Ermanaric (died 376) was a king of the Gothic Greuthungi at the eve of the Migration Period.

Historical accounts

Ermanaric is mentioned in two Roman sources; the contemporary writings of Ammianus Marcellinus and in ''Getica'' by the 6th century historian Jordanes.

According to Ammianus, Ermanaric is "''a most warlike king''" who eventually commits suicide, facing the aggression of the Alani and of the Huns, who invaded his territories in the 370s. All that Ammianus says about the extent of Ermanric's domain is that his lands were rich and wide. Ammianus also says that after Ermanaric´s death, a certain Vithimiris was elected as a new king.

According to Jordanes' ''Getica'', Ermanaric ruled of the realm of Oium. Jordanes also states that the king put to death a young woman named Sunilda with the use of horses, because of her infidelity. Thereupon her two brothers, Sarus and Ammius, severely wounded Ermanaric leaving him unfit to defend his kingdom from Hunnic incursions. Variations of this legend had a profound effect on medieval Germanic literature, including that of England and Scandinavia (see Jonakr's sons). Jordanes claims that he successfully ruled the Goths until his death at the age of 110.

Tales

In many Germanic tales, Ermanaric is ill-advised by Bicke, Bikka or Sifka, who wants revenge for the rape of his wife by Ermanaric. Also in some tales of Dietrich of Bern, Ermanaric is Dietrich's uncle who stole the kingdom. This adviser advised Ermanaric to kill those closest to him.

Ermanaric's names

Ermanaric's name in his native Gothic was probably ''Aírmanareiks''. However, because he is referred to in literature throughout the Germanic world right up until the 13th century his name takes many forms:

Latin names:

in Jordanes' ''Getica'', he is called ''Ermanaricus'' or ''Hermanaricus'', but some of the manuscripts even have ''Armanaricus'', ''Hermericus'', ''Hermanericus'' etc.

in Ammianus' ''Res gestae'', he is ''Ermenrichus'' (his name occurs only once).

Germanic names:

in the Old English epic ''Beowulf'' he is ''Eormenric'',

in Old Norse he is ''Jörmunrekkr'',

in Middle High German ''Ermenrich''.

He is also called Hermanaric, Erminrich, Emmerich, Ermanrik and many other names.

Since the name ''Heiðrekr'' was rather synonymous with Ermanaric, he is possibly identical to ''Heiðrekr Ulfhamr'' of the Hervarar saga, who was said to have ruled the Goths for a long time.

Descendants

The Solovjovs, Barons of the Russian Empire from 1727 (known as von Solowhoff or Solowhoff von Greutungen in the German-speaking sources) claimed Ermanaric as their ancestor.

Footnotes

References

Auerbach, Loren and Simpson, Jacqueline. ''Sagas of The Norsemen: Viking and German Myth.'' TIME-LIFE books.

Category:260s births Category:376 deaths Category:Gothic people Category:English heroic legends Category:Royal suicides in the classical world Category:4th-century monarchs in Europe

als:Ermanarich ang:Eormanrīc bg:Ерманарих ca:Hermenric cs:Ermanarich de:Ermanarich et:Ermanarich es:Hermanarico eu:Ermanariko fr:Ermanaric gl:Hermanarico got:𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌼𐌰𐌽𐌰𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃/Airmanareiks it:Ermanarico hu:Hermanarich keleti gót király nl:Ermanarik ja:エルマナリク no:Ermanarik pl:Hermanaryk pt:Hermenerico ru:Германарих sv:Ermanarik uk:Германаріх

Coordinates	33°51′35.9″N151°12′40″N
Border	imperial
royal title	Emperor
realm	the Roman Empire
coatofarms	Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
coatofarmscaption	Vexillum
style	Imperator, Augustus, Caesar, Princeps, Dominus Noster, or Autokrator (depending on period)
first monarch	Augustus
last monarch	Theodosius I (Unified or Classical),Romulus Augustus (Western),Constantine XI (Eastern)
began	27 BC
ended	AD 395 (Unified or Classical),AD 476 (Western),AD 1453 (Eastern)
pretender	None }}

The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC). The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the Emperor. If a man was "proclaimed Emperor" this normally meant he was proclaimed ''augustus'', or (for generals) ''imperator'' (from which English ''emperor'' ultimately derives). Several other titles & offices were regularly accumulated by emperors, such as ''caesar'', ''princeps senatus'', ''consul'' and ''pontifex maximus''. The power of Emperors was generally based on the accumulation of powers from republican offices and the support of the army.

Roman Emperors refused to be considered "kings", instead claiming to be leaders of a republic, however nominal. The first Emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, the Republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, magistracies etc.) was preserved until the very end of the Western Empire.

By the time of Diocletian, Emperors were openly "monarchs", but the contrast with "kings" was maintained: Although the imperial succession was, ''de facto'', generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy so the principle of ''automatic'' inheritance was not adopted. The Eastern (Byzantine) emperors ultimately adopted the formal title of ''Basileus'', which had meant ''king'' in Greek, but became a title reserved solely for the "Roman" Emperor (and the ruler of the Sassanid Empire). Other kings were referred to as ''regas''.

In addition to their pontifical office, Emperors were given divine status: initially after their death, but later from their accession. As Christianity prevailed over paganism, the emperor's religious status changed to that of Christ's regent on earth, and the Empire's status was seen as part of God's plan to Christianize the world.

The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 and the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453.

Overview

Rome used no single constitutional office, title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title "Roman Emperor". Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era. "Roman Emperor" is a convenient shorthand used by historians to express the complex nature of the person otherwise known as princeps - itself a republican honorific.

The emperor's legal authority derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor. Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of ''princeps senatus'' (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of ''pontifex maximus'' (chief priest of Roman state). Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in 382 AD to St. Siricius; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome.

These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige (''dignitas'') but the basis of an emperor's powers derived from his ''auctoritas'': this assumed his greater powers of command (''imperium maius'') and tribunician power (''tribunicia potestas'') as personal qualities, independent of his public office. As a result, he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment, was owed the obedience of private citizens (''privati'') and by the terms of the ''ius auxiliandi'' could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate's decision. He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including the tribunes of the people (''ius intercedendi'' or ''ius intercessionis''). His person was held to be sacrosanct.

Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office; different togas were worn by different ranks; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple. A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta (of solid purple, richly embroidered) for the duration of the triumphal rite. During the Late Republic, the most powerful had this right extended. Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions. Later Emperors were distinguished by wearing ''togae purpurae'', purple togas; hence the phrase "to don the purple" for the assumption of imperial dignity.

The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are ''imperator'' ("commander", lit. "one who prepares against"), which emphasizes the emperor's military supremacy and is the source of the English word ''emperor''; ''caesar'', which was originally a name but it came to be used for the designated heir (as ''Nobilissimus Caesar'', "Most Noble Caesar") and was retained upon accession. The ruling emperor's title was the descriptive ''augustus'' ("majestic" or "venerable", which had tinges of the divine), which was adopted upon accession. In Greek, these three titles were rendered as ''autokratōr'' (""), ''kaisar'' (""), and ''augoustos'' ("") or ''sebastos'' ("") respectively. In Diocletian's Tetrarchy, the traditional seniorities were maintained: Augustus was reserved for the two senior emperors and ''Caesar'' for the two junior emperors - each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting, should anything befall his senior.

As ''princeps senatus'' (lit., "first man of the senate"), the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome; some emperors (such as Tiberius) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate. In modern terms these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state. The office of ''princeps senatus,'' however, was not a magistracy and did not own ''imperium''. At some points in the empire's history, the emperor's power was nominal; powerful praetorian prefects, masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions, other members of the Imperial family including Imperial mothers and grandmothers acted as the true source of power.

''Imperator''

The title ''imperator'' dates back to the Roman Republic, when a victorious commander could be hailed as ''imperator'' in the field by his troops. The Senate could then award (or withhold) the extraordinary honour of a triumph; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistry. Roman tradition held the first triumph as that of Romulus but the first attested recipient of the title ''imperator'' in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC. It was a title held with great pride: Pompey was hailed ''imperator'' more than once, as was Sulla, but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently - according to Dio, this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate, passed to Caesar's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it.

In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command and this precedent established the rule that the ''princeps'' should assume both the salutation and title of ''imperator''. It seems that from then on Octavian (later first emperor Augustus) used imperator as a praenomen (''Imperator Caesar'' not ''Caesar imperator''). From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus but only with Vespasian did ''imperator'' (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known.

''Princeps''

The word ''princeps'' (plural ''principes''), meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen(s) of the state. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers. It was the title most preferred by Caesar Augustus as its use implies only primacy, as opposed to another of his titles, ''imperator'', which implies dominance. ''Princeps'', because of its republican connotation, was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin (although the emperor's actual constitutional position was essentially "pontifex maximus with tribunician power and ''imperium'' superseding all others") as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored republic; the Greek word ''basileus'' ("king") was modified to be synonymous with emperor (and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch.

In the era of Diocletian and beyond, ''princeps'' fell into disuse and was replaced with ''dominus'' ("lord"); later emperors used the formula ''Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix (Invictus) Augustus''. NN representing the individual's personal name, Pius Felix, meaning "Pious and Blest", and Invictus meaning "undefeated". The use of ''princeps'' and ''dominus'' broadly symbolise the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations "Principate" and "Dominate".

First Roman Emperor

At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as ''emperor'' could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies, it became clear on the one hand that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, and that on the other hand the situation where several officials, bestowed with equal power by the senate, fought one another had to come to an end.

Julius Caesar, then Octavian after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to these offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. However, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so ''without'' the Senate's vote and approval.

Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity (''dictator perpetuo'') in 45 BC and had been "pontifex maximus" for several decades. He gained these positions by senatorial consent. By the time of his assassination in 44 BC he was the most powerful man in Rome.

In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir. On Caesar's death, Octavian inherited his adoptive father's property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies and - again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar's death, Octavian's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian's supremacy.

In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government; the Senate not only requested he remain, but increased his powers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title of Augustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity). Octavian stayed in office till his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic. His "restoration" of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his ''auctoritas'' and pious respect for tradition.

Even at Augustus' death, some later historians such as Tacitus would say that the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his replacement and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance through merit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government.

The historians of the 1st centuries observed the dynastic continuity: if a hereditary monarchy-not-by-kings existed after the republic, it had started with Julius Caesar. In this sense Suetonius wrote of ''The Twelve Caesars,'' meaning the Emperors from Julius Caesar to the Flavians included (where, after Nero, the ''inherited name'' had turned into a ''title''), and emperors adopted themselves into an Imperial lineage.

Fall of the West

By the end of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was split into Western and an Eastern parts, each with its own ''augustis'' (and/or ''caesares''). In the West, which included Rome, the succession of emperors ended in the year 476 when the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer, although many maintain that Julius Nepos was the last emperor and that the Eastern emperor Zeno decided not to appoint a new emperor in the West. This is generally accepted to be the end of Antiquity and the beginning the Early Middle Ages also known as the Dark Ages.

However, Roman rule had disintegrated somewhat earlier in the century as a result of Germanic invasions which had overrun all of the territory that had belonged to the western half of the Roman Empire. In the east however, the Eastern Roman Empire survived until 1453. Although the Greek-speaking inhabitants were ''Romaioi'' (Ῥωμαῖοι), many in Western Europe referred to the political entity as the "Greek Empire". Today it is known as the Byzantine Empire, as its capital was once the city of Byzantium, which had been massively expanded and re-named Constantinople in honour of the emperor Constantine the Great, and is now known as the Turkish city of Istanbul.

Survival of the Roman Empire in the East

The line of Roman Emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire continued unbroken until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 under Constantine XI Palaiologos. These emperors eventually normalized the imperial dignity into the modern conception of an emperor, incorporated it into the constitutions of the state, and adopted the aforementioned title ''Basileus kai autokratōr Rhomaiōn'' ("Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans"). These emperors ceased to use Latin as the language of state after Heraclius. Historians have customarily treated the state of these later Eastern emperors under the name "Byzantine Empire", though ''Byzantine'' is not a term that the Byzantines ever used to describe themselves.

Last Roman Emperor

Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last reigning Roman Emperor. A member of the Palaiologos dynasty, he ruled the feeble remnant of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire from 1449 until his death in 1453 defending its capital Constantinople.

He was born in Mystra as the eighth of ten children of Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš of Kumanovo. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the supervision of his parents. During the absence of his older brother in Italy, Constantine was regent in Constantinople from 1437-1440.

Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed II made an offer to Constantine XI. In exchange for the surrender of Constantinople, the emperor's life would be spared and he would continue to rule in Mystra. Constantine refused this offer. Instead he led the defense of the city and took an active part in the fighting along the land walls. At the same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain the necessary unity between the Genovese, Venetian, and Byzantine troops. As the city fell on May 29, 1453, Constantine is said to have remarked: "The city is fallen but I am alive." Realizing that the end had come, he reportedly discarded his purple cloak and led his remaining soldiers into a final charge, in which he was killed. With his death, Roman imperial succession came to an end, almost 1500 years after Augustus.

After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos, brother of Constantine IX, was elected Emperor and tried to organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an end after the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth. He then moved in Italy and continued to be recognized as Eastern Emperor by the Christian powers.

His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on the Byzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the grandparents of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

New Western lineage

The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in the West with the coronation of the king of the Franks, Charlemagne, as Roman emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800. This line of Roman emperors was actually generally Germanic rather than Roman, but maintained their Roman-ness as a matter of principle. These emperors used a variety of titles (most frequently "''Imperator Augustus''") before finally settling on ''Imperator Romanus Electus'' ("Elected Roman Emperor"). Historians customarily assign them the title "Holy Roman Emperor", which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their "Holy Roman Empire" as a separate institution. To Latin Christians of the time, the Pope was the temporal authority as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Rome he was recognized as having the power to anoint or crown a new Roman Emperor.

The title of "Western Roman Emperor" was further legitimized when the Eastern Roman Emperor at Constantinople recognized Charlemagne as basileus of the west. The last man to hold the title of proper Roman Emperor and to be crowned by the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was Charles V. All his successors bore only a title of "Emperor-elect". Charles V was also the last man to celebrate a triumph in Rome.

The line of "emperor-elect" rulers lasted until 1806 when Francis II dissolved the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the existence of later potentates styling themselves "Emperor", such as the Napoleons, the Habsburg Emperors of Austria, and the Hohenzollern heads of the German Reich, this marked the end of the Western Empire. Although there is a living heir to the Habsburg dynasty, as well as a Pope and pretenders to the positions of the electors, and although all the medieval coronation regalia are still preserved in Austria, the legal abolition of all aristocratic prerogatives of the former electors and the imposition of republican constitutions in Germany and Austria removed the potential for a revival of the Holy Roman Empire.

New Eastern lineage

The "seat" of the eastern lineage was claimed in Russia by the Byzantine-born wife of Ivan III "the Great" who would become the first 'Tsar' or 'Czar' the Russian title for 'Caesar.' He called Russia the third Rome (The capital of the Roman Empire moved to Byzantium by Constantine I, first called 'Nova Roma' and then Constantinople) where some of the relics of the Eastern Orthodox Church and from the Roman Empire were brought.

When Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire (Kayser-i-Rûm) and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Here, the Caesar title should not be understood as the minor title it had become, but as the glorious title of the emperors of the past, a connotation that had been preserved in Persian and Arabic. The adoption of the title also implied that the Ottoman state considered itself the continuation (by absorption) of the Roman Empire - a view not shared in the West. Acting in his capacity as Caesar of the Roman Empire, Mehmed reinstated the defunct Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.

He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories. However, at the time of the Fall of Constantinople, they extended to little more than the city itself, as well as a small area in Morea (the Peloponnese). Partly to bolster his claim to the title and reunite the Roman Empire, Mehmed II planned to conquer the city of Rome in 1480, but failed. The title of Roman emperor was added to the long list of other titles claimed by the Ottoman sultans.

A branch of the Comnenus family who provided emperors from 1081-1185 continued rule over the break-away Empire of Trebizond till 1461.

Titles and positions

Although these are the most common offices, titles, and positions, one should note that not all Roman emperors used them, nor were all of them used at the same time in history. The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity, and were usually held by persons other than the reigning Emperor.

Augustus (also "" or ""), "Majestic" or "Venerable"; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor , ''Autokrator'' (lit. "Self-ruler"); Greek title equivalent to imperator i.e. Commander-in-Chief (''Basileus''), Greek for King, popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius Caesar (also "" or "Nobilissimus Caesar"), "Caesar" or "Most Noble Caesar"; an honorific name later used to identify an Emperor-designate

Censor, a Republican office with a five year term and one coequal officeholder

Consul, the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one year term and one coequal officeholder

Dominus, "Lord" or "Master"; an honorific title popular in the Empire's middle history

Imperator, "Commander" or "Commander-in-Chief"; a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory; the praenomen of most Roman emperors

Imperator Destinatus, "Destined to be Emperor"; heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla.

''Imperium maius'', "greater ''imperium''"; absolute power to a degree greater than any other, including power of enacting capital punishment

Invictus, "Unconquered"; an honorific title

Pater Patriae, "Father of the Fatherland"; an honorific title

Pius Felix, "Pious and Blessed" an honorific title

Pontifex Maximus, "Supreme Pontiff" or "Chief Priest" (lit. "Greatest Bridgemaker"); a title and office of Republican origin—could not be used by "Catholic" Emperors, while by that time only the pope had a claim on the title of highest religious authority.

Princeps, "First Citizen" or "Leading Citizen"; an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals

Princeps Iuventutis, "Prince of Youth"; an honorific title awarded to a presumptive Emperor-designate

Princeps Senatus, "First Man of the Senate" a Republican office with a five year term

''Tribunitia potestas'', "tribunician power"; the powers of a tribune of the people including sacrosanctity and the veto (the emperor could not ''be'' a "tribune" because a tribune was a plebeian by definition, therefore the emperor had the powers of a tribune without actually being one)

Powers

When Augustus established the ''Princeps'', he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices, which in itself was a demonstration of his ''auctoritas'' ("authority"). As holding ''princeps senatus'', the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session, declared the Senate's agenda, imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow, and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate. Being ''pontifex maximus'' made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs, granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies, consecrate temples, control the Roman calendar (adding or removing days as needed), appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens, lead the Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion.

While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence, they did not include legal authority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power. The first was ''Tribunitia Potestas'', or the power of the tribune without actually holding the office. This endowed the emperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person, and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, criminal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune, the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties. The emperor's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including the actual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of the tribune's power, the emperor would convoke the Council of the People, lay legislation before it, and served as the council's president. But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself. He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces.

To solve this problem, Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium. The first being ''consular imperium'' while he was in Rome, and ''imperium maius'' outside of Rome. While inside the walls of Rome, the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority, each being able to veto each other's proposals and acts, with the Emperor holding all of the Consul's powers. But outside of Rome, the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself. Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors, making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome's legions. With Imperium Maius, the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate. Also, Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consul while in the provinces.

Lineages and epochs

In the listings of Roman emperors below, the common name is given first, followed by the more formal name adopted upon accession to the purple, the name given at birth, and the years of his reign. So-called victory titles and other titles not forming an integral part of the name (''Pontifex Maximus'', ''Princeps Senatus'', ''Pater Patriae'', &c.;) are not listed. Co-emperors are listed in inferior text, along with notes identifying senior emperors who had hitherto served as co-emperors. Following abbreviations are used:

A.: Aulus

Aug.: Augustus (as a title)

C.: Gaius

Germ.: Germanicus

Imp.: Imperator

L.: Lucius

M.: Marcus

Max.: Maximus

Nob.: Nobilissimus

P.: Publius

P.F.: Pius Felix

Princ. Iuv.: Princeps Iuventutis

Q.: Quintus

Ser.: Servius

T.: Titus

Ti.: Tiberius

Principate

The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar's heir and posthumously adopted son, Caesar Augustus, and his own heirs, the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan. This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the emperor Nero—a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son—was deposed in 68.

Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69, commonly called the "Year of the Four Emperors". The last of these, Vespasian, established his own Flavian dynasty. Nerva, who replaced the last Flavian emperor, Vespasian's son Domitian, in 96, was elderly and childless, and chose therefore to adopt an heir, Trajan, from outside his family. When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor's example, adopting Hadrian as his own heir, and the practise then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century, producing the "Five Good Emperors" and the Empire's period of greatest stability.

The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir. Commodus's misrule led to his murder on 31 December 192, following which a brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus, who established the Severan dynasty which, except for an interruption in 217-218, held the purple until 235.

Crisis of the Third Century

The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era. It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession. Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle class families, while Thrax was born a commoner. He never visited the city of Rome during his reign, which marks the beginning of a series of "barracks emperors" who came from the army. Between 235 and 285 over a dozen emperors achieved the purple, but only Valerian and Carus managed to secure their own sons' succession to the throne; both dynasties died out within two generations.

Dominate

The accession to the purple on 20 November 284, of Diocletian, the lower-class, Greek-speaking Dalmatian commander of Carus's and Numerian's household cavalry (''protectores domestici''), marked a major departure from traditional Roman constitutional theory regarding the emperor, who was nominally first among equals; Diocletian introduced oriental despotism into the imperial dignity. Whereas before emperors had worn only a purple toga (''toga purpura'') and been greeted with deference, Diocletian wore jewelled robes and shoes, and required those who greeted him to kneel (proskynesis) and kiss the hem of his robe ''(adoratio)''. In many ways, Diocletian was the first monarchical emperor, and this is symbolised by the fact that the word ''dominus'' ("Lord") rapidly replaced ''princeps'' as the favoured word for referring to the emperor. Significantly, neither Diocletian nor his co-emperor, Maximian, spent much time in Rome after 286, establishing their imperial capitals at Nicomedia and Mediolanum (modern Milan), respectively.

Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system by which the Roman Empire was divided into East and West, with each having an Augustus to rule over it and a Caesar to assist him. The Tetrarchy ultimately degenerated into civil war, but the eventual victor, Constantine the Great, restored Diocletian's system of dividing the Empire into East and West. He kept the East for himself and founded his city of Constantinople as its new capital.

The dynasty Constantine established was also soon swallowed up in civil war and court intrigue until it was replaced, briefly, by Julian the Apostate's general Jovian and then, more permanently, by Valentinian I and the dynasty he founded in 364. Though he was a soldier from a low middle class background, Valentinian was not a barracks emperor; he was elevated to the purple by a conclave of senior generals and civil officials.

Late empire

Theodosius I acceded to the purple in the East in 379 and in the West in 394. He outlawed paganism and made Christianity the Empire's official religion. He was the last emperor to rule over a united empire; the distribution of the East to his son Arcadius and the West to his son Honorius after his death in 395 represented a permanent division.

In the West, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of a succession of Germanic tribal kings, until finally the Heruli Odoacer simply overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, shipped the imperial regalia to the emperor Zeno in Constantinople and assumed the title "King of Italy". Though during his own lifetime Odoacer maintained the legal fiction that he was actually ruling Italy as the viceroy of Zeno, historians mark 476 as the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. Large parts of Italy (Sicily, the south part of the peninsula, Ravenna, Venice etc.), however, remained under actual imperial rule from Constantinople for centuries, with imperial control slipping or becoming nominal only as late as the 11th century. In the East, the Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Although known as the Byzantine Empire by contemporary historians, the empire was simply known as the Roman Empire to its citizens and neighboring countries.

:''For rulers of Italy after Romulus "Augustulus" and Julius Nepos, see list of barbarian kings''.

:''For the Roman Emperors who ruled in the East after The Fall in the West, see List of Byzantine Emperors.''

:''For emperors of the HRE in the West , see Holy Roman Emperor.''

See also

Byzantine Emperor

Holy Roman Emperor

Imperator

Interregnum

Justitium

King of Rome

Roman Emperors family tree; also Julio-Claudian family tree and Severan dynasty family tree

Roman usurper

Lists:

List of Imperial Victory Titles

List of Roman Emperors

List of Roman usurpers

List of condemned Roman emperors

Notes

Further reading

External links

De Imperatoribus Romanis

Rulers of Rome

"Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't", by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.

UNRV.com

The Roman Law Library

Emperor Emperor, Roman Category:Positions of authority Category:Deified people

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Coordinates	33°51′35.9″N151°12′40″N
name	Theodosius I
full name	Flavius Theodosius (from birth to accession); Flavius Theodosius Augustus (as emperor)
title	Emperor of the Roman Empire
imgw	300px
reign	19 January 379 – 15 May 392 (emperor in the East;15 May 392 – 17 January 395 (whole empire)()
predecessor	Valens in the EastGratian in the WestValentinian II in the West
successor	Arcadius in the East;Honorius in the West
spouse	1) Aelia Flaccilla (?-385) 2) Galla (?-394)
issue	ArcadiusHonoriusPulcheriaGalla Placidia
dynasty	Theodosian
father	Theodosius the Elder
mother	Thermantia
birth date	January 11, 347
birth place	Cauca, or Italica, near Seville, modern Spain
death date	January 17, 395 (aged 48)
death place	Milan
place of burial	Constantinople, Modern Day Istanbul }}

Theodosius I (; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from 379 to 395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. During his reign, the Goths secured control of Illyricum after the Gothic War, establishing their homeland south of the Danube within the empire's borders. He also issued decrees that effectively made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.

He is recognized by the Eastern Orthodox Church as Saint Theodosius. He defeated the usurpers Magnus Maximus and Eugenius and fostered the destruction of some prominent pagan temples: the Serapeum in Alexandria, the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, and the Vestal Virgins in Rome. After his death, Theodosius' sons Arcadius and Honorius inherited the East and West halves respectively, and the Roman Empire was never again re-united.

Career

Theodosius was born in Cauca or Italica, Hispania, to senior military officer Theodosius the Elder. He accompanied his father to Britannia to help quell the Great Conspiracy in 368. He was military commander (''dux'') of Moesia, a Roman province on the lower Danube, in 374. However, shortly thereafter, and at about the same time as the sudden disgrace and execution of his father, Theodosius retired to Spain. The reason for his retirement, and the relationship (if any) between it and his father's death is unclear. It is possible that he was dismissed from his command by the emperor Valentinian I after the loss of two of Theodosius' legions to the Sarmatians in late 374.

The death of Valentinian I in 375 created political pandemonium. Fearing further persecution on account of his family ties, Theodosius abruptly retired to his family estates in the province of Gallaecia (present day Galicia, Spain) where he adapted to the life of a provincial aristocrat.

From 364 to 375, the Roman Empire was governed by two co-emperors, the brothers Valentinian I and Valens; when Valentinian died in 375, his sons, Valentinian II and Gratian, succeeded him as rulers of the Western Roman Empire. In 378, after Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople, Gratian invited Theodosius to take command of the Illyrian army. As Valens had no successor, Gratian's appointment of Theodosius amounted to a ''de facto'' invitation for Theodosius to become ''co-Augustus'' for the East. Gratian was killed in a rebellion in 383, Theodosius then appointed his elder son, Arcadius, his co-ruler for the East. After the death in 392 of Valentinian II, whom Theodosius had supported against a variety of usurpations, Theodosius ruled as sole Emperor, appointing his younger son Honorius Augustus as his co-ruler for the West (Milan, on 23 January 393) and by defeating the usurper Eugenius on 6 September 394, at the Battle of the Frigidus (Vipava river, modern Slovenia) he restored peace.

Family

By his first wife, the probably Spanish Aelia Flaccilla Augusta, he had two sons, Arcadius and Honorius and a daughter, Aelia Pulcheria; Arcadius was his heir in the East and Honorius in the West. Both Aelia Flaccilla and Pulcheria died in 385.

His second wife (but never declared ''Augusta'') was Galla, daughter of the emperor Valentinian I and his second wife Justina. Theodosius and Galla had a son Gratian, born in 388 who died young and a daughter Aelia Galla Placidia (392–450). Placidia was the only child who survived to adulthood and later became an Empress.

Diplomatic policy with the Goths

The Goths and their allies (Vandali, Taifalae, Bastarnae and the native Carpi) entrenched in the provinces of Dacia and eastern Pannonia Inferior consumed Theodosious' attention. The Gothic crisis was so dire that his co-Emperor Gratian relinquished control of the Illyrian provinces and retired to Trier in Gaul to let Theodosius operate without hindrance. A major weakness in the Roman position after the defeat at Adrianople was the recruiting of barbarians to fight against other barbarians. In order to reconstruct the Roman Army of the West, Theodosius needed to find able bodied soldiers and so he turned to the most capable men readily at hand: the barbarians recently settled in the Empire. This caused many difficulties in the battle against barbarians since the newly recruited fighters had little or no loyalty to Theodosius.

Theodosius was reduced to the costly expedient of shipping his recruits to Egypt and replacing them with more seasoned Romans, but there were still switches of allegiance that resulted in military setbacks. Gratian sent generals to clear the dioceses of Illyria (Pannonia and Dalmatia) of Goths, and Theodosius was able finally to enter Constantinople on 24 November 380, after two seasons in the field. The final treaties with the remaining Gothic forces, signed 3 October 382, permitted large contingents of primarily Thervingian Goths to settle along the southern Danube frontier in the province of Thrace and largely govern themselves.

The Goths now settled within the Empire had, as a result of the treaties, military obligations to fight for the Romans as a national contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces. However, many Goths would serve in Roman legions and others, as ''foederati,'' for a single campaign, while bands of Goths switching loyalties became a destabilizing factor in the internal struggles for control of the Empire.

In 390 the population of Thessalonica rioted in complaint against the presence of the local Gothic garrison. The garrison commander was killed in the violence, so Theodosius ordered the Goths to kill all the spectators in the circus as retaliation; Theodoret, a contemporary witness to these events, reports:

In the last years of Theodosius' reign, one of the emerging leaders of the Goths, named Alaric, participated in Theodosius' campaign against Eugenius in 394, only to resume his rebellious behavior against Theodosius' son and eastern successor, Arcadius, shortly after Theodosius' death.

Civil wars in the Empire

After the death of Gratian in 383, Theodosius' interests turned to the Western Roman Empire, for the usurper Magnus Maximus had taken all the provinces of the West except for Italy. This self-proclaimed threat was hostile to Theodosius' interests, since the reigning emperor Valentinian II, Maximus' enemy, was his ally. Theodosius, however, was unable to do much about Maximus due to his still inadequate military capability and he was forced to keep his attention on local matters. However when Maximus began an invasion of Italy in 387, Theodosius was forced to take action.

The armies of Theodosius and Maximus met in 388 at Poetovio and Maximus was defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed. Trouble arose again, after Valentinian was found hanging in his room. It was claimed to be a suicide by the ''magister militum'', Arbogast.

Arbogast, unable to assume the role of Emperor because of his non-Roman background, elected Eugenius, a former teacher of rhetoric. Eugenius started a program of restoration of the Pagan faith, and sought, in vain, Theodosius' recognition. In January 393, Theodosius gave his son Honorius the full rank of "Augustus" in the West, citing Eugenius' illegitimacy.

Theodosius campaigned against Eugenius. The two armies faced at the Battle of Frigidus in September 394. The battle began on 5 September 394, with Theodosius' full frontal assault on Eugenius' forces. Theodosius was repulsed on the first day, and Eugenius thought the battle to be all but over. However, in Theodosius' camp, the loss of the day decreased morale. It is said that Theodosius was visited by two "heavenly riders all in white" who gave him courage. The next day, the battle began again and Theodosius' forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the Bora, which produces cyclonic winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of Eugenius and disrupted the line.

Eugenius' camp was stormed, and Eugenius was captured and soon after executed. Thus Theodosius became the only emperor.

Art patronage

Theodosius oversaw the removal in 390 of an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria to Constantinople. It is now known as the obelisk of Theodosius and still stands in the Hippodrome, the long racetrack that was the center of Constantinople's public life and scene of political turmoil. Re-erecting the monolith was a challenge for the technology that had been honed in the construction of siege engines. The obelisk, still recognizably a solar symbol, had been moved from Karnak to Alexandria with what is now the Lateran obelisk by Constantius II).

The Lateran obelisk was shipped to Rome soon afterwards, but the other one then spent a generation lying at the docks due to the difficulty involved in attempting to ship it to Constantinople. Eventually, the obelisk was cracked in transit. The white marble base is entirely covered with bas-reliefs documenting the Imperial household and the engineering feat of removing it to Constantinople. Theodosius and the Imperial family are separated from the nobles among the spectators in the Imperial box, with a cover over them as a mark of their status. The naturalism of traditional Roman art in such scenes gave way in these reliefs to conceptual art: the ''idea'' of order, decorum and respective ranking, expressed in serried ranks of faces. This is seen as evidence of formal themes beginning to oust the transitory details of mundane life, celebrated in Pagan portraiture. Christianity had only just been adopted as the new state religion.

The ''Forum Tauri'' in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated as the Forum of Theodosius, including a column and a triumphal arch in his honour.

Nicene Christianity becomes the state religion

Theodosius promoted Nicene Trinitarian Christianity within the Empire. On 27 February 380, he declared "Catholic Christianity" the only legitimate Imperial religion, ending state support for the traditional Roman religion.

Nicene Creed

In 325, Constantine I facilitated the Church's bishops to convene the Council of Nicea, which asserted that Jesus, the Son, was equal to the Father, one with the Father, and of the same substance (''homoousios'' in Greek). The council condemned the teachings of the heterodox theologian Arius: that the Son was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a ''similar'' substance (''homoiousios'' in Greek—a difference of one iota) but not ''identical'' (see Nontrinitarian). Despite the council's ruling, controversy continued. By the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different Church factions that promoted alternative Christology.

Arians

While no mainstream churchmen within the Empire explicitly adhered to Arius (a presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt) or his teachings, there were those who still used the ''homoiousios'' formula, as well as those who attempted to bypass the debate by merely saying that Jesus was like (''homoios'' in Greek) God the Father, without speaking of substance (''ousia''). All these non-Nicenes were frequently labeled as Arians (i.e., followers of Arius) by their opponents, though they would not have identified themselves as such.

The Emperor Valens had favored the group who used the ''homoios'' formula; this theology was prominent in much of the East and had under the sons of Constantine the Great gained a foothold in the West. Theodosius, on the other hand, cleaved closely to the Nicene Creed which was the interpretation that predominated in the West and was held by the important Alexandrian church.

Establishment of Nicene Orthodoxy

On 27 February 380 he, together with Gratian and Valentinian II published the so called "Edict of Thessalonica" (decree "''Cunctos populos''", Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2) in order that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith). The move was mainly a thrust at the various beliefs that had arisen out of Arianism, but smaller dissident sects, such as the Macedonians, were also prohibited.

On 26 November 380, two days after he had arrived in Constantinople, Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and appointed Meletius patriarch of Antioch, and Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers from Antioch (today in Turkey), patriarch of Constantinople. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world.

In May 381, Theodosius summoned a new ecumenical council at Constantinople (see First Council of Constantinople) to repair the schism between East and West on the basis of Nicean orthodoxy. "The council went on to define orthodoxy, including the mysterious Third Person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit, who, though equal to the Father, 'proceeded' from Him, whereas the Son was 'begotten' of Him." The council also "condemned the Apollonarian and Macedonian heresies, clarified jurisdictions of the state church of the Roman Empire according to the civil boundaries of dioceses and ruled that Constantinople was second in precedence to Rome."

The death of Valens, the Arians' protector, probably damaged the standing of the Homoian faction.

Conflicts with Pagans during the reign of Theodosius I

Death of Western Roman Emperor Valentinian II

On 16 May 392, Valentinian II was found hanged in his residence in the town of Vienne in Gaul. The Frankish soldier and Pagan Arbogast, Valentinian's protector and magister militum, maintained that it was suicide. Arbogast and Valentinian had frequently disputed rulership over the Western Roman Empire, and Valentinian was also noted to have complained of Arbogast's control over him to Theodosius. Thus when word of his death reached Constantinople, Theodosius believed, or at least suspected, that Arbogast was lying and had engineered Valentinian's demise. These suspicions were further fueled by Arbogast's elevation of Eugenius, from pagan official, to the position of Western Emperor. Plus, Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, spoke some veiled accusations against Arbogast, in his funeral oration for Valentinian II.

Valentinian II's death sparked a civil war between Eugenius and Theodosius, over the rulership of the west, resulting in the Battle of the Frigidus. The resultant eastern victory there led to the final brief unification of the Roman Empire under Theodosius, and the ultimate irreparable division of the empire after his death.

Proscription of Paganism

The Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I began in 381, after the first couple of years his reign in the Eastern Roman Empire. In the 380s, Theodosius I reiterated Constantine's ban on Pagan sacrifice, prohibited haruspicy on pain of death, pioneered the criminalization of Magistrates who did not enforce anti-Pagan laws, broke up some pagan associations and destroyed Pagan temples.

Between 389-391 he emanated the infamous "Theodosian decrees," which establed a practical ban on paganism; visits to the temples were forbidden, remaining Pagan holidays abolished, the eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum extinguished, the Vestal Virgins disbanded, auspices and witchcrafting punished. Theodosian refused to restore the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, as asked by Pagan Senators.

In 392 he became Emperor of the whole Empire (the last one to do so). From this moment till the end of his reign in 395, while Pagans remained outspoken in their demands for toleration, he authorized or participated in the destruction of many temples, holy sites, images and objects of piety throughout the empire. participated in actions by Christians against major Pagan sites.

He issued a comprehensive law that prohibited any Pagan ritual even within the privacy of one's home, and was particularly oppressive of Manicheans. Paganism was now proscribed, a "religio illicita". He is likely to have suppressed the Ancient Olympic Games, whose last record of celebration is from 393.

Death

Theodosius died, after suffering from a disease involving severe oedema, in Milan on 17 January 395. Ambrose organized and managed Theodosius's lying in state in Milan. Ambrose delivered a panegyric titled ''De Obitu Theodosii'' before Stilicho and Honorius in which Ambrose detailed the suppression of heresy and paganism by Theodosius. Theodosius was finally buried in Constantinople on 8 November 395.

See also

Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius

Saint Fana

Serena, niece of Theodosius and wife of Flavius Stilicho

Zosimus, Pagan historian from the time of Anastasius I

Roman emperors family tree

References

Further reading

Brown, Peter, ''The Rise of Western Christendom'', 2003, p. 73–74

Williams, Stephen and Gerard Friell, ''Theodosius: The Empire at Bay'', Yale University Press, 1994.

External links

De Imperatoribus Romanis, Theodosius I

This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Theodosius I relating to Christianity.

{{S-ttl | title=Roman Emperor | years=379–395 | alongside=Gratian, Valentinian II, Arcadius and Honorius }}

Category:347 births Category:395 deaths Category:4th-century Roman emperors Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:House of Theodosius Category:Ancient Romans in Britain Category:Romans from Hispania Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople Category:Persecution by early Christians

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