Elizabeth Blackburn
Born	(1948-11-26) November 26, 1948 (age 63) Hobart, Tasmania
Residence	US
Citizenship	Australian and American
Fields	Molecular biology
Institutions	University of California, Berkeley University of California, San Francisco Yale University the Salk Institute
Alma mater	University of Melbourne, Darwin College, Cambridge
Doctoral advisor	Frederick Sanger
Doctoral students	include Carol W. Greider
Notable awards	Harvey Prize {1999}, Heineken Prize, Lasker Award, Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, L'Oréal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science (2008) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2009)

Elizabeth Helen Blackburn, AC, FRS (born 26 November 1948 in Hobart, Tasmania) is an Australian-born American biological researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, who studies the telomere, a structure at the end of chromosomes that protects the chromosome. Blackburn co-discovered telomerase, the enzyme that replenishes the telomere. Blackburn recalls: "Carol had done this experiment, and we sat down, just in the lab, and I remember sort of standing there, and she had this -- we call it a bum. It's an autoradiogram, because there was trace amounts of radioactivity that were used to develop an image of the separated DNA products of what turned out to be the telomerase enzyme reaction. I remember looking at it and just thinking, ‘Ah! This could be very big. This looks just right.’ It had a pattern to it. There was a regularity to it. There was something that was not just sort of garbage there, and that was really kind of coming through, even though we look back at it now, we'd say, technically, there was this, that and the other, but it was a pattern shining through, and it just had this sort of sense, ‘Ah! There's something real here.’ "^[1]For this work, she was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, sharing it with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak. She also worked in medical ethics, and was controversially dismissed from the President's Council on Bioethics.

Work in molecular biology[link]

In 1981, Blackburn joined the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley, in the Department of Molecular Biology. In 1990, she moved across the San Francisco Bay to the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), where she served as the Department Chairwoman from 1993 to 1999. Blackburn is currently the Morris Herzstein Professor of Biology and Physiology at UCSF, and a non-resident fellow of the Salk Institute. She is the president-elect of the American Association for Cancer Research. In recent years Blackburn and her colleagues have been investigating the effect of stress on telomerase and telomeres^[2] with particular emphasis on mindfulness meditation. ^[3][4] She is also one of several biologists (and one of two Nobel Prize laureates) in the 1995 science documentary Death by Design/The Life and Times of Life and Times.

Bioethics[link]

Blackburn was appointed a member of the President's Council on Bioethics in 2001. She supported human embryonic cell research, in opposition to the Bush Administration. Her Council terms were terminated by White House directive on 27 February 2004.^[5] This was followed by expressions of outrage over her removal by many scientists, who maintained that she was fired because of political opposition to her advice.^[6]

"There is a growing sense that scientific research—which, after all, is defined by the quest for truth—is being manipulated for political ends," wrote Blackburn. "There is evidence that such manipulation is being achieved through the stacking of the membership of advisory bodies and through the delay and misrepresentation of their reports."^[7][8]

Blackburn serves on the Science Advisory Board of the Genetics Policy Institute.

Personal[link]

Blackburn is married to John W. Sedat, and has a son, Benjamin.^[9]

Awards and honors[link]

• Eli Lilly Research Award for Microbiology and Immunology (1988)
• National Academy of Sciences Award in Molecular Biology (1990)
• Honorary Doctorate of Science from Yale University (1991)
• Harvey Society Lecturer at the Harvey Society in New York (1990)
• Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991)^[10]
• Fellow of Royal Society of London (1992)
• Fellow of American Academy of Microbiology (1993)
• Australia Prize (1998)
• Gairdner Foundation International Award (1998)
• Harvey Prize (1999)
• Keio Medical Science Prize (1999)
• California Scientist of the Year in (1999)
• California Hall of Fame (2011)
• American Association for Cancer Research - G.H.A. Clowes Memorial Award (2000)
• American Cancer Society Medal of Honor (2000)
• Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000)
• Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award (2000)
• AACR-Pezcoller Foundation International Award for Cancer Research (2001)
• General Motors Cancer Research Foundation Alfred P. Sloan Award (2001)
• E.B.Wilson Award of the American Society for Cell Biology (2001)
• Robert J. and Claire Pasarow Foundation Medical Research Award (2003)
• Dr A.H. Heineken Prize for Medicine (2004)
• Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science of The Franklin Institute (2005)
• Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (2006) (shared with Carol W. Greider and Jack Szostak)
• Genetics Prize from the Peter Gruber Foundation (2006)
• Honorary Doctorate of Science from Harvard University (2006)^[11]
• Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences from the Wiley Foundation (shared with Carol W. Greider)(2006)
• Corresponding Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science (2007)*Recipient of the UCSF Women's Faculty Association Award
• Honorary Doctorate of Science from Princeton University (2007)
• Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (2007) (shared with Carol W. Greider and Joseph G. Gall)
• L'Oréal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science (2008)
• Mike Hogg Award (2009)
• Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize (2009) (shared with Carol W. Greider)
• Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (2009) (shared with Carol W. Greider and Jack Szostak)^[12][12][13]
• Companion of the Order of Australia (Australia Day Honours, 2010), for eminent service to science as a leader in the field of biomedical research, particularly through the discovery of telomerase and its role in the development of cancer and ageing of cells and through contributions as an international adviser in Bioethics.^[14]

• Elected:
  • President of the American Association for Cancer Research for the year 2010^[15]
  • President of the American Society for Cell Biology for the year 1998

• • Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences (1993)
  • Member of the Institute of Medicine (2000)
  • Board member of the Genetics Society of America (2000–2002)

In 2007, Blackburn was listed among Time Magazine's The TIME 100—The People Who Shape Our World.^[16]

You can watch a video documentary of Blackburn's work with Telomerase titled 'Decoding Immortality'

See also[link]

• History of RNA biology
• List of biologists
• List of female Nobel laureates
• List of RNA biologists

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Elizabeth Blackburn

Coordinates: 53°44′42″N 2°28′37″W / 53.7449°N 2.4769°W / 53.7449; -2.4769

Blackburn
Skyline of Blackburn Town Centre
Blackburn  Blackburn shown within Lancashire
Population	105,085 [1]
- Density	11,114 /sq mi (4,291 /km2)[1]
OS grid reference	SD685277
- London	184 mi (296 km) SSE
Unitary authority	Blackburn with Darwen
Ceremonial county	Lancashire
Region	North West
Country	England
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Post town	BLACKBURN
Postcode district	BB1 – BB2
Dialling code	01254
Police	Lancashire
Fire	Lancashire
Ambulance	North West
EU Parliament	North West England
UK Parliament	Blackburn
List of places: UK • England • Lancashire

Blackburn ( pronounced /ˈblækbɜrn/) (help·info)) is a large town in Lancashire, England. It lies to the north of the West Pennine Moors on the southern edge of the Ribble Valley, 9 miles (14 km) east of the city of Preston, 27 miles (43 km) north-northwest of the city of Manchester.^[2] and is 13 miles (21 km) north of the border with Greater Manchester. Blackburn is bounded to the south by Darwen, with which it forms the unitary authority area of Blackburn with Darwen, Blackburn being the administrative centre. At the time of the UK Government's 2001 census, Blackburn had a population of 105,085,^[1] whilst the wider borough of Blackburn with Darwen had a population of 140,700.^[3]

A former mill town, textiles have been produced in Blackburn since the middle of the 13th century, when wool was woven in people's houses in the domestic system. Flemish weavers who settled in the area during the 14th century helped to develop the woollen cottage industry in the region.^[4] James Hargreaves, inventor of the spinning jenny, was a weaver in Blackburn.^[5] The most rapid period of growth and development in Blackburn's history coincided with the industrialisation and expansion of textile manufacturing. Blackburn was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, and amongst the first industrialised towns in the world.

Blackburn's textile sector fell into a terminal decline from the mid-20th century. Blackburn has subsequently faced similar challenges to other post-industrial northern towns, including deindustrialisation, economic deprivation and housing issues. Since the 1950s the town has experienced significant levels of migration, particularly from India and Pakistan, and consequently has the third highest proportion of Muslims (c.25%) in England and Wales and the highest in the United Kingdom outside London. Blackburn has had significant investment and redevelopment in the past 60 years through government funding and the European Regional Development Fund.^[6]

History[link]

Toponymy[link]

Blackburn's old clock tower in 1906 with time ball at the top of its mast

The name of the town first appears as Blacheborne, in the Domesday Book compiled from a survey completed in 1086. The origins of the name are uncertain. It has been suggested that it may be a combination of an Old English word for bleach, together with a form of the word "burn", meaning stream, and may be associated with a bleaching process. Alternatively, the name of the town may simply mean "black burn", or "black stream".^[7][8][9]

Prehistory[link]

There is little evidence of prehistoric settlement in the Blakewater valley, in which Blackburn later developed. It is generally thought that most human activity in East Lancashire during this period occurred on hilltops.^{[citation needed]} Evidence of such activity during the Bronze Age has been discovered in the form of urn burials, two examples of which have been found in the hills around Blackburn. In 1879, a cinerary urn was discovered beneath a tumulus at Revidge, north of the town. Another was excavated at Pleasington Cemetery, west of the present town, by gravedigger Grant Higson in 1996.^[10] The presence of a possible sacred spring—perhaps in use during the Iron Age—provides evidence of prehistoric man's activity in the area now occupied by the town centre, at All Hallows Spring on Railway Road.^[11]

Roman era[link]

Blackburn stands at the site where a Roman military road crossed the river Blakewater. The road linked Bremetennacum Veteranorum (the modern-day village of Ribchester) and Mamucium (a Roman fort which was located in what is now the Castlefield area of the City of Manchester). The route of the Roman road passed to the east of the site of Blackburn's modern-day cathedral and probably crossed the river at Salford (just east of the modern-day town centre). However, it is not clear whether the Roman road or the settlement came first.^[8][12]

George C. Miller in his Blackburn – the Evolution of a Cotton Town says:

The ancient military way from Mamucium (Manchester) to (Bremetennacum) (Ribchester), passing over Blacksnape, plunges on its unswerving course through Blackamoor, over the scarp at Whinney Heights, to pass across the Blakewater in the vicinity of Salford. This fact alone presents a reasonable argument for the existence of a British oppidum or walled village on the site, it being customary for such primitive communities to cluster in the vicinity of a ford or bridge.^[13]

All Hallows Spring was purportedly excavated in 1654 and was found to contain an inscribed stone, allegedly commemorating the dedication of a temple of Serapis by Claudius Hieronymus, legate of Legio VI Victrix.^[12][14]

Middle Ages[link]

Strike of cotton mill workers in 1920 in Cowell Street in the Nab Lane area

Christianity is believed to have come to Blackburn at the end of the 6th century, perhaps in 596 (there is a record of a "church of Blagbourne" in that year) or 598 AD.^[15][16][17] The town was certainly important during the Anglo-Saxon era. It was during this period that Blackburnshire Hundred came into existence, probably as a territorial division of the kingdom of Northumbria.^[17]

The name of the town first appears in the Domesday Book as Blachebourne, a royal manor during the days of Edward the Confessor and William the Conqueror. Archaeological evidence gleaned during the demolition of the medieval parish church on the site of the present cathedral in 1820 suggests that a church was built during the late 11th or early 12th century.^[17] A market cross was also erected nearby in 1101.^[18] The manor came into the possession of Henry de Blackburn, who divided it between his two sons. Later, one half was granted to the monks of Stanlow Abbey. This moiety was later granted to the monks of Whalley Abbey. However, during the 12th century, the town's conjectured importance declined as Clitheroe became the regional centre.^[17] In addition to the settlement in the town centre area, there were several other medieval domiciles nearby.

Industrial Revolution and textiles[link]

Workers producing shuttles for the textile industry, c. 1920. Rowland Baguley and Company, based on Addison Street, produced a wide range of shuttles for the home textile industry and for export before it closed in the early 1930s.

Textile manufacturing in Blackburn dates from the middle of the 13th century, when wool produced by local farmers was woven by local people in their homes. Flemish weavers who settled in the area in the 14th century helped to develop the industry. By 1650 the town was known for the manufacture of "Blackburn checks", blue and white in colour, with "Blackburn greys" becoming famous not long afterwards.^[4] By the first half of the 18th century textile manufacture had become Blackburn's main industry.^[19] From the mid-18th to the early 20th century Blackburn evolved from a small market town into "the weaving capital of the world", with the population increasing from less than 5,000 to over 130,000.^[20]

John Bartholomew's Gazetteer of the British Isles provides a profile of Blackburn in 1887:

Blackburn. parl. and mun. bor., par. and township, NE. Lancashire, 9 miles (14 km) [14 km] E. of Preston and 210 miles (340 km) [340 km] NW. of London by rail – par., 48,281 ac., pop. 161,617; township, 3681 ac., pop. 91,958; bor., 6974 ac., pop. 104,014; 4 Banks, 2 newspapers. Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. It is one of the chief seats of cotton manufacture, besides producing calico, muslin, &c., there being over 140 mills at work. There are also factories for making cotton machinery and steam-engines. B. has been associated with many improvements in the mfr. of cotton, among which was the invention (1767) of the "spinning jenny" which was invented in nearby Oswaldtwistle by James Hargreaves, who died in 1770. There are several fine churches and public buildings. A Corporation Park (50 ac. in area) is on the outskirts of the town. Several lines of railway converge here, and pass through one principal station belonging to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Ry. Co. B. returns 2 members to Parliament.^[21]

From around 1750, cotton textile manufacturing expanded rapidly in Blackburn. Supplied with cotton by the town's cotton merchants, and paid by the piece, cottagers had spun the cotton into thread and woven it into cloth. The merchants had then arranged for the cloth to be bleached and dyed. After 1775 however, spinning mills began to appear in the town. Though early examples were warehouse conversions, the first purpose-built spinning mill was constructed in 1797, and By 1824 there were 24 . The number of spindles in Blackburn reached 2.5 million  by 1870, with spinning mills still being constructed up to that time  – 24  since 1850. Spinning declined in the town between 1870 and 1900 as the sector transferred to South Lancashire.^[22]

In 18th century Blackburn, weaving was primarily undertaken by handloom weavers working from their own cottages. However, as powerlooms began to be introduced into local mills from 1825, the percentage of the workforce employed as handloom weavers began to decline. This occurred more rapidly in areas closer to the centre of Blackburn, with handloom weavers continuing to make up a sizeable portion of the workforce in outlying rural areas. Nevertheless, the last handloom shop in Blackburn closed in 1894.^[23] Improvements to the powerloom in the early 1840s, together with the construction of the first railway line into Blackburn in 1846, led to much greater investment in powerlooms in the town in the second half of that decade. The railway brought opportunities for expansion of the cotton trade, with subsequent decades seeing many new mills constructed:^[24] 68 weaving-only and 4 combined weaving and spinning mills were built between 1850 and 1870, and 9 weaving mills were built per decade between 1870 and 1890.^[25]

Improvements in powerloom efficiency meant that weaving, which had been the primary source of wealth and income for handloom weavers, began to transfer from the cottage to the factory.^[26] This led to high rates of unemployment: according to figures published in March 1826, some 60% of all handloom weavers in Blackburn and nearby Rishton, Lower Darwen and Oswaldtwistle were unemployed.^[27] High unemployment in turn led to the Lancashire weavers' riots. At 3:00 pm on 24 April 1826 a mob arrived in Blackburn after attacking powerlooms in nearby Accrington. Proceeding to Bannister Eccles' Jubilee Factory on Jubilee St in the town centre, the mob destroyed 212 powerlooms in the space of 35 minutes. They then turned their attention to John Houghton and Sons' Park Place factory, located nearby, and destroyed another 25 looms, before continuing on in search of more machinery to attack. The crowd began to disperse at around 6:00 pm, troops having arrived as early as 3:30 pm to try to quell the rioting.^[28]

Decline of the cotton industry[link]

In 1890, Blackburn's Chamber of Commerce recognised that the town was over-dependent on the cotton industry, warning of the dangers of "only having one string to their bow in Blackburn".^[29] The warning proved to be prophetic when, in 1904, a serious slump hit the cotton industry, and other industries dependent on it such as engineering, brewing and building.^[30] A few years later, in 1908, another slump saw 43 mills stop production and a quarter of the town's looms idle.^[31]

Albion Mill photographed in 2008. The mill ceased production in 1975.^[32]

Suspension of trade with India during the First World War resulted in the expansion of India's cotton industry at the expense of Britain's,^[33] and the imposition of an 11% import tariff by the Indian Government led to a dramatic slump in 1921; a situation which worsened in 1922 after the Indian Government raised the tariff to 14%, which led the number of stopped mills to increase to 47, with 43,000 looms idle.^[34] Two years into the slump, the Foundry and Limbrick mills became the first in the town to close permanently.^[33] Not long afterwards, in 1926, the General Strike saw production suspended at half of the town's mills and 12,000 unemployed.^[33] There was another slump in 1928, and then another strike in 1929 after employers requested a 12% wage cut; 40,000 cotton workers went on strike for a week and eight more mills closed, making it 28 closures in six years.^[33] By the start of 1930, 50 mills had shut down and 21,000 people were unemployed.^[33] A sharp financial crisis late in 1931 led to 24,000 unemployed, with 1,000 houses and 166 shops lying empty in the town.^[35] A total of 26 mills closed down between 1930 and 1934.^[33]

The industry experienced a short post-war boom between 1948 and 50, during which sales increased, industry training methods improved, and new automatic looms were introduced; allowing a single weaver to control 20 to 25 looms. Loom sheds were often rebuilt using new building techniques to make them more open-plan so that they could house the new, larger looms.^[36] Despite the post-war boom, the cotton industry continued to decline, and only 25% of the town's population were employed in textiles by 1951: it had been 60% up to the beginning of the Great Depression, in 1929.^[37] Furthermore, in 1952 the number of weavers in the town fell from 10,890 to 9,020.^[38] By 1955 more cloth was being imported from India than was being exported there,^[38] and between 1955 and 1958 another 16 mills closed. In 1959, due partly to the re-organisation of the textile industry resulting from that year's Textiles Act, another 17 mills closed.^[39] By 1960 there were 30 mills left operating in Blackburn.^[40]

Closures continued in the 1960s with, for example, the Parkside, Fountains, Malvern and Pioneer Mills shutting in 1964.^[41] In 1967 the Eclipse Mill at Feniscowles closed, unable to compete with imported cloth sold at nine pence cheaper per yard than the mill could produce it. By the end of that year there were 26 mills left operating in Blackburn.^[42] The 1970s saw further closures, and the number of textile workers in Blackburn reduced to 6,000 by January 1975, the year in which the Albion and Alston mills also stopped production with the loss of a further 400 jobs.^[32][43] The following statistic gives some idea of the rate of decline of Blackburn's cotton industry: in 1976 there were 2,100 looms still operating, from a peak of 79,405 in 1907.^[44]

Immigration[link]

Since the first influx of Commonwealth immigrants to Britain in 1948, Blackburn has seen a significant number of immigrants settle in the town. Whalley Range in the north of the town was a popular destination for Asian immigrants, who now make up the majority of the district's population, in particular. Perhaps surprisingly, the town did not fall victim to any of the race riots which blighted parts of Northern England, including nearby Oldham and Burnley, over the summer of 2001.^[45]

Governance[link]

This section describes the organisation of government in the area. For information on party politics and local issues see the section on politics below

Blackburn is administered by Blackburn with Darwen unitary authority, which encompasses Blackburn and the small town of Darwen to the south. The town sends one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons.

Local government[link]

The council has been elected "by thirds" since 1996, with one councillor from each of the three-member wards being elected every year; those representing 2-member wards are elected in alternative years. Every four years there is a year with no elections, In its 2007 Comprehensive Performance Assessment (CPA), the Audit Commission described the council as "improving well" and gave it the highest "four star" overall performance rating.^[46]

Although children’s services, adult social care and GCSE results were praised, the commission did highlight "significant health problems" and increased "levels of repeat victims of domestic violence" as causes for concern.^[46] Despite generally good performance, overall user satisfaction levels with the council are below average and not improving.^[46] The borough was awarded Beacon Council status and shares its best practice in education policy with other councils as part of the scheme.^{[citation needed]}

Parliamentary representation[link]

The historic constituency of Blackburn was created for the 1832 general election and sent two MPs to Westminster. It was abolished in 1950 and replaced for one parliamentary term by two new single-member constituencies, Blackburn East and Blackburn West. At the 1955 general election, Blackburn East and Blackburn West were merged into the modern-day constituency, returning a single MP.

Coat of arms[link]

Arms of the former Blackburn Borough Council on display in the town hall.

The coat of arms of the former Blackburn Borough Council has many distinctive emblems.^[47] The blazon of the arms is: Argent a Fesse wavy Sable between three Bees volant proper on a Chief Vert a Bugle stringed Argent between two Fusils Or. On the crest, a Wreath of the Colours a Shuttle Or thereon a Dove wings elevated Argent and holding in the beak the Thread of the Shuttle reflexed over the back and an Olive Branch proper. The Latin motto of the town is Arte et Labore, correctly translated as "by art and by labour" but often translated as "by skill and hardwork".

The motto, granted on 14 February 1852 to the former Borough of Blackburn, is poignant as Blackburn, once a small town, had risen to importance through the energy and enterprise of her spinners and manufacturers, combined with the skill and labour of her operatives. The Borough of Blackburn was formed by the amalgamation of the County Borough of Blackburn, the Borough of Darwen, part of the Turton Urban District and the parishes of Yate and Pickup Bank, Eccleshill, Livesey, Pleasington and Tockholes from the Blackburn Rural District.^{[citation needed]}

Politics[link]

Blackburn council and its successor have been predominantly controlled by the Labour Party since 1945 and continuously for 19 years until May 2007 when it fell into no overall control.^[48][49] UKPollingReport characterises the constituency of Blackburn as "a mix of deprived inner-city wards dominated by Muslim voters, white working class areas and Conservative voting suburbs".^[50] The sitting MP is former Secretary of State for Justice and former Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw. Previous MPs for Blackburn include former Labour cabinet minister Barbara Castle, who represented the town in Westminster from 1945 to 1979.^{[citation needed]}

Far right[link]

In the 1970s Blackburn experienced its first significant wave of Asian immigration, and became a focus for far-right politics. In 1976, two National Party councillors were briefly elected, including John Kingsley Read. The next resurgence of support for the far right came after 2000. Around 20% of Blackburn's population come from ethnic minorities and in recent years the town has witnessed a resurgence in the fortunes of far-right political parties in local elections.

The council until recently had two members for the England First party, Mark Cotterill for Meadowhead ward and Michael Johnson for Fernhurst. Mark Cotterill has since stood down and Michael Johnson joined the For Darwen party. Members of the BNP have previously won a council seat in the town in November 2002 following elections in May which saw three of their colleagues elected in nearby Burnley. The BNP's Robin Evans secured a 16-vote majority in Mill Hill ward with two recounts following a campaign using pub meetings and leafleting.^[51]

The incumbent Liberal Democrats were pushed into third place behind Labour. Although the plans had been blocked by the time of the poll, proposals to convert a nursing home in the ward into a centre for asylum seekers were seen as a key election issue.^[52] Developments in Burnley and Blackburn were regarded as something of a renaissance for the far right in British politics; no such councillors had been elected in the UK since victories in Tower Hamlets nearly ten years before.^[53]

Commenting on the elections, Blackburn MP Jack Straw said: "It is very sad. We had the far right in Blackburn 26 years ago when they won two seats in Shadsworth. But there the whole community decided they wouldn't have it. You can never say they won't put candidates in Blackburn but we will work hard on community relations."^[54] Blackburn had two council members from the National Party in the 1970s. Although some towns in the North of England suffered race riots in the summer of 2001, the streets of Blackburn remained quiet.^{[citation needed]}

Other political events[link]

In October 2006, comments made by Jack Straw angered some in the Muslim community. Writing in the Lancashire Telegraph, the MP said that Muslim women who wear full veils make "better, positive relations" between communities more difficult and that failing to show the mouth and nose was "a visible statement of separation and of difference."^[55][56] Jack Straw apologised for these comments regarding the veil on Sunday, 26 April 2010 at a private hustings organised by Engage in the build up to the 2010 Elections.^[57]

Geography[link]