In Cuban music, rumba is a generic term covering a variety of musical rhythms and associated dances. The rumba has its influences in the music brought to Cuba by Africans brought to Cuba as slaves as well as Spanish colonizers. Rhythmically, rumba is based on the five-stroke pattern called clave and the inherent structure it conveys.^[1]

Rumba developed in the Cuban provinces of Havana and Matanzas in the late 19th century. As an energetic Afro-Cuban dance, rumba was often suppressed and restricted because it was viewed as dangerous and lewd. Afro-Cuban rumba is different from ballroom rumba and the African style of pop music called rumba. Rumba developed in rural Cuba, and is still danced in Havana, Mantanzas and other Cuban cities as well as rural areas, especially those with a significant or predominant African community, although now it is infused with influences from jazz and hip hop.

History[link]

Pre-revolution[link]

Although there were slaves that arrived in Cuba in the 16th century with early Spanish settlers, there was not the established Afro-Cuban culture that exists today. The evolution of Afro-Cuban culture began around the late 18th and early 19th century due to the increase in the number of slaves brought to Cuba from places in West Africa such as the Congo or Nigeria. Due to the reliance on sugar as an export, many of the slaves worked on sugar plantations, which gave Cuba access to African culture.

This consistent interaction began the emergence of what today is known as Afro-Cuban culture. This is a process known as transculturation, an idea that Cuban scholar Fernando Ortiz brought to the forefront in cultural studies like Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar. His idea of transculturation incorporated both the Spanish cultures along with the African cultures, thus merging into a creation of Afro-Cuban culture. Instead of one of the cultures totally assimilating into the other, they alternatively are integrated while respecting and acknowledging the differences of each culture. Indeed, Ortiz focuses on this new group of transcultural people as "... consecrating the need for mutual understanding on an objective grounding of truth to move toward achieving the definitive integrity of the nation..."^[2]

Rumba can be seen as one of the primary outlets in the development in Afro-Cuban culture. This is because it served as an expression to those who were oppressed, thus beginning a social and racial identity with rumba. The synthesis of cultures can be seen in rumba because it "... exhibits both continuity with older traditions and development of new ones. The rumba itself is a combination of music, dance, and poetry."^[3] During slavery, and after it was abolished in 1886, rumba served as a social outlet for oppressed slaves and the underclass which was typically danced in the streets or backyards in urban areas. Rumba is believed to have grown out of the social circumstances of Havana because it "... was the center for large numbers of enslaved Africans by the end of the eighteenth century... Rebellion was difficult and dangerous, but protest in a disguised form was often expressed in recreational music and dance."^[4]

Even after slavery was abolished in Cuba around 1886, there still remained social and racial inequality, which Afro-Cubans dealt with by using rumba’s music and dancing as an outlet of frustration. Because primarily Afro-Cubans had fewer economic opportunities and the majority lived in poverty, the style of dance and music did not gain national popularity and recognition until after the effects of the 1959 Cuban Revolution institutionalized it.

Post-revolution[link]

After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, there were many efforts by the government to institutionalize rumba, which has resulted in two different types of performances. The first was the more traditional rumba performed in a backyard with a group of friends and family without any type of governmental involvement. The second was a style dedicated to tourists while performed in a theater setting.

Two institutions that promoted rumba as part of Cuban culture – thus creating the tourist performance – are the Ministry of Culture and the Folklorico Nacional Company. As Folklorico Nacional became more prevalent in the promotion of rumba, the dance "... shifted from its original locus, street corners, where it often shared attention with parallel activities of traffic, business, and socializing, to its secondary quarters, the professional stage, to another home, the theatrical patio."^[5] Although Folklorico Nacional aided in the tourist promotion of rumba, the Ministry of Culture helped successfully and safely organize rumba in the streets.

In the early post-revolutionary times, spontaneous rumba might have been considered problematic due to its attraction of large groups at unpredictable and spontaneous times, which caused traffic congestion in certain areas and was linked with fights and drinking. The post-revolutionary government aimed to control this "... by organizing where rumba could take place agreeable and successfully, the government, through the Ministry of Culture, moved to structurally safeguard one of its major dance/music complexes and incorporate it and Cuban artists nearer the core of official Cuban culture."^[6] This change in administering rumba not only helped organize the dances but also helped it move away from the negative connotation of being a disruptive past time event.

Although this organization helped the style of rumba develop as an aspect of national culture, it also had some negative effects. For example, one of the main differences between pre- and post-revolutionary is that after the revolution rumba became more structured and less spontaneous. For instance, musicians dancers and singers gathered together to become inspired through rumba. In other words, rumba was a form of the moment where spontaneity was essentially the sole objective. However, post-revolutionary Cuba "... led to manipulation of rumba form. It condensed the time of a rumba event to fit theater time and audience concentration tie. It also crystallized specific visual images through... [a] framed and packaged... dance form on stages and special performance patios."^[7]

Rumba does not have some specific stylized dance that can be pinpointed; rather, "[i]t is more of an atmosphere than a genre. It goes without saying that in Cuba there is not one rumba, but many rumbas."^[8] Despite the structure enforced in rumba through the Folklorico Nacional and the Ministry of Culture, there will always exist traditional forms of rumba danced at informal social gatherings which hold the true spontaneity of rumba and Cuban culture.

Styles[link]

A Cuban rumba song often begins with the soloist singing meaningless syllables, which is called diana(s). Although the origin of diana is unknown some scholars have traced its roots back to African tribes such as the Bantu or the Lucumi people who originated the rhythms that would later be transformed in Cuba into the rumba. According to Larry Crook, he diana is important because it “... also contains the first choral refrain. The lead singer provides a phrase or motive for the choral sections, or they may present new present new but related material. Parallel harmonies are usually built above or below a melodic lie, with thirds, sixths, and octaves most common.” ^[10] Therefore, the singer who is presented with singing the diana initiates the beginning of the rumba experience. He then may proceed to improvise lyrics stating the reason for holding the present rumba ('decimar'; span.: to make ten-line stanzas), or instead tunes into a more or less fixed song such as "Ave Maria Morena" (Yambú, Anónimo), "Llora Como Lloré" (Guaguancó, S. Ramirez), "Cuba Linda, Cuba Hermosa" (Guaguancó, R.Deza), "China de Oro (Laye Laye)" (Columbia), or "Malanga (Murió)" (Columbia)".

Cuban rumba can be broken down into three types: Yambú (the oldest and slowest style), Columbia, and Guaguancó (the most popular style, which can be heard in songs such as "Quimbara" by Celia Cruz)". In all three, there is a gradual heightening of tension and dynamics, not simply between dancers but also between dancers and musicians and dancers and spectator/participants.” ^[11] Regardless of which type of rumba is being performed, the dancers have connections not only with themselves but also with the musicians and singers.^[12]

Carlos Vidal Bolado (better known simply as Carlos Vidal) was the first to record authentic folkloric rumba.^[13][14]

Yambú[link]

Yambú is the oldest and slowest known style of rumba, sometimes called the Old People's rumba. It uses the slowest beat of the three rumba styles and incorporates movements feigning frailty. It can be danced alone (especially by women) or by men and women together. Although male dancers may flirt with female dancers during the dance, they do not use the vacunao of rumba guaguancó.

Guaguancó[link]

Rumba guaguancó is faster than yambú, with more complex rhythms, and involves overtly flirtatious movements between a man and a woman in the roles of "Rooster" and "Hen".The woman both entices and "protects herself" from the man, who tries to catch the woman off-guard with a vacunao—tagging her with the flip of a handkerchief or by throwing his arm, leg or pelvis in her direction in an act of symbolic sexual contact. To defend herself, she may cover with her hand, or use her skirt to protect her pelvis and whip the sexual energy away from her body. Guaguancó most likely inherited the idea of the 'vacunao' from yuca or macuta dances, which were both brought to Cuba by Bantú ethnic groups.

Rumba guaguancó music consists of two main sections. The first, the canto, features the lead vocalist, who performs an extended text that is sometimes partially improvised. Underneath the vocal three interlocking rhythmic parts are played: one or two drummers playing on differently tuned conga drums perform an ostinato (recurring pattern), while another musician taps a pattern on the side of one drum with two hard sticks, called palitos. Another, usually the lead singer, plays a standardized clave part.^[15] This section usually lasts a few minutes, until the lead vocalist signals for the other singers to repeat a short refrain, in call and response. This signals the beginning of the second section, the montuno which features the dancers, as they engage in their "rooster and hen" antics, and also the band, with extended instrumental solos. Cuban music group Vocal Sampling has performed an all-vocal version of rumba guaguanco on the song "Conga Yambumba".

Columbia[link]

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Rumba columbia performance: Washington DC, 2008

Rumba columbia (not "Colombia") is a fast and energetic rumba, with a 6/8 feel, which is often accompanied by a 6/8 beat struck on a hoe or a bell. It is assumed that the Columbia originated in hamlets in the interior of Cuba rather than the suburbs of the larger cities from where other types of Cuban rumba stem.

Solo, traditionally male, dancers provoke the drummers, especially the player of the smallest drum (Quinto, here also soloist drum), to play complex rhythms that they imitate through their creative and sometimes acrobatic movements. Men may also compete with other men to display their agility, strength, confidence and even sense of humor. All of these aforementioned aspects of rumba columbia are derived from a colonial Cuban martial art/dance called El Juego de Maní which is similar in origin and execution to Brazilian Capoeira. Columbia incorporates many movements derived from Congo dances as well as Spanish flamenco, and more recently dancers have incorporated breakdancing and hip hop moves. Women are also beginning to dance Columbia.

According to Cuban percussionist, singer, composer and historian Gregorio 'el Goyo' Hernandez, who became widely recognized as a specialist in Cuban rumba after his album La Rumba Es Cubana: Su Historia,^[16] Cuban rumba columbia originated from the drum patterns and chants of religious Cuban Abakuá traditions. The cáscara or palito rhythm of Columbia, beaten either with two sticks on a piece of bamboo or on the rim of the congas, is the same as that in Abaku] chants, played with two small plaited rattles (erikundi) filled with beans or similar objects. Also, the drum patterns of the lowest conga drum is essentially the same in both columbia and Abakuá.

See also[link]

• Rumba
• Clave (rhythm)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Video clips of Cuban rumba and other Cuban folkloric music and dance
• Video and binaural 3D audio recording of Cuban rumba

Ariel Rios (April 5, 1954 – December 2, 1982) was an undercover special agent for the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), killed in the line of duty. Member of the Presidential anti-drug task force in South Florida.

Biography[link]

Ariel Rios was born in New Haven, Connecticut to Puerto Rican parents. Rios graduated from William Howard Taft High School in February 1972, and immediately enrolled in John Jay College of Criminal Justice in Manhattan and received his B.S. in Criminal Justice in 1976. He married his high school sweetheart, Elsie Morales, immediately upon graduation. Rios started working as a guard with the Washington, D.C. and New York City Department of Corrections, he worked his way up to the Internal Affairs Unit. He then joined the ATF and took the oath of office on December 3, 1978. He completed his formal training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia in 1979. After training , he was assigned to the New Haven office on June 3, 1979.

Undercover operation[link]

On December 2, 1982, as part of the Presidential anti-drug task force in South Florida, Special Agent Rios and his partner, Alexander D'Atri, were sent into a "buy and bust" undercover operation to negotiate a large cocaine deal from suspected drug traffickers. The meeting took place at the Hurricane Motel on West Flagler Street, Miami. The operation was going well until one of the suspects, standing by the window, noticed other agents closing in. When he pulled a gun, Rios moved forward in an attempt to disarm the man and save his fellow agents. While struggling with the drug dealer, he was shot in the face and died on the scene; his partner was seriously wounded. Rios was survived by his wife and two children. He was buried in Jayuya, Puerto Rico, a beautiful mountain village where Rios had once told his father he could rest forever.

Citizens of Miami donated $23,000 to the Ariel Rios Memorial Fund. President Ronald Reagan invited the Rios and D'Atri families to the White House for a special tribute. The Secretary of the Treasury presented medals to Elsie Rios and Alexander D'Atri. Vice President George H. W. Bush's last words of his moving speech were:"It's a debt we can never repay".

Court sentencing[link]

On April 20, 1983 the district court sentenced Augustin D. Alvarez and Mario C. Simon to life plus 50 years in federal prison, for the first degree murder of the federal agent Ariel Rios and assault against federal officer Alexander D'Atri, cocaine conspiracy and distribution of cocaine, and using of a firearm during the commission of a felony. Oscar Hernandez to 30 years in prison, Victoriano Concepcion to 25 years in prison, Eduardo Portal to 22 years in prison. Two other men were sentenced for lesser charges.

Legacy[link]

On February 5, 1985 the block-long federal building at 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. that used to house the ATF Headquarters was renamed the Ariel Rios Federal Building in his honor. It now houses the United States Environmental Protection Agency headquarters.

In 2003, the 49th Avenue from Flagler Street to 8th Street SW was renamed Special Agent Ariel Rios Ave.(M Res. 02-633) by the City of Miami.

References[link]

• Very Special Agents, by James Moore (retired ATF agent) University of Illinois Press 2001 ISBN 0-252-07025-9
• Forgotten Heroes, by William Wilbanks. Published by Turner Publishing Company, 1997 ISBN 1-56311-287-6
• United States Court of Appeals, Eleventh Circuit. - 755 F.2d 830
• Miami Dade County, Florida. Alternate street names- Special Agent Ariel Rios Ave.

Javier Campos is a Chilean writer and professor of Latin American Literature, Hispanic Film, Popular Culture, Politics, Culture Studies related to Latin America at Fairfield University in Fairfield, Connecticut, USA.

Campos is a regular columnist for El Mostrador, a Latin American newspaper. He writes about several issues including social, politic and culture issues in Latin America, and Latinos in the United States of America. Campos also writes for Sociedad & Conocimiento, a magazine from Department of Economic at the Universidad Central de Chile.

Short biography[link]

Campos was born in Santiago, Chile. He has published a novel, Los Saltimbanquis, 1999, and four books of poetry: The Last Photographs (1981), The City in Flames (1986), Forgotten Letters of the Astronaut (1991). Forgotten Letters of the Astronaut won first Prize for Hispanic Poetry in EE.UU in 1991, Letras de Oro.

In 1990 Campos was finalist in Casa de las Americas, Havana, Cuba with The Astronaut in Flames. This book was later was translated into English by Nick Hill as Letter from a Lost Astronaut.

In 2000 the American magazine of poetry , Mid America Review dedicated to Campos’s poetry a Chapbook in translation. In May 2003, a German journal dedicated a chapbook in translation into German of Campos’ poetry.

In December 2002 Campos won the first prize of poetry, long poem category, in the International Award. Juan Rulfo, Radio France International, for his poem entitled "Los Gatos."^[1]

In 2003 he published his first of short stories collection , about “latinos” in USA, The woman who look like Sharon Stone. This book got a Second Award in August 2004 for the best short story book published in Chile during 2003. Read here some shorstories: La mujer que se parecía a Sharon Stone http://www.rileditores.cl/articulo/Articulo.do?m=ver&idArticulo=1069168718101

Finally, Campos received a prize for his new book of poetry in the CHICANO/LATINO LITERARY PRIZE, University of California, Irvine in October 2005.

References[link]

1. ^ Javier Campos: "Los gatos". (Poesía)

External links[link]

• Fairfield University Homepage
• Javier Campos Poetry on Lanzallamas.com
• Javier Campos Poetry in Arte Poetica, Antologia de Poesia Universal
• "Cartas de Campos," Review by Profesor Grínor Rojo from University of Chile
• "La escritura: un espacio para el tránsito," Review by Carmen Foxley, professor from University of Chile