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, in conjunction with UNESCO, found that of the 824 buildings in the Old Town, 563 (or 68.33 %) had been hit by projectiles in 1991 and 1992. Nine buildings were completely destroyed by fire. In 1993, the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public, private and religious buildings, streets, squares, fountains, ramparts, gates, and bridges at US$9,657,578. By the end of 1999, over $7,000,000 had been spent on restoration.^[14]

Croatian prisoners of war from the attack on Dubrovnik and its hinterland were taken by the Yugoslav People's Army were taken to detention centers, notably the Morinj camp near Kotor, Montenegro, and a prison near Bileća, Bosnia and Herzegovina, where they were held until 1992.

The city and the area recovered remarkably well from the war, and the city is once again a favorite tourist destination. Prevlaka has been returned from UN supervision to Croatian control and the newly independent Montenegro has expressed its wish for improving relations with Croatia. However, there is still no agreement between the two countries involving war reparations. In 2000, Milo Đukanović as president of Montenegro apologized to Croatia for the siege.^[39] In 2007, Montenegrin filmmaker Koča Pavlović released Rat za mir about the role of Montenegrin officials in the siege.^[40]

War crime charges[link]

From October 1, 1991 until December 7, 1991, Slobodan Milosevic, acting alone or in concert with other known and unknown members of the joint criminal enterprise, planned, instigated, ordered, committed, or otherwise aided and abetted the planning, preparation, or execution of a military campaign directed at the city of Dubrovnik and its surroundings in order to achieve the forcible removal of its non-Serb population. In this time period launched an extensive military attack on the coastal regions of Croatia between the town of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the north-west and the Montenegrin border in the south-east. It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro. While the Serb forces seized the territory to the south-east and north-west of the city of Dubrovnik within two weeks, the city itself was under attack throughout the time alleged in this indictment. During an unlawful extensive shelling campaign conducted from high ground east and north of Dubrovnik, forty-three Croat civilians were killed and numerous others wounded.^[41]

— War Crimes Indictment against Milosevic and others

In 2001, at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte charged four JNA commanders for their role in the siege: Pavle Strugar, Miodrag Jokić, Milan Zec, and Vladimir Kovačević.^[14]

• General Pavle Strugar was sentenced to eight years for his role in the shelling of the city.^[42]

• Miodrag Jokić (commander of JNA Naval District) was sentenced to seven years.^[43]

• The indictment against Yugoslav Navy Captain Milan Zec was withdrawn in July 2002.^[44]

• Vladimir Kovačević (commander of Third Battalion 472nd Motorized JNA Brigade) was accused together with Strugar for war crimes, but his case was transferred to the Courts of Serbia. He was found to be unable to stand trial due to insanity and was transferred to a mental asylum.^[45]

Croatian authorities issued arrest warrants for numerous former JNA officers and commanders. In 2011, Božidar Vučurević, former war-time mayor of Trebinje, was arrested at a border crossing by Serb officials based on Croatian charges of bombing Dubrovnik.^[46]

Movies and documentaries[link]

• "War for Peace" (2007); a Montenegrin documentary by Koča Pavlović.^[17]
• "War for Dubrovnik" (2010); a Montenegrin documentary by Snežana Rakonjac.^[47]

See also[link]

• Operation Coast-91
• Battle of the Dalmatian channels

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Armatta, Judith (2010). Twilight of Impunity: The War Crimes Trial of Slobodan Milosevic. Duke University Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=pXygFoqg-G0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=twilight+of+impunity&hl=en&ei=R-pPTqLQMMPo-ga5oeX2DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Blaskovich, Jerry (1997). Anatomy of Deceit: An American Physician's First-Hand Encounter with the Realities of the War in Croatia. Dunhill Publishing. ISBN 0-935016-24-4, 9780935016246. http://books.google.hr/books?id=ngkIAAAACAAJ. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Siege of Dubrovnik

• Second Amended Indictment against P. Strugar and V. Kovačević, includes a list of damaged religious, art and education buildings and monuments in the UNESCO-protected old city
• Publication "Dubrovnik: War for peace" on the siege of Dubrovnik, published by the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia (Serbian)
• United Nations report on the battle

Dubrovnik
The walled city of Dubrovnik and outskirts
Flag Coat of arms
Nickname(s): Pearl of the Adriatic, Thesaurum mundi
1995 map of Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik The location of Dubrovnik within Croatia
Coordinates: 42°38′25″N 18°06′30″E / 42.64028°N 18.10833°E / 42.64028; 18.10833Coordinates: 42°38′25″N 18°06′30″E / 42.64028°N 18.10833°E / 42.64028; 18.10833
Country	Croatia
County	Dubrovnik-Neretva county
Government
• Mayor	Andro Vlahušić (CPP)
Area
• City	21.35 km2 (8.24 sq mi)
Population (2011)[1]
• City	42,641
• Urban	28,113
Time zone	CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)	CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code	20000
Area code(s)	020
Vehicle registration	DU

Stradun, Dubrovnik's main street

Rector's Palace

Minčeta Tower

Dubrovnik (pronounced [dǔbroːʋnik], note that the stress is on the first syllable) is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641 (census 2011).^[1] In 1979, the city of Dubrovnik joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.

The prosperity of the city of Dubrovnik has always been based on maritime trade. In the Middle Ages, as the Republic of Ragusa, also known as a Maritime Republic (together with Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, Venice and other Italian cities), it became the only eastern Adriatic city-state to rival Venice. Supported by its wealth and skilled diplomacy, the city achieved a high level of development, particularly during the 15th and 16th centuries.

The beginning of tourism in Dubrovnik is often associated with the construction of the late 19th-century luxury hotels in Croatia, such as Grand Hotel (1890) in Opatija and the Hotel Imperial (1897) in Dubrovnik.^[2] According to CNNGo, Dubrovnik is among the 10 best medieval walled cities in the world and among the 10 best places in the world for a fairytale proposal of the Valentine's Day.^[3][4] Although Dubrovnik was demilitarised in the 1970s to protect it from war, in 1991, after the breakup of Yugoslavia, it was besieged by Serb-Montenegrin forces for 7 months and received significant shelling damage.

Name[link]

In Croatian, the city is known as Dubrovnik; in Italian as Ragusa; and in Latin as Ragusium. Its historical name in Greek is Raugia (Ραυγια) or Ragousa (Ραγουσα).

The current Croatian name was officially adopted in 1918 after the fall of the Austria–Hungary empire, but it was in use from the Middle Ages. It is also referred to as Dubrovnik in the first official document of the treaty with the Ban of Bosnia Ban Kulin.

History[link]

Origins[link]

Historical lore indicates that Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was founded in the 7th century on a rocky island named Laus, which provided shelter for refugees from the nearby city of Epidaurus^[5]

Another theory appeared recently, based on new archaeological excavations. New findings (a Byzantine basilica from the 8th century and parts of the city walls) contradict the traditional theory. The size of the old basilica clearly indicates that there was quite a large settlement at the time. There is also increasing support in the scientific community^[who?] for the theory that major construction of Ragusa took place before the current era. This "Greek theory" has been boosted by recent findings of numerous Greek artefacts during excavations in the Port of Dubrovnik. Also, drilling below the main city road has revealed natural sand, contradicting the theory of Laus (Lausa) island.

Dr. Antun Ničetić, in his book "Povijest dubrovačke luke" (History of the Port of Dubrovnik), expounds the theory that Dubrovnik was established by Greek sailors. A key element in this theory is the fact that ships in ancient times travelled about 45-50 nautical miles per day, and required a sandy shore to pull out of water for the rest period during the night. The ideal rest site would have a fresh water source in its vicinity. Dubrovnik has both, and is situated almost halfway between the two known Greek settlements of Budva and Korčula (95 NM is the distance between them).

The Republic[link]

Coat of Arms of the Republic of Ragusa

After the fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, the town came under the protection of the Byzantine Empire. Ragusa in those mediaeval centuries had a population of Latinized Illyrians.^[6] After the Crusades, Ragusa came under the sovereignty of Venice (1205–1358), which would give its institutions to the Dalmatian city. After a fire destroyed almost the whole city in the night of August 16, 1296, a new urban plan was developed.^[7][8][9] By the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Ragusa achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Between the 14th century and 1808, Ragusa ruled itself as a free state, although it was a vassal from 1440 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire and paid an annual tribute to its sultan.^[10] The Republic reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, when its thalassocracy rivalled that of the Republic of Venice and other Italian maritime republics.

For centuries, the Republic of Ragusa was an ally of Ancona, the other Adriatic maritime Republic rival of Venice, which was the Ottoman Empire's chief rival for control of the Adriatic. This alliance enabled the two towns set on opposite sides of the Adriatic to resist attempts by the Venetians to make the Adriatic a "Venetian Bay", also said to control directly or indirectly all the Adriatic ports. Ancona and Ragusa developed an alternative trade route to the Venetian (Venice-Germany-Austria): this route started from the East, passed through Ragusa and Ancona, then interested Florence and finally Flanders.

The Republic of Ragusa received its own Statutes as early as 1272, statutes which, among other things, codified Roman practice and local customs. The Statutes included prescriptions for town planning and the regulation of quarantine (for sanitary reasons).^[11]

The Republic was an early adopter of what are now regarded as modern laws and institutions: a medical service was introduced in 1301, with the first pharmacy, still operating to this day, being opened in 1317. An almshouse was opened in 1347, and the first quarantine hospital (Lazarete) was established in 1377. Slave trading was abolished in 1418, and an orphanage opened in 1432. A 20 km (12 mi) water supply system was constructed in 1436.

The city was ruled by the local aristocracy which was of Latin-dalmatian extraction and formed two city councils. As usual for the time, they maintained a strict system of social classes. The republic abolished the slave trade early in the 15th century and valued liberty highly. The city successfully balanced its sovereignty between the interests of Venice and the Ottoman Empire for centuries.

The languages spoken by the people were the Romance Dalmatian and Croatian. The latter started to replace Dalmatian little by little since the 11th century amongst the common people who inhabited the city. The aristocracy was of Latin extraction. The population itself was mostly of Latin origin until the 17th century, when Croatians migrated from the surrounding regions.

Italian and Venetian would become important languages of culture and trade in the Republic of Ragusa. The Italian language replaced Latin as official language of the Republic of Ragusa from 1472 until the end of the republic itself.^{[citation needed]} At the same time, due to a pacific cohabitation with the Slavic element and the influence of Italian culture during the Renaissance, Ragusa became a cradle of Croatian literature.

Onofrio's Fountain

The economic wealth of the Republic was partially the result of the land it developed, but especially of seafaring trade. With the help of skilled diplomacy, Ragusa's merchants travelled lands freely and on the sea the city had a huge fleet of merchant ships (argosy) that travelled all over the world. From these travels they founded some settlements, from India to America, and brought parts of their culture and flora home with them. One of its keys to success was not conquering, but trading and sailing under a white flag with the word Latin: Libertas(freedom) prominently featured on it. The flag was adopted when slave trading was abolished in 1418.

Many Conversos, Jews from Spain and Portugal, were attracted to the city. In May 1544, a ship landed there filled exclusively with Portuguese refugees, as Balthasar de Faria reported to King John. During this time there worked in the city one of the most famous cannon and bell founders of his time: Ivan Rabljanin (Magister Johannes Baptista Arbensis de la Tolle). Already in 1571 Dubrovnik sold its protectorate over some Christian settlements in other parts of the Ottoman Empire to France and Venice. At that time there was also a colony of Dubrovnik in Fes in Morocco. The bishop of Dubrovnik was a Cardinal protector in 1571. Cardinal protectors were only in 16 other countries, too, in 1571, namely in France, Spain, Austria, Portugal, Poland, England, Scotland, Ireland, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Savoy, Lucca, Greece, Illyria, Armenia and Lebanon.

Ragusan territory before 1808

The Republic gradually declined after a crisis in Mediterranean shipping and the catastrophic earthquake of 1667^[12] killed over 5,000 citizens and levelled most of the public buildings, ruining the well-being of the Republic. In 1699, the Republic sold two mainland patches of its territory to the Ottomans in order to avoid being caught in the clash with advancing Venetian forces. Today this strip of land belongs to Bosnia and Herzegovina and is that country's only direct access to the Adriatic. A highlight of Dubrovnik's diplomacy was the involvement in the American Revolution.^[13]

In 1806, the city surrendered to the Napoleonic army,^[14] as that was the only way to end a month long siege by the Russian-Montenegrin fleets (during which 3,000 cannonballs fell on the city). At first, Napoleon demanded only free passage for his troops, promising not to occupy the territory and stressing that the French were friends of the Ragusans. Later, however, French forces blockaded the harbours, forcing the government to give in and let French troops enter the city. On this day, all flags and coats of arms above the city walls were painted black as a sign of mourning. In 1808, Marshal Marmont abolished the republic and integrated its territory first into Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy and later into the Illyrian provinces under French rule. This was to last until the 28th January 1814 when the city surrendered to Captain Sir William Hoste leading a body of British and Austrian troops who were besieging the fortress.

Languages[link]

The official language until 1472 was Latin. Later, the Senate of the Republic decided that the official language of the Republic would be the Ragusan dialect of the Romance Dalmatian language, and forbade the use of the Slavic language in senatorial debate. The Gospari (the Aristocracy) held on to their language for many centuries, while it slowly disappeared.

Although the Latin language was in official use, inhabitants of the republic were^[when?] mostly native speakers of Slavonic languages (as confirmed^{[clarification needed]} by P. A. Tolstoj in 1698, when he noted In Dalmatia... Dubrovnikans....called themselves as Ragusan(Raguseos) and always have pride in the Republic).^[15] The Dalmatian language was also spoken in the city. The Italian language as spoken in the republic was heavily influenced by the Venetian language and the Tuscan dialect. Italian took root among the Dalmatian Romance-speaking merchant upper classes, as a result of Venetian influence.^[16]

Austrian rule[link]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009)

When the Habsburg Empire annexed these provinces after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the new authorities implemented a bureaucratic administration, established the Kingdom of Dalmatia, which had its own Sabor (Diet) or Parliament, based in the city of Zadar, and political parties such as the Autonomist Party and the People's Party. They introduced a series of modifications intended to slowly centralize the bureaucratic, tax, religious, educational, and trade structure. Unfortunately for the local residents, these steps largely failed, despite the intention of wanting to stimulate the economy. And once the personal, political and economic damage of the Napoleonic Wars had been overcome, new movements began to form in the region, calling for a political reorganization of the Adriatic along the national lines.^{[citation needed]}

The combination of these two forces—a flawed Habsburg administrative system and new national movement claiming ethnicity as the founding block toward a community—posed a particularly perplexing problem; since Dalmatia was a province ruled by the German-speaking Habsburg monarchy, with bilingual (Slavic- and Italian-speaking) elites that dominated the general population consisting of a Slavic Catholic majority (and a Slavic Orthodox minority of not more than 300 people).^{[citation needed]}

Ragusan Flag "Libertas"

In 1815, the former Ragusan Government (its noble assembly) met for the last time in Ljetnikovac in Mokošica. Once again, extreme measures were taken to re-establish the Republic, but it was all in vain. After the fall of the Republic most of the aristocracy was recognized by the Austrian Empire.

In 1832, Baron Sigismondo Ghetaldi-Gondola (1795–1860) was elected podestà of Ragusa, serving for 13 years; the Austrian government granted him the title of "Baron".

Count Raffaele Pozza, Dr. Jur., (1828–90) was elected for first time Podestà of Ragusa in the year 1869 after this was re-elected in 1872, 1875, 1882, 1884) and elected twice into the Dalmatian Council, 1870, 1876. The victory of the Nationalists in Spalato in 1882 strongly affected in the areas of Curzola and Ragusa. It was greeted by the mayor (podestà) of Ragusa Raffaele Pozza, the National Reading Club of Dubrovnik, the Workers Association of Dubrovnik and the review "Slovinac"; by the communities of Kuna and Orebić, the latter one getting the nationalist government even before Split.

The Austrian and Austro-Hungarian rule that followed folloved the Divide et impera policy. The Austrian policy of denationalizing the Dalmatian coasts left its mark in the political division of the population as best expressed in the political parties: the Croatian People's Party and the mostly Italianite Autonomous Party.^{[citation needed]}

Ivan Gundulić monument 1893

In 1889, the Serbian-Catholics circle supported Baron Francesco Ghetaldi-Gondola, the candidate of the Autonomous Party, vs the candidate of Popular Party Vlaho de Giulli, in the 1890 election to the Dalmatian Diet.^[17] The following year, during the local government election, the Autonomous Party won the municipal re-election with Francesco Gondola, who died in power in 1899. The alliance won the election again on 27 May 1894. Francesco Ghetaldi-Gondola founded the Società Philately on 4 December 1890.

In 1905, the Committee for establishing electric tram service, headed by m. Luko Bona – certainly one of the most deserving persons who contributed to the realisation of the project - was established. Other members of the Committee were: Ivo Papi, Dr. Miho Papi, Dr. Artur Saraka, Mato Šarić, Dr. Antun Pugliesi, Dr. Mato Gracić, Dr. Ivo Degiulli, Ernest Katić and Antun Milić.^[18]

Pero Cingrija (1837-1921), one of the leaders of the People's Party in Dalmatia, played the main role in the merger of the People's Party and the Party of Right into a single Croatian Party in 1905.

1918–1991[link]

With the fall of Austria–Hungary in 1918, the city was incorporated into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). The name of the city was officially changed from Ragusa to Dubrovnik.

During World War II, Dubrovnik became part of the Nazi allied Independent State of Croatia, occupied by the Italian army first, and by the German army after 8 September 1943. In October 1944 Tito's partisans entered Dubrovnik, that became consequently part of Communist Yugoslavia. Soon after their arrival into the city, Partisans executed approximately 78 influential and well known citizens without a trial, including a Catholic priests, on the nearby island of Daksa.^[19] Communist leadership during several next years continued prosecution of Croats which culminated on 12 April 1947 by capturing and imprisoned more than 90 citizens of Dubrovnik.^[20]

Break-up of Yugoslavia[link]

Dubrovnik Shelling (black dots) 1991 to 1992.

In 1991 Croatia and Slovenia, which at that time were republics within Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, declared their independence. At that event, Socialist Republic of Croatia was renamed Republic of Croatia.

Despite demilitarization of the old town in early 1970s in an attempt to prevent it from ever becoming a casualty of war, following Croatia's independence in 1991, Serbian-Montenegrin remains of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) attacked the city. The regime in Montenegro led by Momir Bulatović, which was installed by and loyal to the Serbian government led by Slobodan Milošević, declared that Dubrovnik would not be permitted to remain in Croatia because they claimed it was historically part of Montenegro.^[21] This was in spite of the large Croat majority in the city and that very few Montenegrins resided there, though Serbs accounted for six percent of the population.^[21] Many consider the claims by the Bulatović government, as being part of Serbian President Milošević's plan to deliver his nationalist supporters the Greater Serbia they desired as Yugoslavia collapsed.^[21]

On October 1, 1991 Dubrovnik was attacked by JNA with a siege of Dubrovnik that lasted for seven months. The heaviest artillery attack was on December 6 with 19 people killed and 60 wounded. Total casualties in the conflict according to Croatian Red Cross were 114 killed civilians, among them celebrated poet Milan Milisić. Foreign newspapers have been criticised for exaggerating the damage sustained by the old town, instead of responding to human casualties.^[22] Nonetheless, the artillery attacks on Dubrovnik damaged 56% of its buildings to some degree, as the historic walled city, a UNESCO world heritage site, sustained 650 hits by artillery rounds.^[23] In May 1992 the Croatian Army lifted the siege and liberated Dubrovnik's surroundings, but the danger of sudden attacks by the JNA lasted for another three years.^[24]

Following the end of the war, damage caused by the shelling of the Old Town was repaired. Adhering to UNESCO guidelines, repairs were performed in the original style. As of 2005^[update], most damage had been repaired. The inflicted damage can be seen on a chart near the city gate, showing all artillery hits during the siege, and is clearly visible from high points around the city in the form of the more brightly coloured new roofs. ICTY indictments were issued for JNA generals and officers involved in the bombing.

General Pavle Strugar, who coordinated the attack on the city, was sentenced to an eight year prison term by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for his role in the attack.

The 1996 Croatia USAF CT-43 crash, near Dubrovnik Airport, killed everyone on a United States Air Force jet with United States Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown, The New York Times Frankfurt Bureau chief Nathaniel C. Nash and 33 other people.

Heritage[link]

Old City of Dubrovnik
Native name Croatian: Stari grad Dubrovnik
The Old Harbour at Dubrovnik
Location	Dubrovnik-Neretva County,  Croatia
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, iii, iv
Designated	1979 (3rd Session)
Reference #	95
Europe and North America
Extension	1994
Endangered	1991–1998
Cultural Good of Croatia
Official name Stari grad Dubrovnik

The annual Dubrovnik Summer Festival is a 45 day-long cultural event with live plays, concerts, and games. It has been awarded a Gold International Trophy for Quality (2007) by the Editorial Office in collaboration with the Trade Leaders Club.

The patron saint of the city is Sveti Vlaho (Saint Blaise), whose statues are seen around the city. He has an importance similar to that of St. Mark the Evangelist to Venice. One of the larger churches in city is named after Saint Blaise. February 3 is the feast of Sveti Vlaho (Saint Blaise), who is the city's patron saint. Every year the city of Dubrovnik celebrates the holiday with Mass, parades, and festivities that last for several days.^[25]

The Old Town of Dubrovnik is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 50 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2002.^[26]

The city boasts of many old buildings, such as the Arboretum Trsteno, the oldest arboretum in the world, dating back to before 1492. Also, the third oldest European pharmacy is located in the city, which dates back to 1317 (and is the only one still in operation today). It is located at Little Brothers monastery in Dubrovnik.^[27]

A night shot of the Dubrovnik Old Town

In history, many Conversos (Marranos) were attracted to Dubrovnik, formerly a considerable seaport. In May 1544, a ship landed there filled exclusively with Portuguese refugees, as Balthasar de Faria reported to King John. Another admirer of Dubrovnik, George Bernard Shaw, visited the city in 1929 and said: "If you want to see heaven on earth, come to Dubrovnik."

In the bay of Dubrovnik is the 72-hectare wooded island of Lokrum, where according to legend, Richard the Lionheart was cast ashore after being shipwrecked in 1192. The island includes a fortress, botanical garden, monastery and naturist beach.

Among the many tourist destinations are a few beaches. Banje, Dubrovnik's main public beach, is home to the Eastwest Beach Club. There is also Copacabana Beach, a stony beach on the Lapad peninsula,^[28] named after the popular beach in Rio de Janeiro.

Dubrovnik has also been mentioned in popular film and theatre. In the film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea with Michael Caine, one of the characters said to have been dreaming of fairy from Dubrovnik (motive known from local legends and literature).

Ivan Gundulić, a 17th century Croatian writer, predicted the downfall of the great Turkish Empire in his poem Osman.

Important monuments[link]

Rooftops in Dubrovnik's Old City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Few of Dubrovnik's Renaissance buildings survived the earthquake of 1667 but fortunately enough remain to give an idea of the city's architectural heritage.^[29] The finest Renaissance highlight is the Sponza Palace which dates from the 16th century and is currently used to house the National Archives.^[30] The Rectors Palace is a Gothic-Renaissance structure that displays finely carved capitals and an ornate staircase. It now houses a museum.^[31][32] Its façade is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 50 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2002.^[26] The St. Saviour Church is another remnant of the Renaissance period, next to the much-visited Franciscan Monastery.^[27][33][34] The Franciscan monastery's library possesses 30,000 volumes, 216 incunabula, 1,500 valuable handwritten documents. Exhibits include a 15th century silver-gilt cross and silver thurible, an 18th century crucifix from Jerusalem, a martyrology (1541) by Bemardin Gucetic and illuminated psalters.^[27]

Dubrovnik's most beloved church is St Blaise's church, built in the 18th century in honour of Dubrovnik's patron saint. Dubrovnik's baroque Cathedral was built in the 18th century and houses an impressive Treasury with relics of Saint Blaise. The city's Dominican Monastery resembles a fortress on the outside but the interior contains an art museum and a Gothic-Romanesque church.^[35][36] A special treasure of the Dominican monastery is its library with 216 incunabula, numerous illustrated manuscripts, a rich archive with precious manuscripts and documents and an extensive art collection.^[37][38][39]

Walls of Dubrovnik[link]

A feature of Dubrovnik is its walls that run almost 2 km (1.24 mi) around the city. The walls run from four to six metres thick on the landward side but are much thinner on the seaward side. The system of turrets and towers were intended to protect the vulnerable city.^[40]

Demographics[link]

Franjo Tuđman Bridge

The total population of the city is 42,641 (census 2011), in the following settlements:^[1]

The population was 43,770 in 2001,^[41] down from 49,728 in 1991.^[42] In the 2001 census, approximately 88.39% of the population was Croat.^[41]

Transport[link]

Dubrovnik Airport

Dubrovnik has an international airport of its own. It is located approximately 20 km (12 mi) from Dubrovnik city centre, near Čilipi. Buses connect the airport with the Dubrovnik old main bus station in Gruž. In addition, a network of modern, local buses connects all Dubrovnik neighbourhoods running frequently from dawn to midnight. However, Dubrovnik, unlike Croatia's other major centres, is not accessible by rail.^[43] Until 1975 Dubrovnik was connected to Mostar and Sarajevo by a narrow gauge railway(760 mm)^[44][45] built during the Austro-Hungarian rule of Bosnia.

The A1 highway, in use between Zagreb and Vrgorac, is planned to be extended all the way to Dubrovnik. The highway will cross the Pelješac Bridge which is currently under construction. An alternative plan proposes the highway running from Neum through Bosnia and Herzegovina and an expressway continuing to Dubrovnik. However, this plan has fallen out of favour.

Education[link]

Dubrovnik has a number of educational institutions. These include Dubrovnik International University, the University of Dubrovnik, a Nautical College, a Tourist College, a University Centre for Postgraduate Studies of the University of Zagreb, American College of Management and Technology, and an Institute of History of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.

Climate[link]

The climate along the Dubrovnik Region is a typical Mediterranean one, with mild, rainy winters and hot and dry summers. However, it is perhaps distinct from other Mediterranean climates because of the unusual winds and frequency of thunderstorms. The Bura wind blows uncomfortably cold gusts down the Adriatic coast between October and April, and thundery conditions are common all the year round, even in summer, when they interrupt the warm, sunny days. The air temperatures can slightly vary, depending on the area or region. Typically, in July and August daytime maximum temperatures reach 29 °C (84 °F), and at night drop to around 21 °C (70 °F). More comfortable, perhaps, is the climate in Spring and Autumn when maximum temperatures are typically between 20 °C (68 °F) and 28 °C (82 °F).

• Air temperature
  • average annual

16.4 °C (61.5 °F)

• average of coldest period=January

10 °C (50 °F)

• average of warmest period=August

25.8 °C (78.4 °F)

• Sea temperature
  • average May–September

17.9–23.8 °C (64–75 °F)

• Salinity*
  • approximately 38 ‰ (parts per thousand)
• Precipitation
  • average annual

1,020.8 mm

• • average annual rain days

109.2

• Sunshine
  • average annual

2629 h

• • average daily hours

7.2 h

International relations[link]

Twin towns - sister cities[link]

Dubrovnik is twinned with:^[48]

Images[link]

Panorama[link]

Panoramic view on the Old Town of Dubrovnik

Panoramic view from the Old Harbour

Gallery[link]

• 

  The Roland statue, symbol of a free city

• 
• 
• 

  View from the mountain Srđ

See also[link]

Croatia portal

• List of people from Dubrovnik
• Walls of Dubrovnik
• Republic of Ragusa
• Dalmatia
• Tourism in Croatia

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

Notes[link]

External links[link]

Look up dubrovnik in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dubrovnik

• Old City of Dubrovnik - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
• Dubrovnik, pearl of the Adriatic Photo gallery and tourist information
• Dubrovnik travel guide from Wikitravel
• Video, Dubrovnik Digital reconstruction by GRAIL at Washington University
• eGuide to Dubrovnik Churches and Monasteries
• Dubrovnik in Encyclopædia Britannica
• Guide to Dubrovnik history, famous people, culture and monuments
• Photo tour of Dubrovnik's landmarks and sights worth seeing
• Dubrovnik and Region Online Guide
• Dubrovnik area on the map

v t e Subdivisions of Dubrovnik-Neretva County Cities and towns Dubrovnik (seat) Korčula Metković Opuzen Ploče Municipalities Blato Dubrovačko primorje Janjina Konavle Kula Norinska Lastovo Lumbarda Mljet Orebić Pojezerje Slivno Smokvica Ston Trpanj Vela Luka Zažablje Župa dubrovačka

v t e Cities and major settlements of Croatia by population 100,000+ Osijek Rijeka Split Zagreb 35,000+ Bjelovar Dubrovnik Karlovac Kaštela Pula Samobor Šibenik Sisak Slavonski Brod Varaždin Velika Gorica Vinkovci Zadar 10,000+ Beli Manastir Belišće Benkovac Čakovec Crikvenica Đakovo Daruvar Duga Resa Dugo Selo Garešnica Gospić Imotski Ivanec Ivanić-Grad Jastrebarsko Kastav Knin Koprivnica Krapina Križevci Kutina Labin Makarska Metković Našice Nova Gradiška Novi Marof Novska Ogulin Omiš Opatija Petrinja Pleternica Ploče Poreč Požega Rovinj Sinj Slatina Solin Sveta Nedelja Sveti Ivan Zelina Trogir Umag Valpovo Virovitica Vrbovec Vukovar Zaprešić Županja

v t e World Heritage Sites in Croatia Cathedral of St. James, Šibenik Dubrovnik Episcopal Complex of the Euphrasian Basilica, Poreč Plitvice Lakes Split with the Palace of Diocletian Stari Grad Plain Trogir

v t e Maritime republics Duchy of Amalfi • Republic of Ancona • Republic of Genoa • Republic of Pisa • Republic of Ragusa • Republic of Venice