Gerald Maurice Edelman (born July 1, 1929) is an American biologist who shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work with Rodney Robert Porter on the immune system.^[1] Edelman's Nobel Prize-winning research concerned discovery of the structure of antibody molecules.^[2] In interviews, he has said that the way the components of the immune system evolve over the life of the individual is analogous to the way the components of the brain evolve in a lifetime. There is a continuity in this way between his work on the immune system, for which he won the Nobel Prize, and his later work in neuroscience and in philosophy of mind.

Education and career[link]

Gerald Edelman was born in 1929 in Ozone Park, Queens, New York to Jewish parents, physician Edward Edelman, and Anna Freedman Edelman, who worked in the insurance industry.^[3] After being raised in New York, he attended college in Pennsylvania where he graduated magna cum laude with a B.S. from Ursinus College in 1950 and received an M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1954.^[3]

After a year at the Johnson Foundation for Medical Physics, he became a house officer at the Massachusetts General Hospital and then practiced medicine in France while serving with US Army Medical Corps.^[3] Edelman joined the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research as a graduate fellow in 1957, working in the laboratory of Henry Kunkel and receiving a Ph.D. in 1960.^[3] Rockefeller made him the Assistant (later Associate) Dean of Graduate Studies until 1966, when he became a professor at the school.^[3] In 1992, he moved to California and became a professor of neurobiology at The Scripps Research Institute.^[4]

After his Nobel prize award, Edelman began research into the regulation of primary cellular processes, particularly the control of cell growth and the development in multi-celled organisms, focussing on cell-to-cell interactions in early embryonic development and in the formation and function of the nervous system. These studies led to the discovery of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), which guide the fundamental processes that help an animal achieve its shape and form, and by which nervous systems are built. One of the most significant discoveries made in this research is that the precursor gene for the neural cell adhesion molecule gave rise in evolution to the entire molecular system of adaptive immunity.^[5]

Edelman is the founder and director of The Neurosciences Institute, a nonprofit research center in San Diego that studies the biological bases of higher brain function in humans, and is on the scientific board of the World Knowledge Dialogue project.^[6]

Edelman is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board.^[7]

Nobel Prize[link]

While in Paris serving in the Army, Edelman read a book that sparked his interest in antibodies.^[8] He decided that, since the book said so little about antibodies, he would investigate them further upon returning to the United States, which led him to study physical chemistry for his 1960 Ph.D.^[8] Research by Edelman and his colleagues and Rodney Robert Porter in the early 1960s produced fundamental breakthroughs in the understanding of the antibody's chemical structure, opening a door for further study.^[9] For this work, Edelman and Porter shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1972.^[1]

In its Nobel Prize press release in 1972, the Karolinska Institutet lauded Edelman and Porter's work as a major breakthrough:

Disulphide bonds[link]

Diagram illustrating the disulphide bonds (red) that link the light (green) and heavy (blue) protein subunits of Immunoglobulin G (IgM)molecules. This diagram also illustrates the relative positions of the variable (V) and constant (C) domains of an IgG molecule. The heavy and light chain variable regions come together to form antigen binding sites at the end of the two symmetrical arms of the antibody.

Edelman's early research on the structure of antibody proteins revealed that disulphide bonds link together the protein subunits.^[2] The protein subunits of antibodies are of two types, the larger heavy chains and the smaller light chains. Two light and two heavy chains are linked together by disulphide bonds to form a functional antibody.

Molecular models of antibody structure[link]

Using experimental data from his own research and the work of others, Edelman developed molecular models of antibody proteins.^[11] A key feature of these models included the idea that the antigen binding domains of antibodies (Fab) include amino acids from both the light and heavy protein subunits. The inter-chain disulphide bonds help bring together the two parts of the antigen binding domain.

Antibody sequencing[link]

Edelman and his colleagues used cyanogen bromide and proteasees to fragment the antibody protein subunits into smaller pieces that could be analyzed for determination of their amino acid sequence.^[12][13] At the time when the first complete antibody sequence was determined (1969)^[14] it was the largest complete protein sequence that had ever been determined. The availability of amino acid sequences of antibody proteins allowed recognition of the fact that the body can produce many different antibody protein with similar antibody constant regions and divergent antibody variable regions.

Topobiology[link]

Topobiology is an Edelman’s theory which asserts that morphogenesis is driven by differential adhesive interactions among heterogeneous cell populations and it explains how a single cell can give rise to a complex multi-cellular organism. As proposed by Edelman in 1988 topobiology is the process that sculpts and maintains differentiated tissues and is acquired by the energetically favored segregation of cells through heterologous cellular interactions.

Theory of consciousness[link]

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Edelman is noted for his theory of consciousness, which he has documented in a trilogy of technical books, and in several subsequent books written for a general audience including Bright Air, Brilliant Fire (1992), A Universe of Consciousness (2001, with Giulio Tononi), Wider than the Sky (2004) and Second Nature: Brain Science and Human Knowledge (2007).

In Second Nature Edelman defines human consciousness as being:

"... what you lose on entering a dreamless deep sleep ... deep anesthesia or coma ... what you regain after emerging from these states. [The] experience of a unitary scene composed variably of sensory responses ... memories ... situatedness ... "

The first of Edelman's technical books, Neural Darwinism (1987) explores his theory of memory that is built around the idea of plasticity in the neural network in response to the environment. The second book, Topobiology (1988), proposes a theory of how the original neuronal network of a newborn's brain is established during development of the embryo. The Remembered Present (1990) contains an extended exposition of his theory of consciousness.

Edelman has asked whether we should attempt to construct models of functioning minds or models of brains which, through interactions with their surroundings, can develop minds. His answer is that we should make model brains and pay attention to how they interact with their environment. Edelman accepts the existence of qualia and incorporates them into his brain-based theory of consciousness. His concept of qualia attempts to avoid the pitfalls of the idea of special qualia with non-functional properties, which was criticized by Daniel Dennett.

Edelman proposes a biological theory of consciousness, based on his studies of the immune system. He explicitly locates his theory within Charles Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection, citing the key tenets of Darwin's population theory, which postulates that individual variation within species provides the basis for the natural selection that eventually leads to the evolution of new species.^[15] He rejects dualism and also dismisses newer hypotheses such as the so-called 'computational' model of consciousness, which liken the brain's functions to the operations of a computer.

Edelman argues that the mind and consciousness are wholly material and purely biological phenomena, arising from highly complex cellular processes within the brain, and that the development of consciousness and intelligence can be satisfactorily explained by Darwinian theory.

In Edelman's view, human consciousness depends on and arises from the uniquely complex physiology of the human brain:

• the vast number of neurons and associated cells in the brain
• the almost infinitely complex physiological variations in neurons (even of the same general type) and in their connections with other cells
• the massive multiple parallel reentrant connections between individual cells, and between larger neuronal groups, and so on, up to entire functional regions and beyond.

Edelman's theory is strongly anti-reductionist and seeks to explain consciousness by reference to the extraordinarily rich and complex morphology of the brain. A newborn baby's brain comprises a massive population of neurons (approx. 100 billion cells) and those that survive the initial phases of growth and development will make approximately 100 trillion connections with each other. A sample of brain tissue the size of a match head contains about a billion connections, and if we consider how these neuronal connections might be variously combined, the number of possible permutations becomes hyper-astronomical—in the order of ten followed by millions of zeros.^[16] The young brain contains many more neurons than will ultimately survive to maturity and Edelman argues that this great redundant capacity is needed because neurons are the only cells in the body that cannot be renewed and because only those cells and networks best adapted to their ultimate purpose will be selected as they organise into neuronal groups.

Neural Darwinism[link]

Edelman's theory of neuronal group selection, also known as Neural Darwinism, has three basic tenets—Developmental Selection, Experiential Selection and Reentry.

• Developmental selection -- the formation of the gross anatomy of the brain is controlled by genetic factors, but in any individual the connectivity between neurons at the synaptic level and their organisation into functional neuronal groups is determined by somatic selection during growth and development. This process generates tremendous variability in the neural circuitry—like the fingerprint or the iris, no two people will have precisely the same synaptic structures in any comparable area of brain tissue. Their high degree of functional plasticity and the extraordinary density of their interconnections enables neuronal groups to self-organise into many complex and adaptable "modules". These are made up of many different types of neurons which are typically more closely and densely connected to each other than they are to neurons in other groups.

• Experiential selection -- Overlapping the initial growth and development of the brain, and extending throughout an individual's life, a continuous process of synaptic selection occurs within the diverse repertoires of neuronal groups. This process may strengthen or weaken the connections between groups of neurons and it is constrained by value signals that arise from the activity of the ascending systems of the brain, which are continually modified by successful output. Experiential selection generates dynamic systems that can 'map' complex spatio-temporal events from the sensory organs, body systems and other neuronal groups in the brain onto other selected neuronal groups. Edelman argues that this dynamic selective process is directly analogous to the processes of selection that act on populations of individuals in species, and he also points out that this functional plasticity is imperative, since not even the vast coding capability of entire human genome is sufficient to explicitly specify the astronomically complex synaptic structures of the developing brain.^[17]

• Reentry
  Main article: Reentry (neural circuitry)
  -- the third tenet of Edelman's thesis is the concept of reentrant signalling between neuronal groups. He defines reentry as the ongoing recursive dynamic interchange of signals that occurs in parallel between brain maps, and which continuously interrelates these maps to each other in time and space (film clip: Edelman demonstrates spontaneous group formation among neurons with re-entrant connections ^[18]). Reentry depends for its operations on the intricate networks of massively parallel reciprocal connections within and between neuronal groups, which arise through the processes of developmental and experiential selection outlined above. Edelman describes reentry as "a form of ongoing higher-order selection ... that appears to be unique to animal brains" and that "there is no other object in the known universe so completely distinguished by reentrant circuitry as the human brain".

Evolution Theory[link]

Edelman and Gally were the first to point out the pervasiveness of Degeneracy in biological systems and the fundamental role that degeneracy plays in facilitating evolution.^[19]

Personal[link]

Edelman married Maxine M. Morrison in 1950.^[3] They have two sons, Eric, a visual artist in New York City, and David, a neuroscientist at the Neurosciences Institute. Their daughter, Judith Edelman, is a bluegrass musician and recording artist. Some observers^[who?] have noted that a character in Richard Powers' The Echo Maker may be a nod at Edelman.

See also[link]

• Biologically inspired computing
• Embodied philosophy
• Embodied cognition
• Reentry (neural circuitry)
• List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Neural Darwinism: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection (Basic Books, New York 1987). ISBN 0-19-286089-5
• Topobiology: An Introduction to Molecular Embryology (Basic Books, 1988, Reissue edition 1993) ISBN 0-465-08653-5
• The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Consciousness (Basic Books, New York 1990). ISBN 0-465-06910-X
• Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (Basic Books, 1992, Reprint edition 1993). ISBN 0-465-00764-3
• The Brain, Edelman and Jean-Pierre Changeux, editors, (Transaction Publishers, 2000). ISBN 0-7658-0717-3
• A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination, Edelman and Giulio Tononi, coauthors, (Basic Books, 2000, Reprint edition 2001). ISBN 0-465-01377-5
• Wider than the Sky: The Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness (Yale Univ. Press 2004) ISBN 0-300-10229-1
• Second Nature: Brain Science and Human Knowledge (Yale University Press 2006) ISBN 0-300-12039-7

Further reading[link]

• Smoliar, Stephen W (1994), "Review of G.M. Edelman (book review)", in William J. Clancey, Stephen W. Smoliar, Mark Stefik (editors), Contemplating minds: a forum for artificial intelligence, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, pp. 431–446, ISBN 0-262-53119-4, http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FVJ9xib-XxMC&pg=PA431&dq=artificial+intelligence+smoliar+%22Neural+darwinism%22#v=onepage&q=artificial%20intelligence%20smoliar%20%22Neural%20darwinism%22&f=false, retrieved 21 May 2010  (originally published in Artificial Intelligence 39 (1989) 121-139.)

External links[link]

• Gerald Edelman telling his life story at Web Of Stories
• The Scripps Research Institute - Faculty: Gerald Edelman
• Nobel Prize biography
• "Evolution in Your Brain: Gerald Edelman says only the fittest neurons survive" Interview in Discover Magazine, July 2007
• "The Brain Doctor: Dr. Gerald Edelman is a Genius on a Spiritual Path"- Profile in San Diego Jewish Journal, October 2007
• "From Brain Dynamics to Consciousness", Video, IBM Lecture on Cognitive Computing, June 2006

Christof Koch
Christof Koch, 2008
Born	(1956-11-13) November 13, 1956 (age 55) Kansas City, Missouri
Nationality	American
Fields	Biophysics
Alma mater	University of Tübingen Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics
Doctoral advisor	Valentin Braitenberg Tomaso Poggio
Doctoral students	Laurent Itti, Virgil Griffith
Website
http://www.klab.caltech.edu/~koch/

Christof Koch (born November 13, 1956, Kansas City) is an American neuroscientist working on the neural basis of consciousness. He is the Lois and Victor Troendle Professor of Cognitive and Behavioral Biology at California Institute of Technology, where he has been since 1986.

He is the son of German parents; his father was and his older brother Michael is a diplomat. He was raised as a Roman Catholic and attended a Jesuit high school in Morocco. He received a PhD in nonlinear information processing from the Max Planck Institute in Tübingen, Germany in 1982. He then worked for four years at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT. In 1986, he joined the newly started Computation and Neural Systems PhD program at Caltech.

He has been active since the early 1990s in the promotion of consciousness as a scientifically tractable problem, and has been particularly influential in arguing that consciousness can now be approached using the modern tools of neurobiology. His primary collaborator in the endeavour of locating the neural correlates of consciousness was the late Francis Crick.

Together with James Bower, he founded in 1988 the Methods in Computational Neuroscience summer course at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, which remains ongoing. In 1993, he founded, together with Rodney Douglas and Terrence Sejnowski, the Neuromorphic Engineering Summer School in Telluride, Colorado, which remains ongoing. Koch was the executive officer of the Computation and Neural Systems program at Caltech from 2000 to 2005.

In early 2011^[1], Christof Koch became the Chief Scientific Officer of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, leading their high through-put, large scale ten year, cortical coding project. The mission of MindScope is to understand the computations that lead from photons to behavior by observing and modeling the physical transformations of signals in the visual brain of behaving mice for one perception-action cycle (0.1 - 2 sec). The project seeks to catalogue all the building blocks (ca. 100 distinct cell types) of the then visual cortical regions and associated structures (thalamus, colliculus) and their dynamics. The scientists seek to know what the animal sees, how it thinks, and how it decides. They seek to map out the murine mind in a quantitative manner. ^[2]

The first four year of this endeavor to build a number of brain observatories was funded by a generous donation of $300 million^[3] by the Microsoft Founder and Philanthropist Paul G. Allen.

Miscellaneous Trivia[link]

• After his dog died he became a vegetarian, and has expressed sympathy for animal rights due to the neurological similarities between human and non-human animals.^[4]
• He has an apple logo tattooed on his right deltoid and a drawing from Ramon y Cajal of a cortical microcircuit tattooed on his left deltoid.
• He has an Erdős number of three.^[5]
• He is allergic to strawberries.

Publications[link]

• Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons, Oxford Press, (1999), ISBN 0-19-518199-9
• The Quest for Consciousness: a Neurobiological Approach, Roberts and Co., (2004), ISBN 0-9747077-0-8
• Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist, The MIT Press, (2012), ISBN 978-0-262-01749-7

References[link]

1. ^ http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110329/full/news.2011.190.html
2. ^ http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v483/n7390/full/483397a.html
3. ^ http://www.forbes.com/sites/matthewherper/2012/03/21/billionaire-paul-g-allen-donates-300-million-in-brain-research-to-understand-what-makes-us-human/2/
4. ^ Miscellaneous Things, accessed 21 March 2009
5. ^ Miscellaneous Things, accessed 21 March 2009

External links[link]

• Homepage of Christof Koch
• Homepage of Koch's laboratory
• Online lecture videos from an undergraduate course taught by Christof Koch at Caltech in 2003 on the neurobiological basis of consciousness.
• Neural Correlates of Consciousness, Scholarpedia article by Christof Koch
• Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness
• Interview with historian Harry Kreissler at UC Berkeley, 2006
• Interview on the Brain Science Podcast, 2007
• Interview on the Brain Science Podcast, 20011
• Interview with Christof Koch on the neuroscience of reading and the "movie" in your "mind"
• A short edgy YouTube movie about Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist
• Christof Koch's Book Blog

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Maurice Edelman (2 March 1911 – 14 December 1975) was a British Labour Party politician and novelist who represented Coventry constituencies in the House of Commons for over 30 years.

Early life[link]

Maurice Edelman was born in Cardiff in 1911. His parents came to Wales in 1905, escaping the pogroms in Russia and Poland. He was educated at Cardiff High School and Trinity College, Cambridge and joined the plywood industry in 1931 as a company director.

Writing career[link]

Edelman was a prolific journalist and author of several works of fiction and non fiction. During the 2nd World War he worked for Picture Post as a war correspondent in North Africa.

Political Career and Death[link]

At the 1945 election Edelman was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Coventry West. In 1950, he won in the new seat of Coventry North. He was a vice-chairman of the British Council and chairman of the Franco-British Parliamentary Relations Committee.

Following further boundary changes in 1974, Edelman represented Coventry North West until his death in 1975. His successor was Geoffrey Robinson, who won a by-election on 4 March 1976.

References[link]

• Dictionary of National Biography
• Who was Who