Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great (Russian: Екатерина II Великая, Yekaterina II Velikaya; German: Katharina die Große), Empress of Russia (2 May [O.S. 21 April] 1729 – 17 November [O.S. 6 November] 1796), was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 9 July [O.S. 28 June] 1762 until her death at the age of 67. She was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, and came to power following a coup d'état and the assassination of her husband, Peter III, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Russia was revitalised under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognised as one of the great powers of Europe.
In both her accession to power and in rule of her empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. Assisted by highly successful generals such as Pyotr Rumyantsev and Alexander Suvorov, and admirals such as Fyodor Ushakov, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the Crimean Khanate was crushed following victories over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish wars, and Russia colonised the vast territories of Novorossiya along the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. In the west, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled by Catherine's former lover, king Stanisław August Poniatowski, was eventually partitioned, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russia started to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America.
Catherine reformed the administration of Russian guberniyas, and many new cities and towns were founded on her orders. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and private landowners led to increased levels of exploitation of serfs. This was one of the chief reasons behind several rebellions, including the large-scale Pugachev's Rebellion of cossacks and peasants.
The period of Catherine the Great's rule, the Catherinian Era, is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire and the Russian nobility. The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the Empress, changed the face of the country. A notable example of enlightened despot, a correspondent of Voltaire and an amateur opera librettist, Catherine presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, when the Smolny Institute, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe, was established.
Catherine's father Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst belonged to the ruling family of Anhalt, but held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as Governor of the city of Stettin (now[update] Szczecin, Poland). Born as Sophia Augusta Fredericka (German: Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, nicknamed "Figchen") in Stettin, Pomerania, two of her first cousins became Kings of Sweden: Gustav III and Charles XIII. In accordance with the custom then prevailing in the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. Catherine's childhood was quite uneventful. She herself once wrote to her correspondent Baron Grimm: "I see nothing of interest in it."[1] Although Catherine was born a princess, her family had very little money. Catherine was to come to power based on her mother's relations to wealthy members of royalty.[2][3]
The choice of Sophia as wife of her second cousin, the prospective tsar Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, resulted from some amount of diplomatic management in which Count Lestocq, Peter's aunt (the ruling Russian Empress Elizabeth), and Frederick II of Prussia took part. Lestocq and Frederick wanted to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia in order to weaken Austria's influence and ruin the Russian chancellor Bestuzhev, on whom Empress Elizabeth relied, and who acted as a known partisan of Russo-Austrian co-operation. Catherine first met Peter III at the age of ten. Based on her writings, she found Peter detestable upon meeting him. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol at such a young age.[4]
The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophia's mother, Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Historical accounts portray her as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Johanna's hunger for fame centred on her daughter's prospects of becoming empress of Russia, but she infuriated Empress Elizabeth, who eventually banned her from the country for spying for King Frederick of Prussia. The empress knew the family well: she herself had intended to marry Princess Johanna's brother Charles Augustus (Karl August von Holstein), who had died of smallpox in 1727 before the wedding could take place. Nonetheless, Elizabeth took a strong liking to the daughter, who on arrival in Russia spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with the Empress Elizabeth, but with her husband and with the Russian people. She applied herself to learning the Russian language with such zeal that she rose at night and walked about her bedroom barefoot repeating her lessons (though she mastered the language, she retained an accent). This led to a severe attack of pneumonia in March 1744. When she wrote her memoirs, she said she made up her mind when she came to Russia to do whatever was necessary, and to profess to believe whatever was required of her, to become qualified to wear the crown.
Princess Sophia's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objection, on 28 June 1744 the Russian Orthodox Church received Princess Sophia as a member with the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey). On the following day the formal betrothal took place. The long-planned dynastic marriage finally occurred on 21 August 1745 at Saint Petersburg. Sophia had turned 16; her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, known then as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day[update] Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739.
As she recalls herself in her memoirs, as soon as she arrived in Russia she fell ill with a pleuritis which almost killed her. She says she owes her survival to frequent bloodletting; in one single day she had four phlebotomies. Her mother, being opposed to this practice, fell into the Empress' disfavour. When her situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran priest; she however, awaking from her delirium, said: "I don't want any Lutheran; I want my orthodox father." This raised her in the empress' estimation.
The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years to come.
Count Andrei Shuvalov, chamberlain to Catherine, knew the diarist James Boswell well, and Boswell reports that Shuvalov shared private information regarding the monarch's intimate affairs. Some of these rumours included that Peter took a mistress (Elizabeth Vorontsova), while Catherine carried on liaisons with Sergei Saltykov, Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Stanisław August Poniatowski, Alexander Vasilchikov, and others. She became friends with Princess Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova, the sister of her husband's mistress, who introduced her to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Peter III's temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants who would later join Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.[5] Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna,who would only live to be four months old, in 1759. Due to various rumours of Catherine's promiscuity, Peter was led to believe that he was not the child's biological father and is known to have proclaimed, "Go to the devil!" when Catherine angrily dismissed his accusation. She thus spent much of this time alone in her own private boudoir to hide away from Peter's abrasive persona and his disapproved war tactics.[6]
Of the period before her accession to the Russian throne, Catherine said: "Happiness and unhappiness are in the heart and spirit of each one of us: if you feel unhappy, then place yourself above that and act so that your happiness does not get to be dependent on anything.'"[7]
Tsar Peter III reigned only six months; he died on 17 July 1762.
After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (OS: 25 December 1761), Peter, the Grand Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, succeeded to the throne as Peter III of Russia, and Catherine became Empress Consort of Russia. The imperial couple moved into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg.
The new Tsar's eccentricities and policies, including a great admiration for the Prussian king, Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated. Besides, Peter intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of Holstein and Denmark over the province of Schleswig (see Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff).
On the night of June 28, 1762, Catherine the Great was awakened and given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband, and that all they had been planning must take place at once. She left the palace and departed for the Ismailovsky regiment, where Catherine delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne. She had her husband, Peter, arrested and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her ascension to the throne. Shortly after being arrested, Peter was strangled by his guards. Some speculate that Catherine had ordered this done, but there is no evidence to back this theory.[8][9]
Russia and Prussia fought each other during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) until Peter's accession. Peter's insistence on supporting Frederick II of Prussia, who had seen Berlin occupied by Russian troops in 1760 but now suggested partitioning Polish territories with Russia, eroded much of his support among the nobility.
Equestrian portrait of the Grand Duchess Yekaterina Alexeyevna
In July 1762, barely six months after becoming the Tsar, Peter committed the political error of retiring with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives to Oranienbaum, leaving his wife in Saint Petersburg. On 8 and 9 July, the Leib Guard revolted, deposed Peter from power, and proclaimed Catherine the Empress of Russia. The bloodless coup succeeded.
On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at Ropsha, at the hands of Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Gregory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Historians find no evidence for Catherine's complicity in the supposed assassination.[10] Other potential rival claimants to the throne existed: Ivan VI (1740–1764), in closed confinement at Schlüsselburg, in Lake Ladoga, from the age of 6 months; and Princess Tarakanova (1753–1775). Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup against Catherine. Apparently, Catherine had given strict instructions to kill the royal captive in just such an instance, so her innocence here is unclear. (Ivan was thought to be insane because of his years of solitary confinement so might have made a poor emperor, even as a figurehead).
Catherine, although not descended from any previous Russian emperor, succeeded her husband as Empress Regnant. She followed the precedent established when Catherine I (born in the lower classes in the Swedish East Baltic territories) succeeded her husband Peter the Great in 1725.
Historians debate Catherine's technical status, seeing her as a Regent or as a usurper, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul. In the 1770s, a group of nobles connected with Paul (Nikita Panin and others) considered a new coup to depose Catherine and transfer the crown to Paul, whose power they envisaged restricting in a kind of constitutional monarchy.[11] However, nothing came of this, and Catherine reigned until her death.
During her reign Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire southward and westward to absorb New Russia, Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Right-bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Courland at the expense, mainly, of two powers – the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. All told, she added some 200,000 square miles (520,000 km2) to Russian territory.
Catherine's foreign minister, Nikita Panin (in office 1763–81), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of her reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of rubles to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden, to counter the power of the Bourbon–Habsburg League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour and Catherine had him replaced with Ivan Osterman (in office 1781–97).
Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance.[12] Although she could see the benefits of Britain's friendship, she was wary of Britain's increased power following its victory in the Seven Years War, which threatened the European balance of power.
While Peter the Great had succeeded only in gaining a toehold in the south on the edge of the Black Sea in the Azov campaigns, Catherine completed the conquest of the south. Catherine made Russia the dominant power in south-eastern Europe after her first Russo-Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire (1768–74), which saw some of the heaviest defeats in Turkish history, including the Battle of Chesma (5–7 July 1770) and the Battle of Kagul (21 July 1770).
The Russian victories allowed Catherine's government to obtain access to the Black Sea and to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of Odessa, Nikolayev, Yekaterinoslav (literally: "the Glory of Catherine"; the future Dnepropetrovsk), and Kherson. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed 10 July 1774, gave the Russians territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn, and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers Dnieper and Bug. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval or commercial traffic in the Azov Sea, granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and made the Crimea a protectorate of Russia.
Catherine annexed the Crimea in 1783, nine years after the Crimean Khanate had gained nominal independence—which had been guaranteed by Russia—from the Ottoman Empire as a result of her first war against the Turks. The palace of the Crimean khans passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1786 Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo–Turkish War.
The Ottomans re-started hostilities in the second Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). This war, catastrophic for the Ottomans, ended with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimea and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.
A 1791 British caricature of an attempted mediation between Catherine (on the right, supported by Austria and France) and Turkey
Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the nineteenth and early twentieth century as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–79) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780 she established a League of Armed Neutrality, designed to defend neutral shipping from the British Royal Navy during the American Revolution.
From 1788 to 1790 Russia fought in the Russo-Swedish War against Sweden, a conflict instigated by Catherine's cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to simply overtake the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottoman Turks and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia's Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in a tied battle off Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the Theater War). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä (14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Åbo. Peace ensued for 20 years, aided by the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.
In 1764 Catherine placed Stanisław Poniatowski, her former lover, on the Polish throne. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from the King Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in carrying it out in the 1790s. In 1768 she formally became protector of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland, the Confederation of Bar (1768–72). After smashing the uprising she established in the Rzeczpospolita, a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council, under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys.
After the French Revolution of 1789, Catherine rejected many principles of the Enlightenment that she had once viewed favourably. Afraid that the May Constitution of Poland (1791) might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and that the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to intervene in Poland. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the Targowica Confederation. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and in the Kościuszko Uprising (1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).
In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in Kamchatka and in the Kuril Islands. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with Japan to the south for supplies and food. In 1783 storms drove a Japanese sea captain, Daikokuya Kōdayū, ashore in the Aleutian Islands, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Kōdayū an audience at Tsarskoye Selo. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by Adam Laxman. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.
In 1768 the Assignation Bank was tasked with issuing the first government paper money. It opened in St. Petersburg and in Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded upon the presentation of those notes.
The emergence of these Assignation rubles was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation rubles circulated on equal footing with the silver ruble; there was an ongoing market exchange rate for these two currencies. The use of these notes continued until 1849.
Catherine had a reputation as a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The Hermitage Museum, which now[update] occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine's personal collection. At the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of John Locke, and founded (1764) the famous Smolny Institute, which admitted young girls of the nobility.
She wrote comedies, fiction, and memoirs, while cultivating Voltaire, Diderot, and d'Alembert—all French encyclopedists who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, became foreign members of the Free Economic Society, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She lured[clarification needed] the scientists Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas from Berlin and Anders Johan Lexell from Sweden to the Russian capital.
Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her "The Star of the North" and the "Semiramis of Russia" (in reference to the legendary Queen of Babylon, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Though she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the National Library of Russia.
Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard that the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French Encyclopédie on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection.
Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called together at Moscow a Grand Commission—almost a consultative parliament—composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles, burghers and peasants) and of various nationalities. The Commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The Empress herself prepared the "Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly", pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially Montesquieu and Cesare Beccaria.
As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisers, she refrained from immediately putting them into execution. After holding more than 200 sittings the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.
In spite of this, Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775 the Empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire. The Statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, there were fifty provinces, nearly 500 districts, more than double the government officials, and they were spending six times as much as previously on local government. In 1785 Catherine conferred on the nobility the Charter to the Nobility, increasing further the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statue of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the Empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing "little by little".
During Catherine's reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the Russian Enlightenment. Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin, and Ippolit Bogdanovich laid the groundwork for the great writers of the nineteenth century, especially for Alexander Pushkin. Catherine became a great patron of Russian opera (see Catherine II and opera for details).
When Alexander Radishchev published his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1790 (one year after the start of the French Revolution) and warned of uprisings because of the deplorable social conditions of the peasants held as serfs, Catherine exiled him to Siberia.
Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.[13] She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inoculating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility.[14]
Catherine appointed Ivan Betskoy as her adviser on educational matters.[15] Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. con Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey, and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British education pioneers, particularly Rev. Daniel Dumaresq and Dr. John Brown.[16] In 1764 Catherine sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational Commission. The Commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.[17] However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the Commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765 Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission’s problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued that in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state’s control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Program for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.[18] This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.[19] The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children in order to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Since the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state funded institution, the Home represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.[20]
Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, Catherine established the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls to educate females. The Smolny Institute was the first of its kind in Russia. At first the Institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.[21] The girls that attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings. Within the walls of the Institute they were taught impeccable French, musicianship, dancing, and complete awe of the Monarch. At the Institute, enforcement of strict discipline was central to its philosophy. Running and games were forbidden and the building was kept particularly cold because it was believed that too much warmth was harmful to the developing body, as was excess play.[22]
During the years 1768–1774, there was no progress made in setting up a national school system.[23] Catherine continued to investigate educational theory and practice of other countries. She made many educational reforms despite the lack of a national school system. The remodelling of the Cadet Corps 1766 initiated many educational reforms. It then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21. The curriculum was broadened from the professional military curriculum to include the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. This policy in the Cadet Corps influenced the teaching in the Naval Cadet Corps and in the Engineering and Artillery Schools. After the war and the defeat of Pugachov, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the guberniya—a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor—on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.[24]
By 1782 Catherine arranged another advisory commission to study the information gathered about the educational systems of many different countries.[25] A system produced by a mathematician, Franz Aepinus, stood out in particular. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at village, town, and provincial capital level. In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under Pyotr Zavadovsky. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, training the teachers, and providing the textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was promulgated.[26] The Statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in guberniya capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (non-serfs), and co-educational. It also regulated, in detail, the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the Commission, teachers were provided with the Guide to Teachers. This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, the subjects taught, the behaviour of the teacher, and the running of a school.[26]
Judgment of the 19th century was generally critical, claiming that Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.[27] Two years after the implementation of Catherine’s program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility put up appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their children to private, more prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical methods. It is estimated that about 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions near the end of Catherine’s reign. This was only a minuscule number of people compared to the size of the Russian population.[28]
Catherine II in the Russian national costume
Catherine's apparent whole-hearted adoption of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion.[29] She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.[29]
Politically, Catherine exploited Christianity in her anti-Ottoman policy, promoting the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule.[29] She placed strictures on Roman Catholics (ukaz of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland.[30] Nevertheless, Catherine's Russia provided an asylum and a base for re-grouping to the Society of Jesus following the suppression of the Jesuits in most of Europe in 1773.[30]
Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were actively prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were also pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary incentives.[31] Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy.[32] However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This Commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.[32] Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry against equality got too disruptive. After the "Toleration of All Faiths" Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build mosques and practice all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to Mecca, which had been denied previously.[33] Catherine created the Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly to help regulate Muslim-populated regions, as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of Mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government, as a way of regulating the religious affairs of her nation.[34]
In 1785 Catherine approved the subsidisation of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic people that wandered through southern Russia.[35] In 1786 Catherine assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system, to be regulated by the government. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.
Portrait of Catherine II the Legislatress in the Temple Devoted to the Goddess of Justice, by
Dmitry Levitsky
Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a "Jew" is, since the term meant many things during her reign.[36] Judaism was a small, if not nonexistent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the First Partition of Poland, Jews were treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. In keeping with their treatment in Poland, Catherine allowed the Jews to separate themselves from Orthodox society, with certain restrictions. She levied taxes only on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Russian faith, that tax was lifted.[37] Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.[38]
In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia’s economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782.[39] While this presented some benefits for Jews—they received recognition as equals to any Orthodox citizen—many people attempted to take advantage of this equality. Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons; many Jews were bankers and merchants. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres, even with a ruse of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow’s middle class.[40]
In 1785 Catherine declared that Jews were officially foreigners, with foreigners’ rights.[41] This reestablished the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish period of failed assimilation. Catherine’s decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians.
In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started; the church’s lands were appropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the College of Economy.[42] Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount.[43] She closed 569 out of 954 monasteries and only 161 got government money. Only 400,000 rubles of church wealth was paid back.[44] While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat.[43] Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine's reign.
In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the Old Believers, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practice their faith openly without interference.[45] While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764 Catherine deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith.[45] In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.[46][47]
Religious education was also strictly reviewed. At first, she simply attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786 Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.[48] By separating the public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.[43]
Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions[49] for as long as they held her interest, and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates. The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10.4% in 1767 to 11.4% in 1781 to 13.5% in 1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs 1762–72, 202,000 1773–93 and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795.[50]:119 Just as the church supported her hoping to get their land back, Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. From April 19 1764, any bureaucrat holding the same rank for seven years or more got instantly promoted. On September 13 1767 Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants would be automatically promoted regardless of office or merit.[51]
After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov). Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 rubles, a pension of 5,000 rubles, and 4,000 peasants in the Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777.[52] The last of her lovers, Prince Zubov, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the legends about her.
In her memoirs, Catherine indicated that her first lover, Serge Saltykov, had fathered Paul, but Paul physically resembled her husband, Peter.[53] Catherine kept near Tula, away from her court, her illegitimate son by Grigori Orlov, Alexis Bobrinskoy (later created Count Bobrinskoy by Paul). Catherine and Orlov had another child,[54] a daughter, called Elizabeth Alexandrovna Alexeeva (born in Saint Petersburg, 1761 – died 1844), born one year before Alexis. She married (1787) Friedrich Maximilian Klinger and from this marriage she had one son, Alexander, who apparently died young in 1812.
Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanisław Poniatowski a place in the embassy, in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother's side, came from the Czartoryski family, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, therefore well before encountering the Orlov brothers. In 1757 Poniatowski served in the British forces during the Seven Years' War, thus severing close relationships with Catherine. She bore him a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia, the daughter of Peter I's second marriage).
King Augustus III of Poland died in 1763, and therefore Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king.
Catherine sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as become king. Poniatowski accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine's control. News of Catherine's plan spread and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her strongly.
She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov's child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then. She told Poniatowski[citation needed] to marry someone else to remove all suspicion. Poniatowski refused; he never married.
Prussia (through the agency of Prince Henry), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under Maria Theresa) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 20,000 square miles (52,000 km2) between them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, Riga–Polotsk–Mogilev.
In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of Minsk almost to Kiev and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of steppe down south in front of Ochakov, on the Black Sea.
After this, uprisings in Poland led to the third partition, 1795, one year before Catherine's death.
Catherine the Great's natural son by Count Orlov -
Aleksey Grigorievich Bobrinsky, (11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813 in his estate of Bogoroditsk, near Tula). Born three months before the deposition and assassination by the Orlov brothers of her husband Peter III
Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the Streltsy Uprising (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759 he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, the Grand Duke Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 coup d’état against her husband, but she preferred to remain the Dowager Empress of Russia, rather than marrying anyone.
Grigory Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts. But Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in St. Petersburg when Catherine became Empress.
Orlov died in 1783. His and Catherine's son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin (London, England, 12 July 1784 – 25 July 1842) who took part in the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) against Napoleon, and later served as Ambassador in Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy.
Grigory Potemkin had had involvement in the coup d'état of 1762. In 1772, Catherine's close friends informed her of Orlov's affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773 the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine's son Paul had also started gaining support; both of these trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help—mostly military—and he became devoted to her.
In 1772 Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General Aleksandr Bibikov to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin's advice on military strategy.
Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became governor of New Russia.
In 1780, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, Emperor Joseph II, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg.
Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists.
Potemkin fell very ill in August 1783. Catherine worried that he would not finish his work developing the south as he had planned. Potemkin died at the age of 52 in 1791.
At the time of Catherine’s reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land that they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land that their parents had. The serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom.[55] The understanding of law in imperial Russia by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as accumulate wealth. To become a serf, someone would give up their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and support in times of hardship. In addition, they would receive land to till but would be taxed a certain percentage of their crop to give to their landowner. These were the privileges to which a serf was entitled and which nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine’s reign, and this is the system she inherited.
Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom though. If the nobles did not live up to their side of the deal, then the serfs could file complaints against them by following the proper channels of law.[56] Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this because did not want to be bothered by the peasantry but did not want to give them reason to revolt either. In this act though, she unintentionally gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status that they had lacked before.[57] Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs.[58] Some serfs did apply for freedom and were, surprisingly, successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles. But this was by no means all-inclusive.
Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals.[59] The only thing a noble could not do to one of his serfs was to kill him or her. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters) they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine’s reign even though she signed legislation prohibiting it.[60] Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, Catherine took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.[61] However, she also restricted the freedoms of many peasants. During her reign, Catherine gave away many state peasants (peasants owned by the state) to become private serfs (peasants owned by a landowner), and while their ownership changed hands, a serf’s location never did. However, peasants owned by the state generally had more freedoms than those owned by a noble.
While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could also have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school, in addition to employing them at businesses that paid wages.[62] This happened more often during Catherine’s reign because of the new schools she established. Only in this way could a serf leave the farm he was responsible for.
The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one. They did not always like what he did, but the Tsar always knew what was best, so they listened to him unquestioningly.
However, if the Tsar’s policies were too extreme or too disliked then obviously he was not the true Tsar. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this “fake” Tsar with the “true” Tsar, whoever he may be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to get their message across. But usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the Tsar they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned Tsar and misinterpreting his decrees. However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that had essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church.[63] Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were also confused as to the circumstances of her ascension to the throne.
The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including plague, crop failure, and epidemics, including a major epidemic in 1771. The nobles were also imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767.[64] Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during Pugachev’s Rebellion of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true Tsar because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time that they followed a pretender under Catherine’s reign.[65] Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real tsar should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause.[66] With all this discontent in mind, Catherine did rule for ten years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev’s. But under Catherine’s rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontent.
Portrait of Catherine in an advanced age, with the
Chesme Column in the background
Though Catherine's life and reign included remarkable personal successes, they ended with two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed) King Gustav IV Adolph visited her in September 1796, the empress's intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become Queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September, when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept the fact that Alexandra would not be converting to Lutheranism, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. Catherine was so irritated at this that her health was impacted.[67] She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony where a favourite grandson would supersede her difficult son on the throne, but she died of a stroke before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.
On 16 November [O.S. 5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers at her study. Her lady's maid, Maria Perekusikhina, had asked the Empress if she had slept well, and Catherine reportedly replied that she had not slept so well in a long time.[68]
Sometime after 9:00 am that morning, Catherine went to her dressing room and collapsed on the floor. Worried by Catherine's absence, her attendant, Zakhar Zotov, opened the door and peered in. Catherine's body was sprawled on the floor. Her face appeared purplish, her pulse was weak, and her breathing was shallow and laboured.[68] The servants lifted Catherine from the floor and brought her to the bedroom. Some 45 minutes later, the royal court's Scottish physician, Dr. John Rogerson, arrived and determined that Catherine had suffered a stroke.[68][69] Despite all attempts to revive the Empress, she fell into a coma from which she never recovered. Catherine was given the Last Rites and died the following evening at approximately 9:45 pm.[69] An autopsy performed on her body the next day confirmed the cause of death as stroke.[70]
Catherine's undated will, discovered in early 1792 by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky among her papers, gave specific instructions should she die: "Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better."[71] In the end, the Empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver brocade dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery's chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by Antonio Rinaldi.[72][73] Catherine was buried at the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg.
The claim that her death was caused by a sexual incident involving a horse is a myth and has no basis.[74]
- Emperor Paul I of Russia (1 October 1754 – 23 March 1801), officially fathered by Catherine's husband, Emperor Peter III of Russia, but claimed by Catherine to be the son of her lover, Count Serge Saltykov
- Anna Petrovna (9 December 1757 – 8 March 1758), fathered by Catherine's lover, the future King Stanislaus II of Poland
- Elizabeth Alexandrovna Alexeeva (1761–1844), married to Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, fathered by Catherine's lover, Count Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov
- Count Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky (11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813), also fathered by Orlov
- Ivan VI of Russia (born 1740), as a former Tsar (reigned as an infant, 1740–1741), represented a potential focus of dissident support for successive rulers of Russia, who held him in prison. When she became Empress in 1762 Catherine tightened the conditions of his incarceration. His jailers in the prison of Shlisselburg killed Ivan, as per standing instructions, in the course of an attempt to free him in 1764.
- Yemelyan Pugachev (1740/1742–1775) identified himself in 1773 as Tsar Peter III of Russia (Catherine's late husband). His armed rebellion, aiming to seize power and to banish the Empress to a monastery, became a serious menace until crushed in 1774. The authorities had Pugachev executed in Moscow in January 1775.
- Princess Tarakanova (1753–1775) declared herself in Paris in 1774 as Elizabeth's daughter by Alexis Razumovsky and as the sister of Pugachev. The Empress Catherine dispatched Alexey Orlov to Italy, where he captured Tarakanova in Livorno. When brought to Russia in 1775, Tarakanova went to prison in the Peter and Paul Fortress, where she died of tuberculosis in December 1775.[75][76] There are rumours that this death was faked and that she was confined to a nunnery in Moscow in 1785, where she died in 1810.[77]
During the eighteenth century there were no fewer then forty-four pretenders in Russia, twenty-six of which were during Catherine's reign. Pretenders plagued Catherine the Great's reign in a way unmatched by any other period in Russian history. At least seventeen of the twenty-six pretenders during Catherine's reign appeared in one of three clusters; six from 1764–1765, six from 1772–1774, and five from 1782–1786. Pretenders did not plague Catherine's reign because of her sex or nationality since pretenders never threatened other female rulers or rulers of foreign descent in the way that Catherine II was. The rise of pretenders was not related to war or famine as neither appeared consistently with the pretenders. If there tended to be any form of famine during a pretender's rise it was during their claim to power and not inspired by it. Catherine's illegitimate rise to power through the assassination of her husband, Peter III, did not inspire the pretenders since Elizabeth II, who came to power in a similar fashion to Catherine, never had the same problem. Evidence suggests that pretenders plagued Catherine's reign for economic reasons. An important correlation between the three clusters is that the economic standing of serfs was declining. The condition of serfs worsened at the start of Catherine's reign because there was a sharp increase, 47%, in the number of peasants on state land and an establishment of a poll tax. The decline of pretenders illustrates the correlation between the conditions of serfs and the appearance of pretenders in the last third of Catherine's reign because she improved legal and economic conditions for the serfs to deter future pretenders. The serfs were not the only social group that suffered from worsening economic conditions. Leading into Catherine's reign both the odnodvortsy and cossacks faced a harsh decline in their economic standing. The odnodvortsy were particularly upset about the decline in their economic standing because they were descendents of wealthy landowning servicemen. The odnodvortsy were angered even more in some regions of Russia as land lords expanded their property claiming odnodvortsy and peasants as serfs. The declining standing of the odnodvortsy and cossacks created motivation to become pretenders especially during the 1760s. Even more importantly the odnodvortsy and cossacks were vital support for pretenders because of their military experience.[78]
At least sixteen pretenders during Catherine's reign claimed that they were the deposed tsar, Peter III. A less common position pretenders claimed during Catherine's reign was that of Ivan VI. Ivan VI was a potential threat to Catherine since he was exiled as an infant and could lay claim to the throne. Peter III was the more popular option for pretenders since there existed legends that he was not actually dead, allowing pretenders to convince discontented Russians they were Peter III. Peter III was also popular among Russians because of his benevolent rule. Pretenders claiming to be Peter III using his popularity among Russians to gain support. Pretenders had to be careful to establish themselves as the ruler they claimed to be without being recognised as a normal mortal and not of royal blood. One popular way to prevent recognition was to claim their right to royalty far from their home as both Emal'Ian Ivanovich Pugachev and the pretender Artem'ev did. Pretenders also had to account for where they had disappeared to for the time since their reported deaths. For example, Pugachev claimed that he spent the eleven years since Peter III's reported death wandering abroad as far as Egypt or Constantinople.[79]
Many Russians believed that tsars and tsarevichs bore special marks on their bodies symbolising their royal status which became known as royal marks. Four of the pretenders claiming to be Peter III showed royal marks to legitimise their claims. The first fake Peter to have royal marks was Gavrila Kremnev who Lev Evdokimov recognised because of a cross on Kremnev's foot. Lev Evdokimov claimed that he had worked as a chorister at the royal palace and had held the real Peter III in his arms as a child therefore giving credibility to Kremnev's claims. Despite Kremnev's marking, he never gained many supporters and was flogged and branded with the words, “deserter and pretender”. The next fake Peter III to show a royal mark of some sort was Fedot Kazin-Bogomolov in 1772. He showed a guard where he was imprisoned a cross on his chest and claimed he had two more on his arm and head allowing him to gain many supporters. The government branded Kazin-Bogomolov despite his markings. The third Peter III with royal marks was the most famous of the four and the most successful pretender of the time, Pugachev. In 1773 Pugachev staged a revealing of his royal identity to a cossack, Eremina Kuritsa, leading other cossacks to challenge Pugachev at dinner, which resulted in him showing scars on his chest and head to the cossacks. Pugachev claimed the scars on his chest were caused from the coup against him and that the scars on his forehead were from smallpox. Pugachev's rational reasoning for his markings caused him to continually gain supporters throughout his stand as a pretender. Unlike the first two pretenders to show royal marks, Pugachev's efforts cost him his life since his punishment was execution. The final pretender during Catherine's reign to reveal royal marks was Makar Mosiakin in 1774. Mosiakin entered a peasant hut claiming to be Peter III and then proceeded to show the peasants crosses on his arms which he claimed to represent royal inheritance. According the official report of the Mosiakin he had made the cross marks himself to convince people that he was Peter III and he actually had some success as he managed to gain followers from various villages as he went from house to house.[80]
On a date already set for a week after she died, Catherine had intended to formally announce[67] that Paul would be excluded from the succession, and that the crown would go to her eldest grandson, Alexander (whom she greatly favored, and who subsequently became the emperor Alexander I in 1801). Her harshness towards Paul probably stemmed as much from political distrust as from what she saw of his character. Keeping Paul in a state of semi-captivity in Gatchina and Pavlovsk, she resolved not to allow her son to dispute or to share in her authority during her lifetime.
- 2 May 1729 – 21 August 1745: Her Serene Highness Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst
- 21 August 1745 – 25 December 1761: Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Catherine Alekseievna of Russia
- 25 December 1761 – 9 July 1762: Her Imperial Majesty the Empress of All the Russias (as Empress consort)
- 9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796: Her Imperial Majesty the Empress and Autocrat of All the Russias (as Empress regnant)
| Ancestors of Catherine the Great |
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16. Rudolph, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst |
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8. John VI, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst |
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17. Countess Magdalena of Oldenburg |
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4. John Louis I, Prince of Anhalt-Dornburg |
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18. Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp |
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9. Princess Sophie Auguste of Holstein-Gottorp |
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19. Duchess Marie Elisabeth of Saxony |
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2. Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst |
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20. Christian von Zeutsch |
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10. Georg Volrath von Zeutsch |
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21. Lucretia von Spiegel |
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5. Christine Eleanore von Zeutsch |
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22. Wolf Georg von Weissenbach |
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11. Christine von Weissenbach |
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23. Martha von Konneritz |
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1. Catherine II of Russia |
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24. Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (=18) |
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12. Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp |
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25. Duchess Marie Elisabeth of Saxony (=19) |
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6. Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin |
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26. Frederick III of Denmark |
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13. Princess Frederica Amalia of Denmark |
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27. Duchess Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg |
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3. Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp |
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28. Frederick VI, Margrave of Baden-Durlach |
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14. Frederick VII, Margrave of Baden-Durlach |
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29. Countess Palatine Christine Magdalene of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg |
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7. Margravine Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach |
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30. Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (=18) |
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15. Princess Auguste Marie of Holstein-Gottorp |
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31. Duchess Marie Elisabeth of Saxony (=19) |
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Catherine II on horse.jpg
Equestrian portrait of Catherine II in the attire of a male officer
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Empress Catherine The Great 1787 (Mikhail Shibanov).JPG
Portrait by Mikhail Shibanov of Catherine II in travelling-costume, 1787
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Monument to Catherine the Great in
Saint Petersburg, surrounded by prominent persons of her era
Pre-eminent figures in Catherinian Russia include:
- ^ Sergeant, Philip W. The Courtships of Catherine the Great (Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 5.
- ^ Streeter, Michael. Catherine the Great (Haus Publishing, 2007), 3.
- ^ Massie 2011, pp. 10–19
- ^ Streeter, Michael. Catherine the Great (Haus Publishing, 2007), 6.
- ^ Sergeant, Philip W. The Courtships of Catherine the Great (Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 34.
- ^ Sergeant, Philip W. The Courtships of Catherine the Great (Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 62.
- ^ Troyet biografi in Swedish by Harald Bohrn, p. 127
- ^ Alexander, John (1989). Catherine the Great: Life and Legend. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Erickson, Carolly (1994). Great Catherine: The life of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia. New York, New York: Crown Publishers, Inc..
- ^ Rounding 2006
- ^ Memoirs of Decembrist Michael Fonvizin (nephew of writer Denis Fonvizin who belonged to the constitutionalists' circle in the 1770s); see: Фонвизин М.А. Сочинения и письма: Т. 2. – Иркутск, 1982. С. 123 [Fonvizin, M.A.: Works and letters, volume 2. Irkutsk:1982, page 123]
- ^ Rodger 2005, p. 328
- ^ Max, "If these walls....Smolny's Repreated Roles in History," Russian Life (2006) : 19–24.
- ^ Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
- ^ Isabel De Madariaga, "The Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II", Slavonic and East European Review (1979) : 369–395.
- ^ N. Hans, "Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II", Slavonic and East European Review (1961) : 229–235.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation”, 374.
- ^ Hans, “Dumaresq”, 233.
- ^ Dixon 2009, p. 130
- ^ Catherine Evtuhov, A History of Russia: Peoples, Legends, Events, Forces (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).
- ^ Max, “If these walls”, 20.
- ^ Max, “If these walls”, 21.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation”, 379.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation,” 380.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation”, 383.
- ^ a b Madariaga, “Foundation”, 385.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation”, 391.
- ^ Madariaga, “Foundation”, 394.
- ^ a b c "Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911". http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Catherine_II. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
- ^ a b "The Religion of Russia". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13253a.htm. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
- ^ Fisher 1968, p. 544
- ^ a b Fisher 1968, p. 545
- ^ Fisher 1968, p. 546
- ^ Fisher 1968, p. 548
- ^ Fisher 1968, p. 549
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 505
- ^ Klier 1976, pp. 506–507
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 507
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 511
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 512
- ^ Klier 1976, p. 515
- ^ Raeff, Mark. Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 293.
- ^ a b c Hosking 1997, p. 231
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, page 242
- ^ a b Raeff, Mark. Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 294.
- ^ Hosking 1997, p. 237
- ^ Raeff, Mark. Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 296.
- ^ Raeff, Mark. Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 298.
- ^ Alexander, John. Catherine the Great, life and legend. p. 224
- ^ Pipes, Richard. Russia under the old regime
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, page 135
- ^ Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals. New York.: Penguin Books. p. 7. ISBN 0-7394-2025-9
- ^ Genealogical Dates in Stoyan. According to this site, Catherine had two children from her marriage to Peter III before the birth of Paul, one on 14 December 1752 and the other on 2 or 3 August 1753. The gender of these children remains unknown. The date of the end of the second pregnancy may indicate a miscarriage. After Paul, Catherine bore a daughter, Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, in Saint Petersburg on 20 December 1757. As with Paul, rumours made the lover of her mother by that time, Stanisław August Poniatowski her biological father, but these remain unproven. Grand Duchess Anna died in Peterhof on 19 March 1759 aged only fifteen months.
- ^ Genealogy. CZ: EU Web. http://genealogy.euweb.cz/ascania/ascan13.html. Retrieved 14 September 2011
- ^ Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, “Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia,” The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 70, No. 3 (September 1998), 564
- ^ Isabel de Madriaga, “Catherine II and the Serfs: A Reconsideration of Some Problems”, The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 52, No. 126 (Jan., 1974), 48–51
- ^ Witschafter, “Legal Identity”, 563–564
- ^ Witschafter, “Legal Identity”, 565–567
- ^ Madriaga, “Catherine II”, 42–46
- ^ Madriaga, “Catherine II”, 48–51
- ^ Madriaga, “Catherine II”, 35
- ^ Witschafter, “Legal Identity”, 567
- ^ Marc Raeff, “Pugachev’s Rebellion,” in Preconditions of Revolution in EarlyEurope, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1972, 170
- ^ Raeff, “Pugachev’s Rebllion”, 166–169
- ^ Raeff, “Pugachev’s Rebellion”, 171
- ^ Raeff, “Pugachev’s Rebellion”, 171–172
- ^ a b Henri Troyat in Catherine la Grande (Swedish translation by Harald Bohrn Katarina den stora : 1729–1796 ISBN 978-91-1-952612-0) p. 427
- ^ a b c Rounding 2006, p. 499
- ^ a b Dixon 2009, p. 315
- ^ Rounding 2006, p. 502
- ^ Dixon 2009, p. 314
- ^ Rounding 2006, p. 503
- ^ Dixon 2009, p. 318
- ^ Barabara and David P. Mikkelson (29 February 2012). "Barenaked Lust". Snopes. http://www.snopes.com/risque/animals/catherine.asp.
- ^ "Tarakanova, knyazhna [Princess Tarakanova]" (in in Russian). Malyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar'. Brokgaus i Efron. 1890–1906. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/brokminor/article/38/38636.html&stpar1=13.242.1. Retrieved 11 July 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Tarakanova Elizaveta [Yelizaveta Tarakanova]" (in in Russian). Bol'shaya sovetskaya entsikolpediya, 3rd edition. Sovetskaya entsiklopediya. 1969–1978. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00077/62800.htm&stpar1=28.554.1. Retrieved 11 July 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Tarakanova, knyazhna [Princess Tarakanova]". Malyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar'. Brokgaus i Efron. 1890–1906. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/brokminor/article/38/38636.html&stpar1=13.242.1. [dead link]
- ^ Philip Longworth, “The Pretender Phenomenon in Eighteenth-Century Russia,” Past & Present 66 (1975): 66–71.
- ^ Philip Longworth, “The Pretender Phenomenon in Eighteenth-Century Russia,” Past & Present 66 (1975): 70–77.
- ^ Maureen Perrie, “Royal Marks”, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 11 (2010): 535, 546–549.
- De Madariaga, Isabel. Catherine the Great: A Short History (Paperback). Yale University Press, New Haven and London, (1993). ISBN 0-300-04845-9 (hardbook), ISBN 0-300-05427-0 (paperback), 240 pages.
- Dixon, Simon (2009). Catherine the Great. Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-078627-4.
- Fisher, Alan W. (1968). "Enlightened Despotism and Islam under Catherine II". Slavic Review 27 (4): 542–553. JSTOR 2494437.
- Hosking, Geoffrey (1997). Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917. Harvard University Press.
- Klier, John D. (1976). "The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II". Slavic Review 35 (3): 504–517. JSTOR 2495122.
- Kolchin, Peter (1990) [First published 1987]. Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92098-9.
- Massie, Robert K. (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-45672-8.
- Reddaway, W.F. "Documents of Catherine the Great. The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768". Cambridge University Press, (England), (1931), Reprint (1971).
- Rodger, NAM (2005). Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06050-8.
- Rounding, Virginia (2006). Catherine the Great: Love, Sex and Power. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-179992-9.
- Alexander, John T. (1988). Catherine the Great: Life and Legend. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505236-6.
- Bilbasov Vasily A. History of Catherine the Great. Berlin: Publishing Frederick Gottgeyner, 1900. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Bogdanovich Modest I. Russian army in the age of the Empress Catherine II. Saint Petersburg: Printing office of the Department of inheritance, 1873. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Brickner Alexander Gustavovich. History of Catherine the Great. Saint Petersburg: Typography of A. Suvorin, 1885. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats
- Cronin, Vincent. Catherine, Empress of All the Russias. London: Collins, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-00-216119-2); 1996 (paperback, ISBN 1-86046-091-7)
- Dixon, Simon. Catherine the Great (Profiles in Power). Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-582-09803-3)
- Herman, Eleanor. Sex With the Queen. New York: HarperCollins, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-06-084673-9).
- Madariaga, Isabel de. Catherine the Great: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-04845-9); 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-300-09722-0)
- Massie, Robert K., "Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman". New York. Random House, 2011. (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-679-45672-8)
- The Memoirs of Catherine the Great by Markus Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (translators). New York: Modern Library, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-679-64299-4); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 0-8129-6987-1)
- Smith, Douglas, ed. and trans. Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois UP, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-87580-324-5); 2005 (paperback ISBN 0-87580-607-4)
- Troyat, Henri. Catherine the Great. New York: Dorset Press, 1991 (hardcover, ISBN 0-88029-688-7); London: Orion, 2000 (paperback, ISBN 1-84212-029-8)
- Troyat, Henri. Terrible Tsarinas. New York: Algora, 2001 (ISBN 1-892941-54-6).
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- * never converted to Orthodoxy
- ** also a Grand Duchess of Russia by birth
- *** title granted by Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich
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| Persondata |
| Name |
Catherine the Great |
| Alternative names |
Frederica, Sophie Augusta; Catherine II of Russia; von Anhalt-Zerbst, Sophie Friederike Auguste |
| Short description |
Empress of Russia |
| Date of birth |
2 May 1729 |
| Place of birth |
Stettin |
| Date of death |
17 November 1796 |
| Place of death |
Saint Petersburg |
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