Friendship is a relationship between two people who hold mutual affection for each other.[1] Friendships and acquaintanceship are thought of as spanning across the same continuum. The study of friendship is included in the fields of sociology, social psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and zoology. Various academic theories of friendship have been proposed, including social exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, and attachment styles.
The value of friendship is often the result of friends consistently demonstrating the following:
Friendship was a topic of moral philosophy which was greatly discussed by Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. This was less discussed in the modern era, until the re-emergence of contextualist and feminist approaches to ethics.[2] Openness in friendship was seen as an enlargement of the self; Aristotle wrote, "The excellent person is related to his friend in the same way as he is related to himself, since a friend is another self; and therefore, just as his own being is choiceworthy him, the friend's being is choice-worthy for him in the same or a similar way."[3] In Ancient Greek, the same word was used for "friend" and "lover".[4]
In the Middle East and Central Asia, male friendships tend to be reserved and respectful in nature. They may use nicknames and diminutive forms of their first names. It is believed that in some parts of the Middle East, friendship is a form of respect not born out of fear or superiority: friends are people who respect each other regardless of shortcomings.
Germans typically have very few friends, although friendships that do develop typically last a lifetime, as loyalty is held in high regard. Germans may appear aloof to people from other countries, as they tend to be cautious and keep their distance when it comes to meeting new people. The development from becoming an acquaintance to a friend can take several months.
In Russia, one typically accords very few people the status of "friend". These friendships, however, make up in intensity what they lack in number.[citation needed] Friends are entitled to call each other by their first names alone and to use diminutives. A norm of polite behavior is addressing acquaintances by full first name plus patronymic. Acquaintances could include relationships that elsewhere would be qualified as real friendships, such as long-standing workplace relationships, or neighbors with whom one shares an occasional meal or a customary drink.
Americans also use the term “friend” very freely, referring to someone they have known for a few weeks as a friend, perhaps for lack of a term for someone who is more than an acquaintance but less than a friend (Copeland, 2001).
According to a study documented in the June 2006 issue of the journal American Sociological Review, Americans are thought to be suffering a loss in the quality and quantity of close friendships since at least 1985.[5][6] The study states that 25% of Americans have no close confidants and that the average total number of confidants per person has dropped from four to two.
According to the study:
- The percentage of Americans who had at least one confidant not connected to them through kinship dropped from 80% to 57%.
- Americans' dependence for close contact on a partner or spouse went up from 5% to 9%.
- Research has found a link between fewer friendships (especially in quality) and psychological regression.
In recent times, it is suggested that modern American friendships have lost the force and importance they had in antiquity. C.S. Lewis, for example, in his The Four Loves, writes:
To the Ancients, Friendship seemed the happiest and most fully human of all loves; the crown of life and the school of virtue. The modern world, in comparison, ignores it. We admit of course that besides a wife and family a man needs a few 'friends'. But the very tone of the admission, and the sort of acquaintanceships which those who make it would describe as 'friendships', show clearly that what they are talking about has very little to do with that Philía which Aristotle classified among the virtues or that Amicitia on which Cicero wrote a book.[7]
Divorce also contributes to the decline in friendship among Americans. “In international comparisons, the divorce rate in the United States is higher than that of 34 other countries including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia (Newman & Newman, 2012 pg. 475).” With the divorce rate being so high, many couples end up losing friends through the process. This is because certain friends side with one member of the relationship and therefore lose the other friend.
Friendship and Technology: Another reason for the decline in friendships in the U.S. is due to technology. Ethan J. Leib, author of the book Friend vs. Friend and law professor at the University of California-Hastings suggests that longer hours of work and a large amount of online communication such as e-mail and excel take away from personal communication and thus make it much harder to form friendships even in the work place. Other aspects of technology including Facebook and Twitter also decrease the amount of personal communication in everyday life. These technological advances make it hard to feel emotionally connected to a friend (Newman & Newman) (Berry, 2012) (Freeman, 2011).
In the sequence of the emotional development of the individual, friendships come after parental bonding and before the pair bonding engaged in at the approach of maturity. In the intervening period between the end of early childhood and the onset of full adulthood, friendships are often the most important relationships in the emotional life of the adolescent and are often more intense than relationships later in life.[8] However, making friends seems to trouble a lot of people; having no friends can be emotionally damaging in some cases.[9]
A study by researchers from Purdue University found that post-secondary-education friendships (e.g., college, university) last longer than the friendships before it.[10]
Children with disorders such as High-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome usually have some difficulty forming friendships. This is due to the autistic nature of some of their symptoms, which include, but are not limited to, preferring routine actions to change, obsessive interests and rituals, and usually lacking good social skills. This does not mean that they are not able to form friendships, however. With time, moderation, and proper instruction, they are able to form friendships after realizing their own strengths and weaknesses. Children with ADHD may not have difficulty forming friendships, but they may have a hard time keeping friendships because of impulsive behaviour and hyperactivity. Children with inattentive ADD may not have as much trouble keeping and maintaining friendships, but inattentiveness may make it more difficult. Children with conditions such as Asperger's syndrome may find it easier to form a strong friendship with a child who has a condition such as ADHD due to similar interests and behaviours.[citation needed].
(Berndt, 2002). -Children prize friendships that are high in prosocial behavior, intimacy, and other positive features. -Children are troubled by friendships that are high in conflicts, dominance, rivalry, and other negative features. -Friendships are high in quality when they have high levels of positive features and low levels of negative features. -High-quality friendships have often been assumed to have positive effects on many aspects of children’s social development. -The direct effects of friendship quality appear to be quite specific. -Having friendships high in positive features enhances children’s success in the social world of peers, but it apparently does not affect children’s general self-esteem. These findings are surprising because numerous studies with adults suggest that friendships and other supportive relationships enhance many aspects of adults’ physical and mental health, including their self-esteem -High-quality friendships may also have indirect effects on children’s social development. Most theories of social influence include some form of the hypothesis that children are more strongly influenced by their friends’ characteristics the higher the quality of those friendships.
Quality of Friendship
- Friendship is “Life Enhancing” (Helm, 2012). By engaging in activities with friends, pleasure and happiness are intensified. The quality of friendships relates to happiness because friendship “provides a context where basic needs are satisfied” (Demir, 2010). By experiencing a good quality of friendship, the individual is led to feel more comfortable with who they are as a person. Ultimately, good quality friendships connect with the meaning of life satisfaction. Higher friendship quality directly contributes to self-esteem, self-confidence, and social development (Berndt, 2002).
Quality of Friendship: Two Dimensions
- Friendship has two dimensions (Demir, 2007). The two dimension include: quality and conflict. The quality of friendship is important for a persons well being and it contributes to the closeness of friends. Within the quality of friendship, it is important to have healthy and interesting interaction. This type of interaction leads to a higher quality of friendship. The second dimension is conflict, which connects with the quality of friendships. High quality friendships have great ways of resolving conflict which ultimately leads to a stronger and healthier relationship.
At the early school age, friendships are based on the sharing of toys and objects and the enjoyment that is received from performing activities together. Friendships at this age are maintained through affection, sharing, and creative play time. Sharing is hard for children at this age level as they are very self-oriented. However, children are likely to share more with someone they consider to be a friend than with someone who is just a peer (Newman & Newman, 2012).
As a child moves from early school age to middle childhood, they face the developmental task of friendship. At this stage in life, children become less individualized and more aware of others. They begin to see their friends point of view and have fun playing in groups of peers who have the same interests as them. They also experience peer rejection as they move through the middle childhood years. It is important to teach a child that it is natural to sometimes be unaccepted by others but to remain positive about the friends they still have. Establishing good friendships at a young age helps a child to be better acclimated in society later on in their life (Newman & Newman, 2012).
In a 1974 study,[11] Bigelow and La Gaipa, in one of the first studies conducted regarding children's friendships, found that expectations of a best friend become increasingly complex as a child gets older. The study investigated the criteria for "best friend" in a sample of 480 children between the ages of six and fourteen years of age.
Their findings highlighted three stages of the development of friendship expectations.
- First stage: emphasised shared activities and the importance of geographical closeness.
- Second stage: emphasised sharing, loyalty and commitment.
- Third stage: revealed growing importance of similar attitudes, values and interests.
(Crosnoe, R., & Needham, B., 2004)
Friendships in adolescent development include positive influences on how they act, feel, and think, and also problematic aspects including negative peer pressure. Which one is more prominent? To find out one needs to consider the characteristics of friends and how these friendships form. A study was conducted by the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health where 9,234 American adolescents were examined to determine how their engagement in problem behavior (stealing, fighting, sexual activity, truancy) was related to the kinds of friends they had and to the peer networks and schools in which these friendships were located. Findings revealed that adolescents were less likely to engage in problem behavior when their friends did well in school, participated in school activities, avoided drinking and had good mental health. Also, these positive characteristics are greater when done together within the social group. How adolescents are affected by friendships could be shaped by their location in their group. For example, the one who is most central to their peer networks were the most influenced by their friends. Results also found that adolescents have less problematic behavior when they attended schools with similar characteristics to their friends (friends who did well at school at an academically rigorous school). Ones that engaged in more problem behavior resulted from friends with opposing characteristics to the school (friends who drank at an academically rigorous school). Thus, whether adolescents were influenced by their friends to engage in problem behavior depended on how much they were exposed to these friends and whether they and their friendship groups “fit in” at school.
(Fowler) Just like adolescents, relationships with friends are important to older adults. Friends contribute to our satisfaction, give us a sense of belonging, competence, and self-worth. Friendship involves: - Enjoyment - spending time doing things together and sharing life experiences. - Trust — believing that our friends act on our behalf. - Respect and understanding — believing that our friends have the right to their own opinions. - Mutual assistance — helping and supporting our friends and having them help us. - Confiding — sharing confidential matters with our friends.
Types of Friendships Friends are people we know and trust, and who are special to us socially and emotionally. Friends are usually chosen among people who are considered the same as us. The people adults select as friends tend to be those who: - we have grown up with - have similar occupations - have children the same age - have similar interests - are the same general age and the same gender
The majority of adults have three or more close friends and more than half of adults have ten or more friends. Men and women have the same number of friends, however, women are likely to confide more in friendships than men. Men tend to enjoy activities or discuss and practice special skills. Adults also often make friends based on who their children are friends with. Many times, parents within a neighborhood are all friends because they are around each other so much because of their children. Parents will also often make friends with other parents on their children’s sports teams for the same reason. Not all adult acquaintances will end up in the friendship stage, however, it is likely that some will share commonalities and form a deeper relationship (Newman & Newman, 2012).
With life events such as marriage, parenthood, and accelerated career development, young adulthood merges into middle adulthood. Following marriage, both women and men report having fewer cross-gender friends. This may be due to suspicion and jealousy, and spouses spend most of their free time together rather than separately in social situations that might lead to cross-sex friendship formation. Also, when people marry they generally become more dependent on spouses and less so on friends for meeting social needs (Friendships, 2012).
Duration of Friendships Long-term and short-term friends vary in their characteristics. Long-term friends are the people with whom we can reminisce about memories that occurred during our lifetime. Changes in life such as health changes or retirement are less disruptive on longterm friendships. Short-term friendships help us to deal with changes that affect our daily roles, such as moving into a new area or starting a new job.
Friends Keep Us Healthy Social interactions with friends help us lead longer and healthier lives. Studies show that people who enjoy interaction with friends live longer and healthier than those who are socially isolated. Friends are relied upon for emotional support, and a close network of friends can help us through challenges in life.
How Can Friends Help in Times of Crisis? Friends can strengthen relationships by: - keeping in regular contact by phone, mail, or in person - allowing your friend to express emotions - listening to your friend’s feelings and his/her perception of a situation - being non-judgmental and not offering advice unless asked
(Emotional and social development in late adulthood) - having friends is very important for the mental health among the elderly
Functions of Elder Relationships Intimacy and companionship - mutual interests, belongingness, and ability to express feelings and confide in each other Acceptance - late-life friends shield one another from negative judgments about their capabilities and worth as a person while aging A link to the larger community - for elders who cannot go out as often, interactions with friends can keep them socially interactive Protection from the psychological consequences of loss - older adults in declining health who remain in contact with friends show improved psychological well-being
Characteristics of Elder Relationships Older adults prefer familiar and established relationships over new ones, but friendship formation continues throughout life. With age, elders report that the friends they feel closest to are fewer in number and live in the same community. Elders tend to choose friends whose age, sex, race, ethnicity, and values are like their own. Compared with younger people, fewer report other-sex friendships. Older women have more secondary friends who are not intimates but with whom they spend time occasionally (group that meets for lunch, bridge, or museum tours). Through these associates, elders meet new people and gain in psychological well-being.
Acquaintance: not a true friend—sharing of emotional ties is absent. An example would be a coworker with whom one enjoys eating lunch or having coffee, but would not look to for emotional support. Many "friends" that appear on social networking sites are generally acquaintances in real life.
Best friend (or close friend): A person someone shares extremely strong interpersonal ties with as a friend.
Blood brother or blood sister: Either people related by birth, or a circle of friends who swear loyalty by mixing the blood of each member together; the latter carries the risk of transmitting infections such as HIV.
Boston marriage: An antiquated American term used during the 19th and 20th centuries to denote two women who lived together in the same household independent of male support. Relationships were not necessarily sexual. It was used to quell fears of lesbians after World War I.
Bro or Bruh: Slang used primarily in the USA, Australia and New Zealand by teenage and young adult men to describe a male close friend.
Sis: Female equivalent of "bro".
Buddy: In the USA, males and sometimes females often refer to each other as "buddies", for example, introducing a male friend as their "buddy", or a circle of male friends as "buddies". Buddies are also acquaintances that one has during certain events. The term may also refer to an online contact, such as the AOL Buddy List. It also refers to a close friend.
Casual relationship or "friends with benefits": A sexual or near-sexual, emotional relationship between two people who do not expect or demand to share a formal romantic relationship. This can also refer to a "hook-up".
Family friend: A friendship extended to family members of the friends. Close relation is developed in those societies where family ties are strong. This term is usually used in the Indian subcontinent.
Comrade: Means "ally", "friend", or "colleague" in a military or political connotation. This is the feeling of affinity that draws people together in time of war or when people have a mutual enemy or even a common goal. Friendship can be mistaken for comradeship. Former New York Times war correspondent Chris Hedges wrote:
We feel in wartime comradeship. We confuse this with friendship, with love. There are those, who will insist that the comradeship of war is love – the exotic glow that makes us in war feel as one people, one entity, is real, but this is part of war's intoxication. [...] Friends are predetermined; friendship takes place between men and women who possess an intellectual and emotional affinity for each other. But comradeship – that ecstatic bliss that comes with belonging to the crowd in wartime – is within our reach. We can all have comrades.
[12]
As a war ends, or a common enemy recedes, many comrades return to being strangers who lack friendship and have little in common. Sometimes they even become enemies in another war.
Cross-sex friendship: A person having a friend of the opposite sex with having little or no sexual or romantic activity: a male who has a female friend, or a female who has a male friend. Historically, cross-sex friendships have been rare. This is because often men would labor in order to support themselves and their family, while women stayed at home and took care of the housework and children. The lack of contact led to men forming friendships exclusively with their colleagues and women forming friendships with other stay-at-home mothers. However, as women attended schools more and as their presence in the workplace increased, the segregated friendship dynamic was altered, and cross-sex friendships began to increase. Cross-sex friendship, once a sign of gender deviance, has been loosened because of the increase of gender equality in schools and the workplace, along with certain interests and pastimes such as sports.
Cross-sex friendships are not always a socially accepted norm of amity, and some of those friendships could develop into romantic feelings (see romantic friendship). When these feelings are not mutual, they can often backfire, making it hard for the two to remain friends.
Frenemy: A portmanteau of the words fr(iend) and enemy, the term frenemy refers to someone who pretends to be a friend but actually is an enemy— a proverbial wolf in sheep's clothing in the world of friendships. This is also known as a love–hate relationship. Most people have encountered a frenemy at one time or another in the same places one might find friends —school, work, the neighborhood. The term frenemy was reportedly coined by a sister of author and journalist Jessica Mitford in 1977 and popularized more than twenty years later on the third season of Sex and the City. While most research on friendship and health has focused on the positive relationship between the two, a frenemy is a potential source of irritation and stress. One study by psychologist Dr. Julianne Holt-Lunstad found that unpredictable love–hate relationships characterized by ambivalence can lead to elevations in blood pressure. In a previous study, the same researcher found that blood pressure is higher around friends for whom one has mixed feelings than it is people whom one clearly dislikes.[13]
Fruit fly,[14] fag hag (female),[15] or fag stag (male):[16] denotes a person (usually heterosexual) who forms deep ties or close friendships with gay men. Men (gay or straight) who have lesbian friends have been referred to as "lezbros" or "lesbros".[17] The term has often been claimed by these straight members in gay-straight friendships; however, some feel that it is derogatory.[18][19]
Imaginary friend: a non-physical friend created by a child or even an adult. Sometimes they are human; other times, they are animals, such as the life-size rabbit in the 1950 Jimmy Stewart movie Harvey. Imaginary friends are also created for people desperate for social interaction but are isolated from contact with humans and pets. It may be seen as bad behavior or even taboo (some religious parents even consider their child to be possessed by an evil "spirit"), but is most commonly regarded as harmless, typical childhood behavior. The friend may or may not be human and commonly serves a protective purpose.
Internet relationship: a form of friendship or romance which takes place over the Internet. Some internet friendships evolve into real-life friendships. Internet friendships are in similar context to pen pals. These friendships are also based on the thought that they may never meet in real life, they know each other for who they are instead of the mask they may use in real life.
Mate: In the UK, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, blokes often refer to each other as "mates", for example, introducing a male friend as their "mate", or a circle of male friends as "mates". In the UK, as well as Australia, this term has begun to be taken up by women as well as men.
Open relationship: a relationship, usually between two people, that agree each partner is free to have sexual intercourse with others outside the relationship. When this agreement is made between a married couple, it is called an "open marriage".
Communal friendship: a friendship in which the friends gather often to provide encouragement and emotional support in times of great need. This type of friendship tends to last only when opposing parties fulfill the expectations of support for the relationship.[20]
Agentic friendship: a friendship in which both parties look toward each other for help in achieving practical goals in their personal and professional life.[21] These friends help with completing projects, study for an exam, or help a friend move out. These types of friends value sharing time together, but only if there are no other priorities and the friend is actually available to help in the first place. Emotions and sharing of personal information is of no concern to this type of friend.
Pen pal: people who have a relationship via postal correspondence. Now pen pals have been established into internet friendships with the use of chat or social networking sites. They may or may not have met each other in person and may share either love, friendship, or simply an association between each other. This type of correspondence was encouraged in many elementary school children; it was thought that an outside source of information or a different person's experience would help the child become more worldly.
The conventional wisdom is that good friendships enhance an individual's sense of happiness and overall well-being, but a number of solid studies support the notion that strong social supports improve a woman's prospects for good health and longevity. Conversely, it has been shown that loneliness and lack of social supports are linked to an increased risk of heart disease, viral infections, and cancer as well as higher mortality rates. Two researchers have even termed friendship networks a "behavioral vaccine" that protects both physical and mental health.[22]
While there is an impressive body of research linking friendship and health status, the precise reasons for this connection are still far from clear. Most of the studies are large prospective studies (that follow people over a period of time), and while there may be a correlation between the two variables (friendship and health status), researchers still do not know if there is a cause-and-effect relationship, i.e., that good friendships actually improve health.
There are a number of theories that attempt to explain the link, including: 1) Good friends encourage their friends to lead more healthy lifestyles; 2) Good friends encourage their friends to seek help and access services when needed; 3) Good friends enhance their friends' coping skills in dealing with illness and other health problems; and/or 4) Good friends actually affect physiological pathways that are protective of health.[23]
Love is closely related to friendship in that it involves strong interpersonal ties between two or more people. Being in a relationship with someone usually means that they are very close and can confide in each other. Sometimes Friendship is considered as Pure love, which involves only love and adoration of the friends.
In terms of interpersonal relationships, there are two distinct types of love:
- Platonic love: is a deep and non-romantic connection or friendship between two individuals. It is love in which the sexual element does not enter.
- Romantic love: considered similar to platonic love, but involves sexual elements.
Engaging in a romantic relationship can change the dynamics of a platonic relationship; in the event of a breakup, close friends who become romantically involved may experience difficulty in successfully resuming a comfortable friendship.
Although the term initially described relations between individuals, it is at times used for political purposes to describe relations between states or peoples (the "Franco–German friendship", for example), indicating in this case an affinity or mutuality of purpose between the two nations.
Regarding this aspect of international relations, Lord Palmerston said:
| “ |
Therefore I say that it is a narrow policy to suppose that this country or that is to be marked out as the eternal ally or the perpetual enemy of England. We have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and perpetual, and those interests it is our duty to follow.[24] |
” |
This is often paraphrased as: "Nations have no permanent friends and no permanent enemies. Only permanent interests."
The word friendship can be used in political speeches as an emotive modifier. Friendship in international relationships often refers to the quality of historical, existing, or anticipated bilateral relationships.
Friendship as a type of interpersonal relationship is also found among animals of higher intelligence, such as the higher mammals and some birds. Cross-species friendships are common between humans and domestic animals. Less common but noteworthy are friendships between an animal and another animal of a different species, such as a dog and cat.
A study done by Krista McLennan, a PhD student at Northampton University, discovered a relationship between cows and their so-called "friends." McLennan measured the heart rates of the cattle on three separate occasions to determine their stress levels. In the first trial the cows were isolated from the rest of the herd. The second trial penned the animal with another cow that they were familiar with. Finally, the third trial put two random cows together. Her research showed that the cows were much more stressed when alone or with an unfamiliar cow than they were with one of their friends. This proves that cows are very social animals and are capable of forming close bonds with other cows in their herd. If farmers can group these friends together, it could create tremendous benefits. Reducing the stress levels of these cows improves their overall health and can even produce a greater milk yield. [25]
It is only natural that some friendships will end for many different reasons. Sometimes friends move away from each other and are forced to move on due to the distance. Sometimes divorce causes an end to friendships. This is because one parent may end up with custody of the children and the other parent may have to move out. Friends may have different opinions regarding the divorce and may pick sides, which is how some divorced parents lose friends along the way. At a younger age friendships may end as a result of acceptance into new groups. This can cause some friends to move on to a more popular group while other friends are left behind. There are always choices to make when starting and ending friendships. However, ending a friendship should be done in an appropriate way. For example, not talking to someone anymore or not answering their phone calls doesn’t give an adequate reason as to why you no longer want to be friends. Giving a reason such as “You don’t listen to me so I can’t be your friend anymore,” is a better way to exit the relationship.
Other reasons for ending a friendship include:
- They are sarcastic or mean to you often
- They are not trust worthy and tells your secrets
- They go after your crush or significant other
- They don’t want you to have other friends
- They don’t listen to you
- They push you to do dangerous things
- They blame you for what's not good in their lives
(Friendships, 2009) (Berry, 2012)
In a Social Media sense a friendship can end when you are 'unfriended' by your social media friend (eg in facebook).
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- ^ Lucas, Chris. "Contextual Ethics". http://www.calresco.org/lucas/context.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
- ^ Owen, Terence (1996). Aristotle: Introductory Readings. Hackett. p. 274.
- ^ Tokar, Alexander (2009). Metaphors of the Web 2.0: with special emphasis on social networks and folksonomies. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 57. ISBN 3631586647.
- ^ Kornblum, Janet (June 22, 2006). Study: 25% of Americans have no one to confide in. USA Today.
- ^ McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Brashears (Volume 71, Number 3, June 2006). Asanet.org American Sociological Review.
- ^ Lewis, 1974, p. 69
- ^ Conger, Galambos, 1996, p. 204
- ^ Grabmeier, Jeff (January 6, 2004). Friendships play key role in suicidal thoughts of girls, but not boys. Ohio State University.
- ^ Spakrs, Glenn (August 7, 2007). Study shows what makes college buddies lifelong friends. Purdue University.
- ^ Cited in Brace, N. & Byford, J. (Ed.) (2010) Discovering psychology: What is friendship. The Open university. ISBN 1-84873-466-2.
- ^ Hedges, Chris (May 21, 2003). "Text of the Rockford College graduation speech". Rockford Register Star. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0520-13.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
- ^ "Caution: Frenemies can be bad for your health". The Friendship Blog. 2009-08-21. http://www.thefriendshipblog.com/blog/caution-frenemies-can-be-bad-your-health. Retrieved 2012-05-02.
- ^ Green, Jonathon (2006, page 549). Cassell's Dictionary of Slang. Sterling Publishing, ISBN 0-304-36636-6. Google Books, Retrieved 2007-11-16.
- ^ Baker, Paul (2004). Fantabulosa: A Dictionary of Polari and Gay Slang. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 140. ISBN 0-8264-7343-1. Google Books, Retrieved 2008-07-23.
- ^ Green, Jonathon (2006). Cassell's Dictionary of Slang: A Major New Edition of the Market-leading Dictionary of Slang. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 485. ISBN 0-304-36636-6. Google Books, Retrieved 2008-07-23.
- ^ LesBro: If You're A Boy Who Likes Girls Who Like Girls, Then You Are A Lesbro. And If You're Not, Maybe You Should Be, Joshua David Stein, Details, September 2009.
- ^ Ordona, Robert (2008). "State of Gay Unions: The "Fag Stag"". Planet Out Inc. Retrieved 2008-07-23 Gay.com
- ^ Matarazzo, Heather (2005-03-29). "Who you callin' a fag hag?". The Advocate. Findarticles.com Retrieved 2008-03-09.
- ^ McCornack, Steven. Reflect & Relate an introduction to interpersonal communication. Boston/NY: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 383.
- ^ McCornack, Steven. Reflect & Relate an introduction to interpersonal communication. Boston/NY: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 384.
- ^ Friendship, social support, and health. 2007 Sias, Patricia M; Bartoo, Heidi. In L'Abate, Luciano (Ed). (2007). Low-cost approaches to promote physical and mental health: Theory, research, and practice. (pp. 455–472). xxii, 526 pp. New York, NY, US: Springer Science + Business Media.
- ^ Social networks and health: It's time for an intervention trial. 2005. Jorm, Anthony F. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. Vol 59(7) Jul 2005, 537–538.
- ^ Speech to the House of Commons, Hansard (March 1, 1848)
- ^ "Heifer so lonely: How cows have best friends and get stressed when they are separated". Mail Online. 5 July 2011. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2011124/Cows-best-friends-stressed-separated.html. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
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- Heyking, John von; Avramenko, Richard (2008). Friendship and Politics: Essays in Political Thought. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
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- Reeder, Heidi M. (August 2003). "The Effect of Gender Role Orientation on Same- and Cross-Sex Friendship Formation". Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 49 (3–4): 143–152.
- Strogatz, Steven (2009). The calculus of friendship : what a teacher and a student learned about life while corresponding about math. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13493-2.
- Yager, Jan (2002). When Friendship Hurts: How to Deal With Friends Who Betray, Abandon, or Wound You. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., Fireside Books.
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