Wu Ma (simplified Chinese: 午马; traditional Chinese: 午馬; pinyin: Wǔ Mǎ, real name: simplified Chinese: 冯宏源; traditional Chinese: 馮宏源; pinyin: Féng Hóngyuán; born: (1942-05-28)28 May 1942, in Tianjin, China) is a Chinese actor, director, producer and writer. Wu Ma made his screen debut in 1963, and with over 180 appearances to his name (plus 38 directorial credits within a twenty-five year period), Wu Ma is one of the most familiar faces in the history of Hong Kong Cinema. He is best known as the Taoist ghosthunter in A Chinese Ghost Story.

The early years[link]

Wu was born Feng Hongyuan in Tianjin. At 16 he moved to Guangzhou and became a machinist before migrating to Hong Kong in 1960. In 1962, Wu enrolled in the Shaw Brothers acting course. Graduating a year later, he became a contract player for the studio and made his first appearance in Lady General Hua Mulan. He then appeared in such films as Temple Of The Red Lotus (1965), The Knight Of Knights (1966) and Trail Of The Broken Blade (1967). He took on the stage name 'Wu Ma' as it reflected the animal in the year of his birth (the horse), and believed it was short enough for audiences to remember.

During an interview, Wu explained that he stumbled upon directing when he was offered an unexpected trip to Japan for a movie. The film's original assistant director was unable to clear his visa in time, and Wu was called upon to take his place. After the experience, Wu decided to become a director, and became famed director Chang Cheh's assistant in 1968. Wu assisted Chang in movies such as The Golden Swallow, and also continued to pursue acting.

The 1970s[link]

In 1970, Wu became a director in his own right. His directorial debut, Wrath Of The Sword, was released the same year. In 1971, Wu released one of his seminial works, The Deaf And Mute Heroine.

Wu mainly concentrated on directing in the 1970s, directing several movies - such as Young Tiger (1973) and Wits To Wits (1974). Wits To Wits has been noted as one of the precursors of the knockabout comedy kung fu genre that was later made famous by Sammo Hung and Jackie Chan. Another movie Wu directed, Manchu Boxer (1974), featured Sammo Hung, then a young choreographer and later one of the trend-setters of Hong Kong cinema. This marked the beginning of a strong working relationship between the two, which would become prominent towards the 1980s. He also co-directed with his former mentor Chang in several movies - The Water Margin (1972), The Pirate (1973), All Men Are Brothers (1975) and Naval Commandos (1976).

While most of his output during this period was as a director, Wu continued to appear as an actor and appeared both in his own movies and in several others, although his roles were generally limited to small appearances.

During the mid-1970s, Wu joined a small exodus who were leaving Shaw Brothers due to corruption within the studio and became an independent director. Despite becoming an independent director, Wu was still able to work closely with some Shaw Brothers stars such as Ti Lung (The Massive (1978)).

The 1980s[link]

As the 1970s and the era of the martial arts film wound down, Wu Ma's output as a director also slowed. His acting output, however, increased as he became increasingly well known as a character actor.

While Wu had made appearances in Hung's 1970s movies (such as Iron Fisted Monk), Wu's association with Sammo Hung began in earnest in the early 1980s. Wu appeared in Hung's groundbreaking Encounters of the Spooky Kind (1980), a movie widely acknowledged as the precursor of the Hong Kong vampire genre, and directed and appeared in The Dead And The Deadly (1983), a noted classic in its genre which earned Wu a Hong Kong Film Award nomination for Best Director. Throughout the 1980s, Wu and Hung had a close working relationship, often with Wu as the director and Hung as the producer (such as My Cousin The Ghost (1986)).

Wu also worked in Hung's production company Bo Ho as the production manager, and made appearances in almost every Hung-directed movie of the 1980s. Amongst the most notable movies were Millionaire's Express (1986) and Wheels on Meals (1984).

Towards the mid-1980s, Wu became one of the most prolific character actors in Hong Kong, his now-rubbery face able to shift effortlessly across a spectrum of emotions. During the 1980s, he received three Hong Kong Film Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor - for Righting Wrongs (1986), where he played a policeman having to deal with his son's death; A Chinese Ghost Story (1987) as Yin Chek-Ha; and in The Last Eunuch In China (1988), as Lord Ting.

Wu also began a working relationship with Tsui Hark, and appeared in several of Hark's movies. Aside from A Chinese Ghost Story, Wu also appeared in the earlier Peking Opera Blues (1986).

After A Chinese Ghost Story, said by Wu to be amongst his favourite movies, Wu began to focus on the supernatural genre. Much of his directorial efforts after 1987 were within that genre, such as Portrait Of A Nymph (1988), Burning Sensation (1989) and Fox Legend (1991).

1990s[link]

Wu continued his working relationship with Hark, and appeared in Once Upon A Time In China (1991) and Swordsman (1991). The early 1990s were an especially prolific period in Wu's career - with Wu appearing in over 14 movies during one year.

As the Hong Kong film industry began to slump, Wu's career also slowed considerably. After appearing in High Risk (1995), many of his appearances were either in low-budget movies or in television series.

2000s[link]

Wu has become an active player in television, and has made several series mainly made for mainland Chinese audiences. Wu stated that working in television is quite a contrast to working in film, as the former takes up far more time. Wu has also appeared in the recent movie House of Fury (2005).

Filmography[link]

This section is incomplete. Please help to improve the article, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (March 2012)

Film[link]

Television[link]

^{[1] [2]}

See also[link]

• Chang Cheh
• Sammo Hung
• Lam Ching-ying

References[link]

External links and references[link]

• A short biography and filmography
• A detailed biography - bottom of page
• Wu Ma at the Internet Movie Database
• A Chinese Ghost Story - commentary by Bey Logan
• Interview in Chinese

v t e Cinema of Hong Kong Actors Directors Cinematographers Ocean Shores Producers Shaw Brothers Studio Films A–Z Action films Writers Films by year: 1909–1929 1930s 1940s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Lam Ching Ying (Chinese: 林正英; birth name: Lam Gun-bo 林根寶; 27 December 1952 - 8 November 1997) was a Hong Kong actor, action director and director. A physically talented and graceful martial artist, Lam was best known for playing the stoic Taoist priest in Mr. Vampire (1985). Lam died in 1997 of liver cancer.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

The third of seven children, Lam was born in Hong Kong attended Shun Yi Association Elementary School in Hong Kong for two years before leaving school. In 1963/4, he joined The Spring and Autumn Drama School, the "other" Peking Opera School in Hong Kong, which was run by Madame Fan Fok-fa (Fun Guk-fa), the "rival" of Yu Jim Yuen where Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung were trained at around the same time. In actuality, the schools were friends and students from both schools often mingled. A year after joining, Lam made his first public appearance. Madame reported Lam as a disobedient student who was beyond her ability to handle.

At 17, Lam became a stuntman and martial arts coach at the Shaw Brothers Studio. Due to his slender build, he was often called upon to substitute female actors. He received $HK60 a day, $HK20 of which went to his master.

At 19, he was hand-picked by Bruce Lee for the role as assistant action director on The Big Boss. After The Big Boss, Lam continued to work with Lee until Lee's death. Lam later joined Hung's stuntman association (known as the Hung Kar Pan).

1980s[link]

In 1982, Lam won the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Action Direction, in the film Prodigal Son. Prodigal Son featured what is widely acknowledged as amongst the best Wing Chun caught on film, performed by Lam. He also underlined his acting talent by convincingly playing a frail, elderly Taoist priest in The Dead and the Deadly (1983).

Lam's star did not rise until 1985, with the release of Mr. Vampire, the movie that fueled the hopping vampire genre. Lam was nominated for Best Actor for his role as the taoist priest. The character was an engaging mixture of naivety and stoic authority, and became a favourite for audiences. Lam was to reprise this role many times throughout his career.

Shortly after the release of Mr. Vampire, the Golden Harvest film company attempted to make an English version of the movie with Tanya Roberts (of Charlie's Angels) and Jack Scalia. Lam's role was played by long time kung fu film actor Yuen Wah. Due to various difficulties, the film was never made.

1990s[link]

The success of Mr. Vampire eventually became burdensome on Lam, who found himself typecast in the role. As the hopping vampire genre began to lose its popularity, quality roles for Lam also began to dry, aside from small roles in The Swordsman (1991) and a supporting role in Pom Pom and Hot Hot, most of his roles were in low-budget movies. Lam also briefly became a director in the film, Green Hornet (1994).

In 1995, Lam was offered the starring role in a television series called Vampire Expert (殭屍道長). Shown on ATV, the series was a success and revived Lam's career. A second series aired in 1996, and in 1997, production on the third series began. The production was halted when Lam was informed he had liver cancer. Contrary to rumours that the cancer was caused by years of heavy drinking, the cancer was hereditary.

Death[link]

On November 8, 1997, Lam died at St Theresa's Hospital in Hong Kong, due to his liver cancer.

Tribute[link]

The first series of My Date with a Vampire produced by ATV was dedicated to him, and the entire series was loosely based in the future of Vampire Expert.

Filmography[link]

Film roles include:

• Painted Skin (1993) (Actor)
• Exorcist Master (1993) (Actor)
• Kung Fu Cult Master (1993) (Cameo)
• Pom Pom and Hot Hot (1992) (Actor)
• Crazy Safari (1991) (Actor)
• The Ultimate Vampire (1991) (Actor)
• Slickers vs. Killers (1991) (Actor)
• Lover's Tear (1991) (Actor/Action Director/Producer)
• Swordsman (1991) (Actor)
• School on Fire (1989) (Actor)
• Magic Cop (1989) (Actor/Action/Producer)
• Vampire Vs. Vampire (1989) (Actor)
• Pedicab Driver (1989) (Brief appearance)
• Paper Marriage (1988) (Action director)
• Painted Faces (1988) (Actor)
• I Love Maria (1988) (Actor)
• Mr. Vampire III (1987) (Actor)
• Eastern Condors (1987) (Actor/Action)
• Mr. Vampire II (1986) (Actor)
• Heroes Shed No Tears (1986) (Actor)
• Millionaire's Express (1986) (Actor)
• Mr. Vampire (1985) (Actor)
• My Lucky Stars (1985) (Actor)
• Hocus Pocus (1984) (Actor)
• Pom Pom (1984) (Actor)
• Winners And Sinners (1983) (Actor/Action director)
• The Dead and the Deadly (1983) (Actor/Stuntman/Action director)
• The Prodigal Son (1982) (Actor)
• Encounters of the Spooky Kind (1980) (Actor)
• Clan of Amazons (1978)
• Legend of the Bat (1978)
• Broken Oath (1977) (Actor)
• Enter the Dragon (1973) (Stuntman/Assistant action director)
• Fist of Fury (1972) (Stuntman)
• The Big Boss (1971) (Actor/Assistant action director)

Awards[link]

1983 Hong Kong Film Awards Nominated and won "Best Action Choreography" in Prodigal Son

1984 Hong Kong Film Awards Nominated and won "Best Action Choreography" in Winners And Sinners

1986 Hong Kong Film Awards Nominated for "Best Action Choreography" in My Lucky Stars

1986 Hong Kong Film Awards Nominated for "Best Supporting Actor" in Mr Vampire

See also[link]

• Sammo Hung
• Wu Ma

External links[link]

• Lam Ching Ying, Master For All Seasons - Unofficial Site
• Memory of Lam Ching Ying
• The Place For Lam Ching Ying Fans - Forum
• Lam Ching Ying Channel on YouTube
• Lam Ching Ying Tribute Page on Myspace
• Lam Ching-ying at the Internet Movie Database

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (April 2010)

Samuel Hui
Chinese name	許冠傑 (Traditional)
Chinese name	许冠杰 (Simplified)
Pinyin	Xǔ Guàn jié (Mandarin)
Jyutping	heoi2 gun3 git6 (Cantonese)
Birth name	Samuel Hui Koon-kit
Ancestry	Panyu(Now Canton), Guangdong
Origin	Hong Kong
Born	(1948-09-06) 6 September 1948 (age 63) Hong Kong
Other name(s)	god of songs (歌神), Sam哥
Occupation	Musician, singer-songwriter, actor
Genre(s)	Cantopop, Hong Kong English pop
Instrument(s)	Vocals, guitar, bass, piano, violin, harmonica, drums
Years active	1964–1992 2003–present
Associated acts	Harmonicks (1964), Bar Six (1965) , The Lotus
Spouse(s)	Rebecca Hui
Children	Ryan Hui Scott Hui
Parents	Hui Sai-cheung (father) Lee See-wun (mother)
Influences	Elvis Presley
Influenced	Beyond
Awards Hong Kong Film Awards Best Original Film Song 1983 Aces Go Places 1991 The Swordsman

Samuel Hui Koon-kit (born 6 September 1948), usually known as Sam Hui, is a Hong Kong Cantopop singer, lyricist and film actor. He is credited with popularizing Cantopop both with the infusion of Western-style music and using popular, street Cantonese jargon in his lyrics writing. Hui is considered by some to be the first major superstar of Cantopop.

Early life[link]

Hui graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Hong Kong,^[1] Ying Wa College and St. Francis Xavier's College in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Hui and his two older brothers, Michael and Ricky, worked on several comedies in the early 1970s. Hui has also gained credit for popularizing Cantopop, by incorporating the idiosyncrasies of Western popular music into the old Cantopop genre.^[2]

Career[link]

Singer[link]

Hui started his career as a host on a youth music TV show on the TV network TVB. Sam and Michael Hui starred as the host in 精裝雙星報喜 (The Hui's Brothers Show). At that time, he was the lead musician of his band named The Lotus. In the early years of his career, Hui performed English songs that were popular in Britain and the United States. He wrote the theme songs for the comedies produced by his brother, Michael Hui, and started performing Cantonese songs.

Hui's music appealed to the Hong Kong masses, particularly the working class, with simple lyrics and a light-hearted nature which was popular in Hong Kong music in the late 1970s. One of his most popular song during the mid '70s was the theme song of the film "The Private Eyes". It was a humorous reflection on the plight of the harsh working life for middle and lower class in Hong Kong. He penned most of the compositions and personally wrote most of the humorous lyrics that generally encompassed current issues in Hong Kong such as the song Could Not Care Less About 1997 (话知你97), which literally encouraged Hong Kong people to throw caution to the wind and enjoy their life instead of worrying about the imminent handover to the People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997. While some of his songs are light hearted, other have philosophical messages that are brought out with artful use of Chinese words that have multiple symbolism. Examples can be seen in his farewell song in 1992 and From the Heart of Loafer, where for Cantopop, sophisticated language and messages are rare in lyrics of contemporary artists.

Film[link]

On a personal note, Hui is closer to his middle brother Ricky than to their oldest brother Michael. Sam and Michael reportedly fell out with each other after their pre-1985 successes. However, in Michael's Chicken and Duck Talk (1988), Hui appeared in a short 3-minute cameo, playing the role of himself as master of ceremonies at the grand opening of Danny's Chicken. Then in 1990, the three brothers reunited in 'Front Page', a lampoon on Hong Kong's sometimes over-zealous entertainment news industry. Hui also collaborated with several popular singers such as Leslie Cheung both musically and on-screen culminating in the hit single co-written by both Hui and Cheung entitled Silence is Golden (沉默是金) which Hui also sung as a solo track on his 1987 album Hot Summer, as well as the catchy tune "I've Never Been Afraid".

Hui also starred in the Aces Go Places, a series of Hong Kong action–comedies in the 1980s, with Karl Maka. Hui held a farewell concert in 1991-92, in which he invited many music celebrities and officially declared that he would not be active in the movie industry nor in Cantopop in the future. He was once seriously injured while filming The Legend of Wisely in Tibet due to lack of oxygen, thereafter falling very ill and many of his fans pointed out that this near fatal accident may have been pivotal on his decision to retire as they superstitiously believed that he was haunted by a spirit.

Retirement[link]

During the late 1990s, Hui's father had advised him to retire to avoid the stresses he endured from hosting concerts. Hui's "lack of oxygen" suffered on a previous film, was actually carbon monoxide poisoning. His mother purportedly also had some reservations against his performing, mainly that he could injure himself on stage. A Hong Kong concert in 1990 supposedly marked his early retirement, however Hui then agreed to host a 42 show concert. Around the time of the 30th show, Hui's father died but despite his grief, he continued to host. During 1991-1992, Hui hosted a total of 14 shows in Hong Kong preempting his actual retirement. He also hosted a show in Vancouver, Canada, in the Pacific Coliseum, and also in Toronto, Canada, in which he dedicated this concert to his late-father. Despite reiterating his plans for retirement, Hui came back for a short stint in the movie Winner Takes All co-starring Nicholas Tse and Ruby Lin. This he maintained, was a result of being unable to ignore his heart's desire.

The handprint and autograph of Sam Hui at the Avenue of Stars, Hong Kong

Widely acclaimed as the "God of Song" in Hong Kong (and the first singer to ever acknowledged with the title), he decided to come out of retirement in 2004 and held multiple come-back concerts in which he was welcomed by a Hong Kong public and sell-out shows. In these concerts, he paid tribute to the recent passing of close colleagues, Leslie Cheung and Anita Mui in 2003 and claimed that their deaths had influenced his decision to come out of retirement, culminating in his comeback song in 2004 with '04 Bless You. Hui performed in a concert in Kuala Lumpur on 19 and 20 February 2005 with his brother Ricky and sons and his brother Ricky Hui but has not made active plans for any follow-ups. He also performed in Vancouver on 15 December 2005 and in Singapore on 29 March 2008. In 2007, Hui signed with EC Music and released his first album in 17 years, named "Life is Good" (人生多麼好).

Personal life[link]

Hui is married to Filipino-American Rebecca "Rebu" Fleming, with whom he has two sons, Ryan and Scott. Ryan is also a singer-songwriter and has released several albums, while Scott has pursued a career in film, directing a few videos for his brother.

Guitars[link]

• Ovation 1617 Legend (Retired)
• Gibson Dove (Retired)
• Ovation Adamas 1687 (Retired)
• Custom Legend 1769-ADII Al DiMeola (Retired)
• Ovation Custom Legend C2079 (Retired)
• Ovation Adamas The Earth Memorial (Retired)
• Ovation Adamas The Universe Memorial (Retired)
• Taylor Doyle Dykes DDSM (Present)
• Taylor 614-CE Grand Auditorium Cutaway Acoustic-electric guitar (Present)
• Ovation 1778T-RF (Present)

Discography[link]

Cantonese albums[link]

• Games Gamblers Play (鬼馬雙星) (1974)
• The Last Message (天才與白痴) (1975)
• The Private Eyes (半斤八兩) (1976)
• 財神到 (1978)
• The Contract (賣身契) (1978)
• 79夏日之歌集 (1979)
• 念奴嬌 (1980)
• Security Unlimited (摩登保鑣) (1981)
• 難忘您‧紙船 (1982)
• 最佳拍檔大顯神通 (1983)
• 新的開始 (1983)
• 最喜歡你 (1984)
• 最緊要好玩 (1985)
• 熱力之冠 (1986)
• 宇宙無限 (1986)
• 潮流興夾Band (1987)
• 許冠傑新曲與精選 (1987)
• Sam and Friends (1988)
• 許冠傑89歌集 (1989)
• 香港情懷90 (1990)
• 90電影金曲精選 (1990)
• 歌神與您繼續微笑04 (2004)
• 人生多麼好 (2007)

English albums[link]

• Time of The Season (1971)
• Morning After (1974)
• Interlude (1975)
• Came Travelling (1977)

Filmography[link]

• Back Alley Princess (馬路小英雄,1973)
• The Tattooed Dragon (龍虎金剛, 1973)
• Chinatown Capers (小英雄大鬧唐人街, 1974)
• Naughty! Naughty! (綽頭狀元, 1974)
• Games Gamblers Play (鬼馬雙星, 1974)
• The Last Message (天才與白痴, 1975)
• The Private Eyes (半斤八兩, 1976)
• Money Crazy (發錢寒, 1977)
• The Contract (賣身契, 1978)
• Security Unlimited (摩登保鑣, 1981)
• Aces Go Places (最佳拍檔, 1982)
• Aces Go Places 2 (最佳拍檔大顯神通, 1983)
• Aces Go Places 3 (最佳拍檔之女皇密令, 1984)
• A Family Affair (全家福, 1984)
• Robby the Rascal (1985)
• Working Class (打工皇帝, 1985)
• Aces Go Places 4 (最佳拍檔千里救差婆, 1986)
• The Legend of Wisely (衛斯理傳奇, 1987)
• Chicken and Duck Talk (雞同鴨講, 1988; Cameo)
• Aces Go Places 5: The Terracotta Hit (新最佳拍檔, 1989)
• Dragon from Russia (紅場飛龍, 1990)
• The Swordsman (笑傲江湖, 1990)
• Front Page (新半斤八兩, 1990)
• Laughter of the Water Margins (水滸笑傳, 1993)
• All's Well, Ends Well Too (花田囍事, 1993)
• Winner Takes All (大贏家, 2000)

^{[3] [4]}

See also[link]

• List of graduates of University of Hong Kong

References[link]

External links[link]

• Samuel Hui at the Internet Movie Database
• Sam's latest album's official site

This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (March 2010)

The following is a list of characters from Jin Yong's novel Sword Stained with Royal Blood. Some of these characters also appear in the novel The Deer and the Cauldron.

Main characters[link]

• Yuan Chengzhi (袁承志) is the protagonist of the novel. He was tutored in martial arts by Mu Renqing and later by chance inherits the skills of Xia Xueyi. One of the most powerful martial artists of his age and a fine young hero, he strives to uphold justice and defend his native land from foreign invasion. At the end of the novel he leaves China for good and sails to a distant land with his companions.

• Yuan Chonghuan (袁崇煥) is Yuan Chengzhi's father. He was a military commander commissioned by the Ming government to defend the northern border from Manchu invaders. He is wrongly accused of treason and put to death by the Chongzhen Emperor.

• Xia Xueyi (夏雪宜), nicknamed "Golden Serpent Gentleman" (金蛇郎君), is a powerful swordsman with extraordinary skills. He possesses charming good looks and a sense of chivalry, which makes him appear attractive to women. He becomes involved in two separate romantic relationships with He Hongyao and Wen Yi. He is only mentioned by name in the novel because he is already long dead before the events of the novel take place.

• Xia Qingqing (夏青青), also known as Wen Qingqing (溫青青), is the daughter of Xia Xueyi and Wen Yi. She is first introduced as a member of the Wen family, a clan of brigands. After having a conflict with the Wen elders, she has no option but to leave and follow Yuan Chengzhi in pursuit of a new life.

• A'jiu (阿九) is actually Princess Changping (長平公主), a daughter of the Chongzhen Emperor. She is introduced as a young lady who frequently associates herself with jianghu pugilists. She meets Yuan Chengzhi and they develop a romantic relationship. When Li Zicheng's rebels overrun the Forbidden City, her confused and agitated father attacks her with a sword and hacks off her arm. Fortunately, Yuan Chengzhi appears in time and saves her and she survives. At the end of the novel she says she has become disillusioned with the world and wants to become a nun. She renames herself "Jiunan" (九難).

• He Tieshou (何鐵手) is the leader of the Five Poisons Cult. She has a hook for her right hand, as implied by her name "Tieshou", which means "metal hand". She is recruited by Prince Hui to assist him in usurping the throne. During this time she meets Yuan Chengzhi and his friends, and plays many evil pranks on them to hinder their missions. She has a crush on Qingqing, who is disguised as a young male scholar, and decides to betray her cult and break ties with Prince Hui. Yuan Chengzhi succeeds in reforming her and she becomes his student. He renames her to "He Tishou" (何惕守).

Yuan Chengzhi's allies[link]

• Jiao Wan'er (焦婉兒) is Jiao Gongli's daughter. She seeks vengeance on Min Zihua after thinking that he murdered her father. With Yuan Chengzhi's help, she discovers that the Taibai Sanying are actually the ones responsible and she kills them in revenge. She marries Luo Liru.

• Luo Liru (羅立如) is one of Jiao Gongli's disciples. His right arm is sliced off by Sun Zhongjun in a disagreement. Yuan Chengzhi helps him overcome his disability by teaching him a set of left-handed saber movements.

• Hong Shenghai (洪勝海) is a member of the Bohai Sect (渤海派). He has a misunderstanding with Gui Xinshu and his wife, and they seek to kill him. He meets Yuan Chengzhi and decides to follow him for protection. Yuan helps him resolve the conflict with the Gui couple.

• Cheng Qingzhu (程青竹) is the chief of the Green Bamboo Gang (青竹幫) and the martial arts teacher of A'jiu.

• Sha Tianguang (沙天廣) is the leader of a group of bandits who attempted to rob Yuan Chengzhi and his friends of their treasure. They are ambushed by Ming soldiers while scuffling for the treasure. Yuan is not angry with the robbers, and instead he helps them fight the soldiers and drive them away. Sha is so impressed with Yuan's heroism that he pledges allegiance to the latter.

• Hu Guinan (胡桂南), nicknamed "Divine Thief" (聖手神偷), is a pugilist highly skilled in the art of thieving.

• Yisheng (義生) is a monk nicknamed "Iron Arhat" (鐵羅漢).

• Shui Jian (水鑒) is a military officer in charge of escorting some prisoners. He and his men are attacked and defeated by Yuan Chengzhi and his followers. He is captured and decides to pledge allegiance to Yuan, who spares his life. He helps Yuan organise his followers to form an army and train them.

Rebels[link]

• Li Zicheng (李自成), nicknamed "Dashing King" (闖王), is the leader of the rebel forces that overthrew the corrupt Ming government. After his victory, he gradually loses popularity and he not only fails to deliver his promises to restore peace and stability, but also condones his followers' brutality towards the common people. The short-lived Shun Dynasty he established is eventually conquered by the Manchus.

• Li Yan (李岩) is a trusted advisor of Li Zicheng and a general of the rebel army. He befriends Yuan Chengzhi. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Li Zicheng believes slanderous rumours that Li Yan is plotting against him and has Li Yan killed.

• The Red Maiden (紅娘子) is Li Yan's wife who is famous for her bravery and selfless acts. She commits suicide with her husband.

• An Daniang (安大娘) is An Jianqing's wife. She takes care of Yuan Chengzhi for a brief period of time when he was still a child. She serves the rebel army as a spy and messenger.

• An Xiaohui (安小彗) is An Jianqing and An Daniang's daughter and a childhood friend of Yuan Chengzhi. Like her mother, she works as a spy for the rebel army. Yuan Chengzhi helps her recover the lost gold from the Wen family. She marries Cui Ximin.

• Shanzong (山宗) is an organisation formed by Yuan Chonghuan's former followers. They take care of Yuan Chengzhi after his father's death and send him to the Mount Hua Sect. They initially insisted on writing a petition to the Chongzhen Emperor to seek redress for Yuan Chonghuan but decide to join Li Zicheng's rebel army after seeing that the Ming government is too corrupt. Its members include:
  • Ying Song (應松)
  • Luo Daqian (羅大千)
  • Zhu Anguo (朱安國)
  • Sun Zhongshou (孫仲壽)
  • Tian Jianxiu (田見秀)
  • Cui Qiushan (崔秋山)

Mount Hua Sect (華山派) and associates[link]

• Mu Renqing (穆人清), nicknamed "Divine Sword, Immortal Ape" (神劍仙猿), is the leader of the Mount Hua Sect. His prowess in martial arts and swordplay is legendary.

• Huang Zhen (黃真), nicknamed "Copper Brush and Iron Abacus" (銅筆鐵算盤), is Mu Renqing's eldest disciple.

• Huang Zhen's disciples:
  • Feng Nandi (馮難敵)
  • Cui Ximin (崔希敏)

• Gui Xinshu (歸辛樹), nicknamed "Invincible Divine Fists" (神拳無敵), is Mu Renqing's second disciple.

• Gui Erniang (歸二娘) is Gui Xinshu's wife. She is extremely protective of their son, a sickly infant. The couple roam the jianghu in search of a cure for their son.

• Gui Xinshu's disciples:
  • Mei Jianhe (梅劍和)
  • Liu Peisheng (劉培生)
  • Sun Zhongjun (孫仲君)

• Taoist Musang (木桑道長) is the leader of the Iron Sword Sect (鐵劍門) and a close friend of Mu Renqing. He also instructed Yuan Chengzhi in martial arts before. He is obsessed with weiqi and willing to spend an entire day playing with someone.

• Yuzhenzi (玉真子) is Musang's junior. He is tempted by wealth and fame, and decides to betray his sect and serve the Manchus. He aids them in sabotaging the Ming government. Yuan Chengzhi runs into trouble with him on several different occasions. He is eventually slain by the combined efforts of Yuan, A'jiu, Sun Zhongjun and He Tishou.

Manchu forces[link]

• Nurhaci (努爾哈赤) was the ruler of Manchuria. He led his forces to attack the declining Ming Empire. During the Battle of Ningyuan against a Ming army commanded by Yuan Chonghuan, he was severely injured and died from his wounds.

• Hong Taiji (皇太極) is Nurhaci's successor as ruler of Manchuria. An expert militarist and tactician, he used a scheme to trick the Chongzhen Emperor into believing that Yuan Chonghuan was a traitor, causing the emperor to have Yuan executed. Yuan Chengzhi once attempted to assassinate him in Mukden but failed.

• Dorgon (多爾袞) is a younger half-brother of Hong Taiji.

Ming forces[link]

• The Chongzhen Emperor (崇禎帝) is the last ruler of the Ming Dynasty. He suspected Yuan Chonghuan of treason and had the latter put to death. When the Forbidden City is overrun by Li Zicheng's rebels, he sinks into an agitated and confused state and starts attacking people with a sword. Assisted by a eunuch, he eventually commits suicide by hanging himself from a tree.

• An Jianqing (安劍清) is An Daniang's husband and An Xiaohui's father. Tempted by wealth and greed, he decides to serve the Ming government and becomes a Jinyi Wei commander. His wife leaves him in anger and joins the rebel army. They have remained on opposing sides before reconciling eventually.

• Prince Hui (惠王) is a noble who attempts to usurp the throne as Li Zicheng's rebel army closes in on the capital. He hires various pugilists to help him overthrow the Chongzhen Emperor.

• Wu Sangui (吳三桂) is a Ming general in charge of guarding the crucial Shanhai Pass on the northeastern border. His concubine Chen Yuanyuan is seized by Li Zicheng when the rebels occupied the capital. In anger, Wu defects to the Manchu side and opens Shanhai Pass for them to enter the Ming domain and help him defeat Li Zicheng.

• Chen Yuanyuan (陳圓圓) is Wu Sangui's concubine.

• The "Taibai Sanying" (太白三英) are three treacherous swordsmen who serve as spies for the Manchus. They murder Jiao Gongli and attempt to push the blame to Min Zihua. They are eventually slain by Jiao Gongli's daughter Jiao Wan'er after she uncovers the truth with Yuan Chengzhi's help. The three are:
  • Shi Bingguang (史秉光)
  • Shi Bingwen (史秉文)
  • Li Gang (黎剛)

Five Poisons Cult (五毒教)[link]

• He Hongyao (何紅藥) is He Tieshou's aunt and one of the cult's elders. She has a past romantic affair with Xia Xueyi and seeks vengeance on him after he betrays her love. She vents her anger on Qingqing when she learns that the latter is Xia Xueyi's daughter. She is killed in an explosion in the cave where Xia Xueyi was buried.

• Qi Yun'ao (齊雲璈) is an elder of the cult who specialises in the use of snake poison. He often disguises himself as a beggar. He is killed by He Hongyao during the cult's internal conflict.

Wen family and associates[link]

• The Five Wen Elders (溫家五佬) are the five patriarchs of the Wen family. They are martial arts experts and command a group of brigands. Their battle formation, known as the Five Elements Formation (五行陣), proves a challenge to Yuan Chengzhi. The five are:
  • Wen Fangda (溫方達)
  • Wen Fangyi (溫方義)
  • Wen Fangshan (溫方山)
  • Wen Fangshi (溫方施)
  • Wen Fangwu (溫方悟)

• Wen Yi (溫儀) is Wen Fangshan's daughter and Qingqing's mother. She falls in love with Xia Xueyi despite the latter having bad blood with her family. Her family treats her and her daughter coldly after Xia Xueyi's disappearance.

• Zhang Chunjiu (張春九) was a pugilist who sought the whereabouts of Xia Xueyi. He was killed by Xia after finding the Golden Serpent Manual on Mount Hua.

Miscellaneous characters[link]

• Min Zihua (閔子華) is a member of the Xiandu Sect (仙都派). He was misled into believing that Jiao Gongli killed his brother so he rallies a group of pugilists to help him confront Jiao. Yuan Chengzhi helps to diffuse the conflict and clear Jiao's name. As part of an earlier agreement, Min hands over his villa to Yuan and promises never to bother Jiao again.

• Jiao Gongli (焦公禮) is the chief of the Golden Dragon Gang (金龍幫). He is murdered by the Taibai Sanying, who attempt to push the blame to his former rival Min Zihua.

• Meng Bofei (孟伯飛) is a reputable elderly pugilist who was nominated to lead a group of jianghu pugilists gathered on Mount Tai. He loses the position to Yuan Chengzhi.

• Zhang Chaotang (張朝唐), Yang Pengju (杨鹏举) and Zhang Kang (張康) are three officials from the Bruneian Empire who visit China.

• Raymond (雷蒙), Peter (彼得) and Rooklyn (若克琳) are three foreigners who oversee the trading of a battery of cannons to the Ming imperial army. They present Yuan Chengzhi with a map of the Far East after losing to him in a duel.

See also[link]

• List of organisations in Wuxia fiction

Coordinates: 22°16′42″N 114°09′32″E / 22.27833°N 114.15889°E / 22.27833; 114.15889

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China[note 1] 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區
Flag Emblem
Anthem: March of the Volunteers 《義勇軍進行曲》
View at night from Victoria Peak
Official language(s)		Chinese, English[note 2]
Spoken languages		Cantonese, English
Writing systems		Traditional Chinese, English alphabet
Demonym		Hong Konger
Government		Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
-	Chief Executive	Donald Tsang
-	Chief Executive-elect	CY Leung
-	Chief Justice	Geoffrey Ma
-	President of the Legislative Council	Jasper Tsang
Legislature		Legislative Council
Establishment
-	Treaty of Nanking	29 August 1842
-	Japanese occupation	25 December 1941 – 15 August 1945
-	Conveyance from British sovereignty to Chinese sovereignty	1 July 1997
Area
-	Total	1,104 km2 (179th) 426 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.58 (50 km²; 19 mi²)[3]
Population
-	2010 census	7,061,200[4]
-	Density	6,480[5]/km2 (4th) 16,576/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$351.119 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$49,137[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$243.302 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$34,049[6]
Gini (2007)		43.4[7]
HDI (2011)		0.898[8] (very high) (13th)
Currency		Hong Kong dollar (HKD)
Time zone		HKT (UTC+8)
Date formats		yyyy年m月d日 (Chinese) dd-mm-yyyy (English)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		HK
Internet TLD		.hk and .香港
Calling code		+852

Hong Kong
Chinese	香港
Cantonese Jyutping	Hoeng1gong2
Cantonese Yale	Hēunggóng
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiānggǎng
Literal meaning	Fragrant harbour
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng - Wade–Giles Hsiang1-kang3 - IPA [ɕjáŋkàŋ] Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 - IPA [hœ̂ːŋkɔ̌ːŋ] - Yale Romanization Hēunggóng
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese	香港特別行政區 (or 香港特區)
Simplified Chinese	香港特别行政区 (or 香港特区)
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Thi̍t-phe̍t Hàng-tsṳn-khî Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 deh入bih入 ghan平tsen去chiu平 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 Dak6bit6 Hang4zing3 Keoi1

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Full view of Kowloon and Hong Kong. The old Kai Tak Airport can be seen on the left.

The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum located in northwest Kowloon was built in 1969 after the tomb's discovery in 1955.

Hong Kong^{[note 3]} (Chinese: 香港) is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. A city-state^[9] situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea,^[10] it is known for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.^[11] Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups.^[12] Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.^[13]

Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). Originally confined to Hong Kong Island, the colony's boundaries were extended in stages to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and then the New Territories in 1898. It was occupied by Japan during the Pacific War, after which the British resumed control until 1997, when China resumed sovereignty.^[14][15] The region espoused minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive non-interventionism during the colonial era.^[16] The time period greatly influenced the current culture of Hong Kong, often described as "East meets West",^[17] and the educational system, which used to loosely follow the system in England^[18] until reforms implemented in 2009.^[19]

Under the principle of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong has a different political system from mainland China.^[20] Hong Kong's independent judiciary functions under the common law framework.^[21][22] Hong Kong Basic Law, its constitutional document, stipulates that Hong Kong shall have a "high degree of autonomy" in all matters except foreign relations and military defence, governs its political system.^[23][24] Although it has a burgeoning multi-party system, a small-circle electorate^{[clarification needed]} controls half of its legislature. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong, the head of government, is selected by a Selection Committee / Election Committee with 400 to 1200 members, during the first 20 years.^{[25] [26][27] [28]}

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade, and the currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.^[29] The lack of space caused demand for denser constructions, which developed the city to a centre for modern architecture and the world's most vertical city.^[30][31] Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita income in the world.^[6] The dense space also led to a highly developed transportation network with public transport travelling rate exceeding 90 percent,^[32] the highest in the world.^[33] Hong Kong has numerous high international rankings in various aspects. For instance, its economic freedom, financial and economic competitiveness, quality of life, corruption perception, Human Development Index, etc., are all ranked highly.^{[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]} According to both UN and WHO estimates, Hong Kong has the second longest life expectancy of any country in the world. ^[41][42]

Etymology[link]

The name "Hong Kong" is an approximate phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name "香港", meaning "fragrant harbour".^[43] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet – now Aberdeen Harbour or 香港仔 hoeng¹ gong² zai² "Little Hong Kong" – between the Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island, which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.^[44]

The reference to fragrance may refer to the harbour waters sweetened by the fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River, or to the incense from factories lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored around Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of Victoria Harbour.^[43] In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, and the name Hong Kong was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.^[45]

History[link]

Pre-colonial[link]

Archaeological studies support a human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago, and in Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.^[46][47][48] Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the two earliest sites of human habitation in the Paleolithic period. It is believed the Three Fathom Cove was a river valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggest cultural differences from the Longshan culture in northern China and settlement by the Che people prior to the migration of the Baiyue.^[49][50] Eight petroglyphs were discovered on surrounding islands, which dated to the Shang Dynasty in China.^[51]

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern Liangguang region) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong is located in Nanhai commandery (modern Nanhai District) and near the ancient capital city Pun Yue.^[52][53][54] The area was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the Qin Dynasty collapsed.^[55] When the kingdom was conquered by Emperor Wu of Han in 111 BC, the land was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery under the Han Dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb in the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han Dynasty.^[56]

During the Tang Dynasty period, the Guangdong region flourished as a regional trading center. In 736, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military town in Tuen Mun to defend the coastal area in the region.^[57] The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 in the New Territories under the Northern Song Dynasty.^[58] During the Mongol invasion in 1276, the Southern Song Dynasty court moved to Fujian, then to Lantau Island and later to Sung Wong Toi (modern Kowloon City), but the child Emperor Bing of Song committed suicide by drowning with his officials after being defeated in the Battle of Yamen. Hau Wong, an official of the emperor is still worshipped in Hong Kong today.^[59]

The earliest recorded European visitor was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513.^[60][61] After establishing settlements in the region, Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China. At the same time, they invaded and built up military fortifications in Tuen Mun. Military clashes between China and Portugal led to the expulsion of the Portuguese. In the mid-16th century, the Haijin order banned maritime activities and prevented contact with foreigners; it also restricted local sea activity.^[59] In 1661–69, the territory was affected by the Great Clearance ordered by Kangxi Emperor, which required the evacuation of the coastal areas of Guangdong. It is recorded that about 16,000 persons from Xin'an County were driven inland, and 1,648 of those who left are said to have returned when the evacuation was rescinded in 1669.^[62] What is now the territory of Hong Kong became largely wasteland during the ban.^[63] In 1685, Kangxi became the first emperor to open limited trading with foreigners, which started with the Canton territory. He also imposed strict terms for trades such as requiring foreign traders to live in restricted areas, staying only for the trading seasons, banning firearms, and trading with silver only.^[64] The East India Company made the first sea venture to China in 1699, and the region's trade with British merchants developed rapidly soon after. In 1711, the company established its first trading post in Canton. By 1773, the British reached a landmark 1,000 chests of opium in Canton with China consuming 2,000 chests annually by 1799.^[64]

British colonial era[link]

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1870-1876)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1876-1910)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1910-1959)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong (Unofficial Red ensign for Hong Kong used in between 1959 to prior the Handover of Hong Kong to the PRC in 1997)

General Post Office in Central,City of Victoria, 1911

The Queen's Pier in front of City Hall in Edinburgh Place.

Victoria City in the 1890s.

View of Hong Kong Island from Kowloon (published 1843)

In 1839, the refusal by Qing Dynasty authorities to import opium resulted in the First Opium War between China and Britain. Hong Kong Island was occupied by British forces on 20 January 1841 and was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpee as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan, but the agreement was never ratified due to a dispute between high ranking officials in both governments.^[65] It was not until 29 August 1842 that the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom under the Treaty of Nanking. The British established a crown colony with the founding of Victoria City the following year.^[66]

Under British rule, the population of Hong Kong island had increased from 7,450 Chinese residents, mostly fishermen, in 1841 to over 115,000 Chinese and 8,754 Europeans in Hong Kong (including Kowloon) in 1870.^[67]

In 1860, after China's defeat in the Second Opium War, the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter's Island were ceded in perpetuity to Britain under the Convention of Peking.

In 1894, the deadly Third Pandemic of bubonic plague spread from China to Hong Kong, causing 50,000–100,000 deaths.^[68]

In 1898, under the terms of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, Britain obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island and the adjacent northern lands, which became known as the New Territories.^[69] Hong Kong's territory has remained unchanged to the present.^[70][71]

During the first half of the 20th century, Hong Kong was a free port, serving as an entrepôt of the British Empire. The British introduced an education system based on their own model, while the local Chinese population had little contact with the European community of wealthy tai-pans settled near Victoria Peak.^[69]

Japanese invasion[link]

In conjunction with its military campaign, the Empire of Japan invaded Hong Kong on 8 December 1941.^[72] The Battle of Hong Kong ended with British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of the colony to Japan on 25 December.^[73] During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, civilians suffered widespread food shortages, rationing, and hyper-inflation due to forced exchange of currency for military notes. Through a policy of enforced repatriation of the unemployed to the mainland throughout the period, because of the scarcity of food, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony.^[74]

Cold war era[link]

Granted by the College of Arms on 21 January 1959, the Blue Ensign colonial flag and coat of arms of Hong Kong were used by British Hong Kong during 1959–1997.

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly as a wave of migrants from China arrived for refuge from the ongoing Chinese Civil War. When the PRC was proclaimed in 1949, more migrants fled to Hong Kong for fear of persecution by the Communist Party.^[69] Many corporations in Shanghai and Guangzhou shifted their operations to Hong Kong.^[69]

In the 1950s, Hong Kong's rapid industrialization was driven by textile exports and other expanded manufacturing industries. As the population grew and labour costs remained low, living standards rose steadily. ^[75] The construction of Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 followed a massive slum fire, and marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme designed to cope with the huge influx of immigrants. Trade in Hong Kong accelerated even further when Shenzhen, immediately north of Hong Kong, became a special economic zone of the PRC, and Hong Kong was established as the main source of foreign investment in China.^[76] The manufacturing competitiveness gradually declined in Hong Kong due to the development of the manufacturing industry in southern China beginning in the early 1980s. By contrast, the service industry in Hong Kong experienced high rates of growth in the 1980s and 1990s after absorbing workers released from the manufacturing industry.^[77]

Development of Hong Kong Island in 1986

Throughout the British colonial era, Hong Kong was industrialized and improved in all aspects from its economy to its health care system. Many health facilities were built for its citizens, for example the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, the Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong, the Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong and the Prince of Wales Hospital. Many changes happened during this era shaped the future of Hong Kong. In the year 1983, when the United Kingdom reclassified Hong Kong from a British crown colony to a dependent territory, the governments of the United Kingdom and China were already discussing the issue of Hong Kong's sovereignty due to the impending expiry (within two decades) of the lease of the New Territories. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration – an agreement to transfer sovereignty to the People's Republic of China in 1997 – was signed.^[69] It stipulated that Hong Kong would be governed as a special administrative region, retaining its laws and a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, which is based on the English law would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer, was ratified in 1990.^[69]

Since 1997[link]

File:British new style passport.jpg

Left:Old British passports issued to Hong Kong citizens. Right:The British National (Overseas) passport issued to residents of Hong Kong prior 1997, holders are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British Citizens.

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty from United Kingdom to the PRC occurred, officially ending 156 years of British colonial rule. Hong Kong became China's first special administrative region, and Tung Chee Hwa took office as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong. That same year, Hong Kong suffered an economic double blow from the Asian financial crisis and the H5N1 avian influenza.^[69] In 2003, Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).^[78][79] The World Health Organization reported 1,755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong.^[80] An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars (US$48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic.^[81]

On 10 March 2005, Tung Chee Hwa announced his resignation as Chief Executive due to "health problems".^[82] Donald Tsang, the Chief Secretary for Administration at the time, entered the 2005 election unopposed and became the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005.^[83] In 2007, Tsang won the Chief Executive election and continued his second term in office.^[84]

In 2009, Hong Kong hosted the fifth East Asian Games, in which nine national teams competed. It was the first and largest international multi-sport event ever held in the territory.^[85] Today, Hong Kong continues to serve as an important global financial centre, but faces uncertainty over its future due to the growing mainland China economy, and its relationship with the PRC government in areas such as democratic reform and universal suffrage.^[86]

Governance[link]

The Legislative Council Building in Central became the home to Legislative Council of Hong Kong in 1985.

In accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration, and the underlying principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong has a "high degree of autonomy as a special administrative region in all areas except defence and foreign affairs."^{[note 4]} The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of its people for at least 50 years beyond the 1997 handover.^{[note 5]} The guarantees over the territory's autonomy and the individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in a constitution, the Hong Kong Basic Law(formed based on the Common law of England), which outlines the system of governance of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, but which is subject to the interpretation of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).^[87][88]

The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, the civil service, the Legislative Council, and the Judiciary. The Executive Council is headed by the Chief Executive who is elected by the Election Committee and then appointed by the Central People's Government.^[89][90] The civil service is a politically neutral body that implements policies and provides government services, where public servants are appointed based on meritocracy.^[26][91] The Legislative Council has 60 members, half of whom are directly elected by universal suffrage by permanent residents of Hong Kong according to five geographical constituencies. The other half, known as functional constituencies, are directly elected by a smaller electorate, which consists of corporate bodies and persons from various stipulated functional sectors. The entire council is headed by the President of the Legislative Council who serves as the speaker.^[92][93] Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission.^[21][94]

Government House is the official residence of the Chief Executive.

The implementation of the Basic Law, including how and when the universal suffrage promised therein is to be achieved, has been a major issue of political debate since the transfer of sovereignty. In 2002, the government's proposed anti-subversion bill pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law, which required the enactment of laws prohibiting acts of treason and subversion against the Chinese government, was met with fierce opposition, and eventually shelved.^[23][95][96] Debate between pro-Beijing groups, which tend to support the Executive branch, and the Pan-democracy camp characterises Hong Kong's political scene, with the latter supporting a faster pace of democratisation, and the principle of one man, one vote.^[97]

In 2004, the government failed to gain pan-democrat support to pass its so-called "district council model" for political reform.^[98] In 2009, the government reissued the proposals as the "Consultation Document on the Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive and for Forming the LegCo in 2012". The document proposed the enlargement of the Election Committee, Hong Kong's electoral college, from 800 members to 1,200 in 2012 and expansion of the legislature from 60 to 70 seats. The 10 new legislative seats would consist of five geographical constituency seats and five functional constituency seats, to be voted in by elected district council members from among themselves.^[99] The proposals were destined for rejection by pan-democrats once again, but a significant breakthrough occurred after the Central People's Government accepted a counter-proposal by the Democratic Party. In particular, the Pan-democracy camp was split when the proposal to directly elect five newly created functional seats was not acceptable to two constituent parties. The Democratic Party sided with the government for the first time since the handover and passed the proposals with a vote of 46–12.^[100]

Legal system and judiciary[link]

• 

  Statue of Themis on the Legislative Council Building.

• 

  The Court of Final Appeal in Central is the supreme court of Hong Kong.

Hong Kong's legal system is completely independent from the legal system of Mainland China. In contrast to mainland China's civil law system, Hong Kong continues to follow the English Common Law tradition established under British rule.^[101] Hong Kong's courts may refer to decisions rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents,^[21][102] and judges from other common law jurisdictions are allowed to sit as non-permanent judges of the Court of Final Appeal.^[21][102]

Structurally, the court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal, the High Court, which is made up of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance, and the District Court, which includes the Family Court.^[103] Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal.^[103] Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive.^[21][102]

The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform, and international legal cooperation between different jurisdictions.^[101] Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government.^[101] As protector of the public interest, the department may apply for judicial reviews and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest.^[104] The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution.^[105][106]

Human rights[link]

Hong Kong 1 July march with British Hong Kong flag.

Hong Kong's Basic law is based on the English law and so in general, Hong Kong is perceived to enjoy a high level of civil liberties.^[107] The Hong Kong government generally respect the human rights of the citizens, although core issues remain.^[108] There are concerns over the freedom of assembly which is restricted by the Public Order Ordinance. The police has been occasionally accused of using heavy-handed tactics towards protestors^[109] and questions are asked towards the extensive powers of the police.^[110] As to the right of privacy, covert surveillance remains the major concern.^[111] There is a lack of protection for gay men and lesbians due to the absence of a sexual orientation discrimination law, though there are currently no laws that criminalize homosexuality per se.^[112] There are also comments regarding a lack of protection for labour rights.^[108]

Internet censorship in Hong Kong operates under different principles and regulations than under the rest of China.^[113]

Administrative districts[link]

 Statistics

New Territories
No.	District	Population[114]	Area[115]
1.	Islands	138,900	175.03 km2 (67.58 sq mi)
2.	Kwai Tsing	510,300	21.82 km2 (8.42 sq mi)
3.	North	287,700	137.31 km2 (53.02 sq mi)
4.	Sai Kung	407,300	136.39 km2 (52.66 sq mi)
5.	Sha Tin	606,700	69.46 km2 (26.82 sq mi)
6.	Tai Po	292,700	147.42 km2 (56.92 sq mi)
7.	Tsuen Wan	292,300	60.7 km2 (23.44 sq mi)
8.	Tuen Mun	493,800	84.45 km2 (32.61 sq mi)
9.	Yuen Long	533,300	138.43 km2 (53.45 sq mi)
Kowloon
No.	District	Population	Area
10.	Kowloon City	359,400	9.97 km2 (3.85 sq mi)
11.	Kwun Tong	579,400	11.05 km2 (4.27 sq mi)
12.	Sham Shui Po	365,600	9.48 km2 (3.66 sq mi)
13.	Wong Tai Sin	421,900	9.36 km2 (3.61 sq mi)
14.	Yau Tsim Mong	285,300	6.85 km2 (2.64 sq mi)
Hong Kong Island
No.	District	Population	Area
15.	Central and Western	253,100	12.52 km2 (4.83 sq mi)
16.	Eastern	588,700	18.81 km2 (7.26 sq mi)
17.	Southern	275,700	38.95 km2 (15.04 sq mi)
18.	Wan Chai	155,700	10.02 km2 (3.87 sq mi)

Hong Kong has a unitary system of government; no local government has existed since the two municipal councils were abolished in 2000. As such there is no formal definition for its cities and towns. Administratively, Hong Kong is subdivided into 18 geographic districts, each represented by a district council which advises the government on local matters such as public facilities, community programmes, cultural activities, and environmental improvements.^[116]

There are a total of 534 district council seats, 405 of which are elected; the rest are appointed by the Chief Executive and 27 ex officio chairmen of rural committees.^[116] The Home Affairs Department communicates government policies and plans to the public through the district offices.^[117]

Military[link]

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  Coat of Arms of the Royal Hong Kong Regiment(UK)

• Badge of the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force.gif

  Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force(UK)

• HKMSC.jpg

  Hong Kong Military Service Corps(UK)

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  The Cenotaph of Hong Kong.Constructed in 1923 and located between Statue Square and the City Hall in Central, Hong Kong,[1] commemorates the dead in the First and Second World War[2] that served in Hong Kong in the Royal Navy, British Army and Royal Air Force.

When Hong Kong was a British colony and later, a dependent territory, defence was provided by the British military under the command of the Governor of Hong Kong who was ex officio Commander-in-chief.^[118] Most of the members of the British Forces in Hong Kong were from Britain but there were locally enlisted personnel (LEP) who served as regular British Forces members in the Hong Kong Squadron of the Royal Navy as well as the Hong Kong Military Service Corps. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment a military unit part of the Hong Kong Government, trained and organised along timelines of British Territorial Army and supported by British Army personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, are seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members have been local citizens of Chinese descent. The Hong Kong Military Service Corps maintained its reputation for loyalty and military skill at the highest level, often outshining British and Gurkha troops based in Hong Kong. The HKMSC Shooting Team won the Team and Individual champion pistol shot a number of times at RASAAM (the Regular Army Skill at Arms Meeting) at Bisley, in the UK, and in 1992 a Training Company team representing the HQ and Depot HKMSC won the Dragon Cup for military skills (outperforming the Queen's Gurkha Signals in signalling and the British Military Hospital team in first aid); the competition was not held again.

The HKMSC reached a peak strength of 1,200 men, providing the British garrison in Hong Kong with supporting personnel. All HKMSC soldiers were basically trained in Hong Kong and from time to time attended upgrading and trade courses in the United Kingdom. HKMSC soldiers who were posted to and served with other non-HKMSC units, wore the other units' cap badge. Unit personnel were enlisted as officers and drivers in 29 Squadron, Royal Corps of Transport (RCT) based in Gun Club Hill Barracks. It provided crews for 415 Maritime Troop based on Stonecutters' Island, dog handlers in the Defence Animal Support Unit (DASU) of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps (RAVC) based in Sek Kong, officer instructors in the Royal Army Educational Corps (RAEC), officers and clerks in the Royal Army Pay Corps (RAPC), technicians in the Royal Signals (R Sigs) of the Queen's Gurkha Signals (QGS) and engineers and armourers in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME). The HKMC trained physical training instructors (PTI) in the Army Physical Training Corps (APTC), medics in the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) based in the British Military Hospital (BMH), military police in the Royal Military Police (RMP), helicopter support crews in 660 Squadron Army Air Corps (AAC) based at Sek Kong Airfield, cooks in the Army Catering Corps (ACC), Weapons and Supplies Storekeepers in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) and intelligence staff in the Intelligence Corps. They also provided interpreters, clerks, Regimental Police and light-infantry personnel in Dragon Company of the General Service Corps (GSC) headquartered in Osborn Baracks, Kowloon Tong. The HKMSC offered Hong Kong Chinese soldiers the opportunity to pursue a full career in the British Regular Army up to and including a Queen's Commissioned officer rank of the General List (HKMSC). As all members of the HKMSC were British Regular Army soldiers, they received a Regular Army Service Record Book when they left the army. Many of them had also been awarded the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal (LS&GC) after 15 years of good and loyal service. British gallantry awards, Orders, Decorations and Medal Ribbons had also been presented to some HKMSC soldiers; such as the Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM), the British Empire Medal (BEM), Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) and the Officers of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).

When the PRC assumed sovereignty in 1997, the British barracks were replaced by a garrison of the People's Liberation Army, comprising ground, naval, and air forces, and under the command of the Chinese Central Military Commission.

The Hong Kong Basic Law is formed based on the Common law of England and it protects local civil affairs against interference by the garrison, and members of the garrison are subject to Hong Kong laws. The Hong Kong Government remains responsible for the maintenance of public order; however, it may ask the PRC government for help from the garrison in maintaining public order and in disaster relief. The PRC government is responsible for the costs of maintaining the garrison.^[23][119]

Geography and climate[link]

Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this false-colour satellite image.

Hong Kong is located on China's south coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau on the opposite side of the Pearl River Delta. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on the east, south, and west, and borders the Guangdong city of Shenzhen to the north over the Shenzhen River. The territory's 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, and over 200 offshore islands, of which the largest is Lantau Island. Of the total area, 1,054 km² (407 sq mi) is land and 50 km² (19 sq mi) is inland water. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles (5.6 km). Its land area makes Hong Kong the 179th largest inhabited territory in the world.^[3][10]

As much of Hong Kong's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less than 25% of the territory's landmass is developed, and about 40% of the remaining land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserves.^[120] Most of the territory's urban development exists on Kowloon peninsula, along the northern edge of Hong Kong Island, and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories.^[121] The highest elevation in the territory is at Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.^[122] Hong Kong's long and irregular coast provides it with many bays, rivers and beaches.^[123] On September 18, 2011, UNESCO listed the Hong Kong National Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network. Hong Kong Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region.^[124]

Despite Hong Kong's reputation of being intensely urbanised, the territory has tried to promote a green environment,^[125] and recent growing public concern has prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from Victoria Harbour.^[126] Awareness of the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. Approximately 80% of the city's smog originates from other parts of the Pearl River Delta.^[127]

Though it is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer, Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa). Summer is hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms, and warm air coming from the southwest. Summer is when typhoons are most likely, sometimes resulting in flooding or landslides. Winters are mild and usually start sunny, becoming cloudier towards February; the occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring, which can be changeable, and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.^[128] Hong Kong averages 1,948 hours of sunshine per year,^[129] while the highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.1 °C (97.0 °F) and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F), respectively.^[130]

Economy[link]

The International Finance Centre in Central

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade. The currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010.^[29] Hong Kong was once described by Milton Friedman as the world’s greatest experiment in laissez-faire capitalism.^[132] It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy, ranked the freest in the world by the Index of Economic Freedom every year since 1995.^{[133][134][135]} It is an important centre for international finance and trade, with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region,^[136] and is known as one of the Four Asian Tigers for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product grew 180 times while per-capita GDP increased 87 times over.^{[137][138][139]}