According to the Talmud, much of the contents of the Tanakh were compiled by the "Men of the Great Assembly" by 450 BCE, and have since remained unchanged. Modern scholars believe that the process of canonization of the Tanakh became finalized between 200 BCE and 200 CE, see Development of the Jewish canon for details.
The Hebrew text was originally an abjad: consonants written with some applied vowel letters ("matres lectionis"). During the early Middle Ages scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization. It also included some of Ben Naftali and Babylonian innovations. Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews believe the pronunciation and cantillation derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text (מקרא mikra), pronunciation (ניקוד niqqud) and cantillation (טעמים te`amim) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning, as well as the nuances in sentence flow of the text.
According to the Talmud (Bava Basra 14b-15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a), much of the contents of the Tanakh was compiled by the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah), a task completed in 450 BCE, and have remained unchanged since that date. Evidence suggests that the process of canonization occurred between 200 BCE and 200 CE. A popular position is that the Torah was canonized circa 400 BCE, the Prophets circa 200 BCE, and the Writings circa 100 CE, perhaps at a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. This position, however, is increasingly criticised by modern scholars. Some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty (140-37 BCE). Today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set.
Formal closure of the canon has often been ascribed to Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Heinrich Graetz proposed in 1871 that it was concluded at a Council of Jamnia (or Yavne in Hebrew), some time in the period 70–90 CE. However, Rabbinical writings seem to indicate that certain books were disputed as accepted canon (such as Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs and Esther, see also Antilegomena), but it may not necessarily be the case. The implication of the Talmud indicates that the books themselves were already accepted canon, but may have been misunderstood on philosophical or ecclesiastical grounds. The Talmud eliminates this misunderstanding.
The twenty-four books are also mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12. A slightly different accounting can be found in the book Against Apion, by the 1st-century Jewish historian Josephus, who describes 22 sacred books. Some scholars have suggested that he considered Ruth part of Judges, and Lamentations part of Jeremiah; as the Christian translator Jerome recorded in the 4th century CE. Other scholars suggest that at the time Josephus wrote, such books as Esther and Ecclesiastes were not yet considered canonical.
According to Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books. The Tanakh counts as one book each Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah and counts Trei Asar (תרי עשר, the Twelve Prophets; literally "twelve") as a single book.
In Hebrew, the five books of the Torah are identified by the first prominent word in each book. The English names are derived from the Greek names given to the books in the Septuagint, which are based on the thematic content of each of the books, as follows:
: 1. (בראשית / Bereshit) - Genesis : 2. (שמות / Shemot) - Exodus : 3. (ויקרא / Vayikra) - Leviticus : 4. (במדבר / Bamidbar) - Numbers : 5. (דברים / Devarim) - Deuteronomy
Although most versions of the Old Testament count the number of books as totaling twenty-one, counting the books of Samuel and Kings as two books each, and the "Twelve Prophets" (or the minor prophets) as 12 books, Jewish tradition does not: : 6. (יהושע / Y'hoshua) - Joshua : 7. (שופטים / Shophtim) - Judges : 8. (שמואל / Sh'muel) - Samuel (I & II) : 9. (מלכים / M'lakhim) - Kings (I & II) : 10. (ישעיה / Y'shayahu) - Isaiah : 11. (ירמיה / Yir'mi'yahu) - Jeremiah : 12. (יחזקאל / Y'khezqel) - Ezekiel : 13. The Twelve Prophets (תרי עשר) :: a. (הושע / Hoshea) - Hosea :: b. (יואל / Yo'el) - Joel :: c. (עמוס / Amos) - Amos :: d. (עובדיה / Ovadyah) - Obadiah :: e. (יונה / Yonah) - Jonah :: f. (מיכה / Mikhah) - Micah :: g. (נחום / Nakhum) - Nahum :: h. (חבקוק /Havakuk) - Habakkuk :: i. (צפניה / Ts'phanyah) - Zephaniah :: j. (חגי / Khagai) - Haggai :: k. (זכריה / Z'kharyah) - Zechariah :: l. (מלאכי / Mal'akhi) - Malachi
Although most versions of the Old Testament count the number of books as totaling thirteen, counting Ezra and Nehemiah as two books and I and II Chronicles as two, Jewish Tradition again does not.
Section Title !! Common Order !! Leningrad Codex !! BHS Order | |||
The "Sifrei Emet," "Books of Truth" | 14. (תהלים / Tehillim) - Psalms15. (משלי / Mishlei) - Book of Proverbs | 14. Psalms [תהלים / Tehilim]16. [[Book of Job">Job [איוב / Iyov]17. Proverbs [משלי / Mishlei] ||14. Psalms [תהלים / Tehilim]15. Job [איוב / Iyov]16. Proverbs [משלי / Mishlei]||
The "Five Megilot" or "Five Scrolls" | 17. (שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim) - Song of Songs18. (רות / Rut) - Book of RuthRuth19. (איכה / Eikhah) - Lamentations20. (קהלת / Kohelet) - Ecclesiastes21. (אסתר / Esther) - Esther ||18. Ruth [רות / Rut]19. Song of Songs [שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim]20. Ecclesiastes [קהלת / Kohelet]21. Lamentations [איכה / Eikhah]22. Esther [אסתר / Esther] ||17. Ruth [רות / Rut]18. Song of Songs [שיר השירים / Shir Hashirim]19. Ecclesiastes [קהלת / Kohelet]20. Lamentations [איכה / Eikhah]21. Esther [אסתר / Esther] | ||
The rest of the "Writings" | 22. (דניאל / Dani'el) - Book of DanielDaniel23. (עזרא ונחמיה / Ezra v'Nechemia) - Ezra-Nehemiah24. (דברי הימים / Divrei Hayamim) - Chronicles (I & II) || | Book of Daniel>Daniel [דניאל / Dani'el]24. Ezra-Nehemiah [עזרא ונחמיה / Ezra ve-Nehemiah] | 22. Book of Daniel |
The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late Middle Ages in Spanish Inquisition (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the [[Masoretic Text">mesorah, but are also open to severe criticism of three kinds:
Nevertheless, because they proved useful for citations, they are often included in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books. For more information on the origin of these divisions, see chapters and verses of the Bible. Jews don't necessarily reference the specific verse in a chapter (older editions of the Talmud cite only chapter numbers), and some works cite the sectional divisions in the Torah.
The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish masoretic divisions. However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past forty years, there has been a major trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page. Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page. The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin). The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish parashah divisions. Some versions have even introduced a new chapter system .
These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins). In such editions, the second books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles follow the respective first books on the very same page, with no special break at all in the flow of the text. In the case of Kings, in which no parashah division appears at this point, the text of II Kings continues that of I Kings on the very same line of text.
Jewish (Hebrew) editions have a different pattern regarding Chronicles (I Chronicles) chapters 5 and 6. In I Chronicles (in Christian sources) chapter 5 ends at verse 41. Chronicles (Jewish editions of Chronicles) 5:27-41 is equivalent to First Chronicles 6: 1-15 in most English translations. In Jewish (Hebrew) editions 6:1 is equivalent to 6:16 and therefore the chapter ends at Chronicles 6:66 instead of the First Chronicles 6:81 (English translations) and at 7:1 both Hebrew and English versions set off from the same starting point once more. This difference offsets other more contextual differences. The Jewish Tanakh is the same as the Christian Hebrew Old Testament and is based on careful copying of Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts over centuries. Jewish and Christian translations often differ. For example, some Christians translate the word almah (עלמה) as "virgin," while Jews tend to the translation "young maiden". Christian views are based on exegesis of the Isaiah passage and Matthew's interpretation, which also agrees with the ancient Jewish Septuagint translation, , which according to some New Testament Scholars, can mean "a marriageable maiden" or "virgin."
Secular practitioners of Biblical Studies do not necessarily have a faith commitment to the texts they study. In fact, Biblical criticism seems to contradict commitment to the idea that the Bible was written by prophets inspired by God. Indeed, this practice, when applied to the Torah, is generally considered heresy by the entire Orthodox Jewish community. As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered treif (forbidden) by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas.
Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides and Maimonides, used many elements of modern day biblical criticism, including their then-current knowledge of history, science and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered kosher by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.
The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world, e.g. the Da'at Miqra series.
Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept the validity of both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. See the article on Revelation for details of how members of these groups understand this concept.
The article on Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day commentaries.
Category:Hebrew words and phrases Category:Jewish texts Category:Bible
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