Sri Lanka Navy

Components
Sri Lanka Navy
Volunteer Naval Force
Fast Attack Flotilla
Naval Patrolmen
Special Boat Squadron
History
History of the Sri Lanka Navy
Ships
Current Fleet
Historic Ships
Personnel
Commander of the Navy
Naval Ranks

The Sri Lankan Navy is the naval arm of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces and is classed as the most vital defense force of Sri Lanka, due to the country's island geography. It is responsible for the maritime defence of the Sri Lankan nation and its interests.

Sri Lanka, situated in the middle of major sea lanes passing through the Indian Ocean, was always a magnet for seafarers and has a long history of Naval campaigns. The current Sri Lankan Navy was established on 9 December 1950 when the Navy Act was passed for the formation of the Royal Ceylon Navy. The roots of the modern Sri Lankan Navy dates back to 1937 when the Ceylon Naval Volunteer Force was established, which was renamed and absorbed into the Royal Navy as the Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve during World War II. The current name Sri Lanka Navy was constituted in 1972 when Sri Lanka becoming a Republic and the introduction of new constitution.

In recent years it has played a key role in the Sri Lankan civil war, conducting surveillance & patrol, amphibious and supply operations. During the war the navy moved from a small force focused on coastal patrols to a large combat force concentrating on asymmetric naval warfare capable of amphibious and land operations in support of counter-insurgency operation at the progressed into engagements of a new form of littoral warfare. It carried out expeditionary deployments in Indian Ocean in-order to intercept rogue arm-shipments in the high seas. The navy has its own elite special forces unit, the Special Boat Squadron.

The professional head of the navy is the Commander of the Navy, currently Vice Admiral D.W.A.S Dissanayake.^[2] The Commander-in-Chief of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces is the President of the country, who heads the National Security Council, through the Ministry of Defense, which is the highest level of military command and procurement for the armed forces.^[3] Operations of the Sri Lanka Navy are coordinated with the other armed forces by the Joint Operations Command. The Sri Lanka Navy has 4 offshore patrol vessels, 2 missile boats, 12 patrol boats, 6 landing ships/craft and a large number of littoral craft, along with 6 auxiliary vessels. Its personnel number 48,000 of whom approximately 15,000 are deployed for shore duties.^[1]

Role[link]

The role of the Sri Lanka Navy is

History[link]

The Beginning and World War II[link]

In January 1938 the Ceylon Naval Volunteer Force (CNVF) was created with Commander W.G. Beauchamp as Commanding Officer under ordinance No I of 1937. On 31 August 1939 at the out set of World War II, the CNVF was mobilized for war duties. Three years later, the CNVF was offered to, and accepted by the Royal Navy (RN) as a Volunteer Reserve, the Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (CRNVR). It continued under Royal Navy operational and administrative command until March 1946. With the end of the war, it reverted to Ceylon Government control, though yet CRNVR in name. In the 1939-1946 period, the CRNVR carried out several operational duties, mainly at sea. Cutting its teeth on the Port Commission tugs Samson and Goliath, it later manned and operated trawlers and Antarctic whalers converted as Minesweepers and fitted out with guns, submarine detection equipment and anti-submarine weaponry. They were the HMS Overdale Wyke (the first ship to be purchased by the Government of Ceylon), HMS Okapi, HMS Semla, HMS Sambhur, HMS Hoxa, HMS Balta and HM Tugs Barnet and C 405. In addition the CRNVR manned several Motor Fishing Vessels (MFV), Harbour Defence Motor Launch (HDML) and miscellaneous auxiliary vessels. All were manned exclusively by CRNVR personnel. These ships were meant to sweep and guard the approaches the harbors but were often used on extended missions outside Ceylon waters. In the course of these operations, the ships came under enemy fire, recovered essential information from Japanese aircraft that where shot down, sailed to Akyab after the Burma front was opened in two FMVs for harbour duties, and was called upon to accept the surrender of the Italian light cruiser Eritrea and escort her to the Colombo port with a prize crew on board.

Royal Ceylon Navy[link]

Naval Ensign of the Royal Ceylon Navy (1950-1972).

After Independence from British rule in 1948 the government believed a island nation should possess a strong navy to be its first line of defense. Therefore on 9 December 1950 the Royal Ceylon Navy was created with Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve forming the nucleus. The first warship was commissioned HMCyS Vijaya, an Algerian class Minesweeper, ex-HMS Flying Fish along with other patrol boats and tugs. Later the fleet was expanded with, HMCyS Parakram another Algerian class Minesweeper (ex-HMS Pickle), two Canadian built "River" class Frigates HMCyS Mahasena (ex-HMCS Violetta, Orkney and ex-Israeli ship Mivtach), HMCyS Gajabahu (ex-HMCS Hallowell, ex-Israeli Misnak) and Ocean going Tug(ex-HMS Adept). During this time the navy took part in several joint naval exercises and a goodwill mission to the far east. However the expansion of the navy was dramatically halted in 1962 when the captain of the navy who was relieved of command at the time was implicated in an attempted military coup. The navy suffered a great deal as result of the governments retribution that followed, with several of its ships sold off, reduced its size by stoppage of recruitment of officers cadets and sailors for over seven years, the loss of important bases and barracks and the stoppage of training in England. As a result in 1971 the navy was poorly equipped and short of personal when the 1971 JVP Insurrection broke-out. SLN was not capable of putting ships to sea due to a lack of sea going units and the navy being called mount shore duty initially to defended ports and thereafter offensive combat operations against the insurgents. During the insurrection navy suffered its first combat casualties went on to man detention centers to rehabilitate surrendered insurgents after it was crushed in a few months. Sri Lanka however had to rely on the Indian Navy to established a exclusion zone around the island.

Navy of the Republic[link]

Sri Lankan Navy Ensign.

In 1972 the "Dominion of Ceylon" became the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka" and the Royal Ceylon Navy became the Sri Lanka Navy. The Naval Ensign along with the Flag Officers' flags were redesigned. The term "Captain of the Navy", introduced in the Navy Act, was changed to "Commander of the Navy", in keeping with the terminology adopted by the other two services. Finally, "Her Majesty's Ceylon Ships" (HMCyS) became "Sri Lankan Naval Ships" (SLNS).

Based on its experiences in the late 1970s the navy began rebuilding its strength with the gift of Shershen class torpedo boats from the USSR and acquisition of Shanghai class fast gun boats form China to carry out effective coastal patrolling and carried out several cruises to regional ports. New bases were established to counter smuggling operations in the coastal areas.

Recent years[link]

At the begin of the civil war in the 1980s the navy found itself poorly equipped to face the new threats the LTTE created. But this was soon over come by increasing the fleet of patrol boats and the introduction of fast attack crafts. These proved highly successful in limiting the LTTE’s use of the seas. The weapon systems on these were upgraded with time as the sea tigers resorted to using sophisticated suicide crafts against naval crafts. In addition two locally build Jayasagara class Off Shore Patrol Craft added to the fleet to carry out anti-smuggling operations and coastal surveillance.

During this time the navy took part in its first amphibious operation in its history. The size of the force along with the fleet increased in the years of war. In the early 80’s a land combat force was created witch at first limited itself to base defense and as its numbers increased took part in offensive operations against the LTTE along with the Sri Lankan Army. An elite naval special forces unit called the Special Boat Squadron was created in the late 80’s based on the British Special Boat Service. In early 1990s the SLN carried out injunction with the army its first amphibious operation code named Operation Sea Breeze followed by the lager Operation Balavegaya an year later and on the seas it began an aggressive clamp down on LTTE actives including gunrunning. It was during this time in 1992 Admiral W.W.E.Clancy Fernando, the commander of the navy was assassinated by a suicide bomb attack by the LTTE.

During the late part of the 1990s the navy expanded its fleet of patrol boats to counter sea tiger crafts and intercept arms shipments destine for the tigers within Sri Lankan tensorial waters. In 2000 the Navy started a fleet air arm (FAA) by acquiring a HAL Chetak from India to expand its surveillance capability by operating from newly acquired Offshore Patrol Vessels. During the same time conventional warfare capability was increased by the addition of missile boats.

Following the resumptions of hostilities between the government of Sri Lanka and the LTTE since early 2006, the navy took up an active role in limiting the LTTE's use of the seas. This resulted in several major sea battles curring the course of 2006, 2007 and 2009. Most significant of the events during this time were the interception and sinking of several large cargo ships that were bringing illegal arms shipments to the LTTE in the Indian Ocean in international waters. These naval operations have proven the blue water capability of the Sri Lankan Navy. With the end of the Civil war, the navy has begun reorienting itself for the future defense of the island. This has led to force redeployments, training exercises and transfer of certain duties to the newly formed Sri Lanka Coast Guard.

During the war the navy, along with the army developed its own weapons development programs to produce and maintain weapon systems suited for indigenous requirements in collaboration with Colombo Dockyard.

Major combat operations[link]

Apart from continued deployments at sea the navy has played a significant role in supporting all major operations carried out by the Army including several amphibious operations.

Organisation[link]

Naval Headquarters[link]

The professional head of the navy is the Commander of the Navy (C of N), at present Vice Admiral D.W.S. Dissanayake and reports directly to the Minister of Defence. The Commander of the Navy exercises operational and administrative control of the Navy from naval headquarters in SLNS Parakrama, Colombo. He is assisted by the Chief of Staff (C of S), who along with Directors General and Directors comprise the Board of Management (BOM) and Board of Directors (BOD) of the Sri Lanka Navy.

Board of Management

The Board of Management consists of the five Directors General, who are of Rear-Admiral grade on appointment;

• Director General (Operations) - DG (O)
• Director General (Services) - DG (S)
• Director General (Engineering) - DG(E)
• Director General (Electrical & Electronics) - DG(L)
• Director General (Logistics) - DG (LOG)
• Director General (Health Services) - DG (HS)

Commands[link]

The Naval Areas of Operations. Note that the Southern and Eastern areas overlap (stripes).

The Navy has six commands known as Naval Area Commands, each under the control of a flag officer for effective command and administrative control. This is in order to efficiently maintain all ships, crafts and vehicles; and to ensure the operational readiness of commands and units each area shall have its own harbour/ base, repair and refitting facilities, signal centres, logistic, civil engineering and medical facilities.

Six Naval Area Commands (see image to the right)

• Northern Naval Area (NNA)
• North Central Naval Area (NCNA)
• North Western Naval Area (NWNA)
• Western Naval Area (WNA)
• Southern Naval Area (SNA)
• Eastern Naval Area (ENA)

Units[link]

• 3rd Fast Gun Boats Squadron (3 FGS)
• 4th Fast Attack Flotilla (4 FAF)
• 7th Surveillance Command Squadron
• Special Boat Squadron
• Rapid Action Boat Squadron

Branches[link]

Sri Lanka Navy consists following branches to which personal are attached to;

• Executive Branch
  • Navigation and Direction
  • Communications
  • Gunnery
  • Missiles
  • Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW)
  • Diving
  • Hydrography
• Engineering Branch
• Medical Branch
• Logistics Branch
• Electrical & Electronics Engineering Branch
• Naval Patrolman Branch
• Information Technology Branch
• Musical Branch
• Legal Branch
• Provost Branch

Current deployments[link]

As of present, most of the Sri Lankan Navy is deployed for domestic defense with the end of combat operations, while foreign deployments are carried out from time to time.

Domestic[link]

Due to the Sri Lankan Civil War the navy has been on a constant mobilized (including reservist) state since the 1980s (except for a brief period from 2002–2005). The majority of the naval units both at sea and ground based are deployed in the North and Eastern provinces of the country, as well as in other parts of the country. The security of all major ports of the country is the responsibility of the navy, due to terrorist activity.

Foreign[link]

• Haiti - Since 2004 navy personal have been attached to the Sri Lankan contingent of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.^[5]
• Indian Ocean - In 2007 and 2008 the navy carried out anti-arms smuggling operations in international waters in the Indian Ocean, sinking 6 rogue merchant ships smuggling arms for the LTTE.

Training[link]

General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU) formed in 1981 and situated in Ratmalana, fourteen kilometers south of Colombo, is Sri Lanka's only university specializing in defense studies. Apart from postgraduate defense studies each year, approximately fifty cadets from all three services are admitted to the university (aged 18–22) to participate in a three-year program of under graduate studies.^[6]

Senior officers of the ranks of Lieutenant Commander and Commander are given advanced training and education at the Defence Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC) at Batalanda, Makola which was established in 1997 as the Army Command and Staff College. In addition KDU conducts Masters Of Science (Defence Studies) degree for the senior officers of Sri Lanka Navy.

Basic officer training is carried out at the Naval & Maritime Academy at the SLN Dockyard in Trincomalee and short/specialized officer training is conducted at the SLNS Gemunu, Welisara. This training includes theoretical aspects covered at the training institute followed by a practical exposure on board the Sri Lanka Navy fleet at sea.

Basic training for new recruits (approximately six months) are conducted at Advanced Naval Training Center, SLNS 'Nipuna'; Naval Artificer Training Institute, SLNS 'Thakshila', Welisara; and at Naval Recruit Training Centres at several shore establishments . This basic training will be followed by on-the-job training on-board fleet units and at shore establishments. Combat Training School at SLNS 'Pandukabaya' conducts combat training for Naval Patrolmen.

Additional training is carried out in UK, India, Pakistan, Australia.

Main training establishments,

• Naval & Maritime Academy - SLN Dockyard
• Advanced Naval Training Centre - SLNS Nipuna
• Naval Artificer Training Institute - SLNS Thakshila
• Naval Recruit Training Centre - SLNS Shiksha
• Naval Recruit Training Center/Combat Training School - SLNS Pandukabaya

Current Fleet[link]

The Sri Lankan Naval fleet consists of above fifty combat, support ships and inshore patrol crafts, with most originating from China, India, Israel and Sri Lanka.^[7]

Offshore Patrol Vessels[link]

The Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPV) are the largest warships of the Sri Lanka Navy. There are 5 OPVs in service of the SLN; SLNS Sayura, SLNS Samudura, SLNS Sagara, SLNS Sayurala with all capable of operating naval helicopters and another the locally built SLNS Jayasagara. These ships are deployed in the high seas to carry out surveillance and interception of illegal arms smuggling and to monitor naval activity within the EEZ.^[7]

Fast Missile Vessels[link]

The Fast Missile Vessels (FMV) were added to the SLN in 2001 when two Israeli Saar 4 class missile boats were acquired. These vessels which referred to as the Nandimithra class and equipped with Gabriel II anti-ship missiles, they increased the SLN's conventional warfare capability and provide a multi-role platform for different operations undertaken by the navy.^[8]

Fast Gun Boats[link]

Fast Gun Boats (FGB) carry out a multi-role missions from coastal patrols to shore bombardment in support of amphibious operations. FGBs consist of ships from the Chinese Lushun class, Haizhui class and Shanghai II class.^[9][10]

Fast Attack Craft[link]

Fast Attack Craft (FAC) have proven to be the workhorse of the SLN in combating asymmetric warfare of the Sea Tigers of the LTTE in the coastal waters of Northern and Eastern parts of the island during the civil war. Attached to the 4th Fast Attack Flotilla these boats are about 25 meters in length, around 50 tons displacement, able to reach speeds of 45 knots and armed with rapid fire weapons. They were primarily deployed in offensive operations for the denial of sea, they were also used for defensive operations to prevent Sea Tiger suicide craft from attacking both naval and civilian ships by operating as escorts. There are several classes of FACs such as the locally built Colombo ultra fast class, the Israeli Super Dvora and Shaldag fast patrol boats, the British Chevron and the American Trinity Marine types.^[7][11]

Inshore Patrol Craft[link]

Inshore Patrol Craft are small vessels (14 meters long) which are capable of operating inshore as well as for beaching. They are capable of speeds in excess of 30 knots and are used for small boat operations, harbor defense and amphibious operations.^[7]

Littoral Attack Craft[link]

Littoral Warfare Craft are small (7-meter long) and highly maneuverable Arrow class attack speedboats. They also have a high degree of firepower for vessels their size. Introduced in 2006, these boats are manufactured by the SLN's own boatyard and used by the elite Special Boat Squadron (SBS) and the Rapid Action Boat Squadron (RABS) for small boat operations.

Amphibious Warfare Vessels[link]

The SLN has several vessels to support amphibious operations it carries out. These include Yuhai class Tank landing ship SLNS Shathi; 29 M utility landing crafts (Locally built); Yunnan class mechanized landing crafts and an ABS M-10 Utility craft air cushion.^[9]

Auxiliary Vessels[link]

The Navy also has several auxiliary vessels such as fast personal carriers and replenishment ships. Fast personnel carriers are catamarans which were used for both troop and civilian transport, running the gauntlet of LTTE suicide craft. SLNs fleet of non-commissioned underway replenishment ships have been used recently for replenishment at sea in international waters.

Equipment[link]

• Gabriel - Anti-ship missile
• Typhoon - Naval Optronic Stabilized Weapon Platforms
• M242 Bushmaster - 25 mm (25x137mm) chain-fed autocannon

Fleet Air Arm[link]

With offshore patrol vessels (OPVs) in its fleet since 2001, when SLNS Sayura was commissioned, the navy has been considering the development of a fleet air arm to operate from these vessels. Two types of helicopters are being tested for this role:

• HAL Chetak
• HH-65 Dolphin

Special Forces[link]

The navy has its own elite special forces unit, the Special Boat Squadron. Established in the 1980s SBS was modeled after the Special Boat Service of the Royal Navy. It has roles in naval special operations such as amphibious raids, Maritime Counter-Terrorism, Reconnaissance and target indication, combat swimmer missions and small boat operations. As a Special Forces unit, its role is not limited to water-borne operations. It also conducts operations on land, either with ground combat units of the Navy and the Army, or separately.

Naval Patrolmen[link]

A branch formed recently to augment the land combat capabilities of SLN. Effectively members of this branch are soldiers of the navy performing the role of naval infantry. Originally limited to base and harbor security, in recent years Naval Patrolmen have taken part in offensive and defensive operations against the LTTE in conjunction with the army or independently, as both infantry and light armored units.

Provost Branch[link]

The Naval Provost branch of the Sri Lanka Navy is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining discipline and enforcement of law and order among the Naval personnel by way of prevention of crimes, detection of crimes, apprehension of offenders, conducting preliminary investigations for necessary disciplinary action and providing assistance to all naval authorities on all disciplinary and other connected matters.

Personnel[link]

Parama Weera Vibhushanaya recipients[link]

The Parama Weera Vibhushanaya is the highest award for valour awarded in the Sri Lankan armed forces. Navy recipients include;

• Lieutenant-Commander Jude Lakmal Wijethunge †
• Chief Petty Officer K. G. Shantha †

Notable fallen members[link]

Over 23,790 Sri Lankan armed forces personnel were killed since begin of the civil war in 1981 to its end in 2009, this includes 2 admirals killed in active duty or assassinated.^[12] 659 service personnel were killed due to the second JVP insurrection from 1987 to 1990. 53 service personnel were killed and 323 were wounded in the first JVP insurrection from 1971 to 1972.^[13] Notable fallen members includes;

• Admiral W.W.E.Clancy Fernando  † - Commander of the Navy
• Rear Admiral Mohan Jayamaha  † - Commander Northern Naval Area ^[14]

Women in the Sri Lanka Navy[link]

Today women are recruited to both the regular and volunteer forces. Although at first limited to the medical branch currently both lady officers and female rates are able to join any branch of service including the executive branch as well. In 2007 the navy appointed its first ever Lady Commodore, Surgeon Commodore Indranee Y. Amarasinghe.^[15]

See also[link]

• Military of Sri Lanka
• Commander of the Navy
• Military ranks and insignia of the Sri Lanka Navy
• Fast Attack Flotilla
• Special Boat Squadron
• Rapid Action Boat Squadron
• Naval and Maritime Academy
• Hoods Tower Museum
• Sri Lankan Civil War

References[link]

External links and Additional References[link]

• Ministry of Defence Sri Lanka
• Sri Lanka Navy
• General Sir John Kotelawala Defence Academy
• Atricle from Divaina

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය (Sinhala) இலங்கை சனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு (Tamil)
Flag Emblem
Anthem:  Sri Lanka Matha Mother Sri Lanka
Capital		Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte[1][2] 6°54′N 79°54′E / 6.9°N 79.9°E / 6.9; 79.9
Largest city		Colombo
Official language(s)		Sinhala, Tamil
Demonym		Sri Lankan
Government		Unitary republic Democratic Socialist Semi-presidential system
-	President	Mahinda Rajapaksa
-	Prime Minister	D. M. Jayaratne
-	Speaker of the House	Chamal Rajapaksa
-	Chief Justice	Dr. Shirani Bandaranayake
Legislature		Parliament
Independence		from the United Kingdom
-	Dominion (Self rule)	4 February 1948
-	Republic	22 May 1972
Area
-	Total	65,610 km2 (122nd) 25,332 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.4
Population
-	2010 estimate	20,860,000[3] (56th)
-	Mid 2010 census	20,653,000[4]
-	Density	308.5/km2 (44th) 798.9/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$116.541 billion[5] (64th)
-	Per capita	$5,673[5] (111th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$59.095 billion[5] (68th)
-	Per capita	$2,877[5] (123rd)
Gini (2010)		36[6] (medium)
HDI (2011)		0.691[7] (medium) (97th)
Currency		Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR)
Time zone		Sri Lanka Standard Time Zone (UTC+5:30)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC)
Date formats		dd/mm/yy(AD)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		LK
Internet TLD		.lk, .ලංකා, .இலங்கை
Calling code		94

Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (ⁱ/ʃriː ˈlɑːŋkə/, /sriːˈlɑːŋkə/, or /sriːˈlæŋkə/;^[8][9] Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකාව, Tamil: இலங்கை), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon ( /sɨˈlɒn/, /seɪˈlɒn/, or /siːˈlɒn/), Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.

As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia.^[10] It was an important stop on the ancient Silk Road.^[11] Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country.^[12] Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religions. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.^[13]

Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system with its official seat of government in Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte, the capital. The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, gemstones, coconuts, rubber and cinnamon, the last of which is native to the country.^[14] The natural beauty of Sri Lanka has led to the title The Pearl of the Indian Ocean.^[15] The island is laden with lush tropical forests, white beaches and diverse landscapes with rich biodiversity. The country lays claim to a long and colorful history of over three thousand years, having one of the longest documented histories in the world.^[16] Sri Lanka's rich culture can be attributed to the many different communities on the island.^[17] The country is a founding member state of SAARC and a member of United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, G77 and Non-Aligned Movement. As of 2011, Sri Lanka was one of the fastest growing economies of the world.^[18]

Etymology[link]

In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: Known in India as Lanka or Sinhala, ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane^[19]  /təˈprɒbəniː/ and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").^[20] Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,^[21] which was transliterated into English as Ceylon.^[22] As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, and achieved independence under the name Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.

In Sinhala the country is known as ශ්‍රී ලංකා śrī laṃkā, IPA: [ʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː], and the island itself as ලංකාව laṃkāva, IPA: [laŋˈkaːʋə]. In Tamil they are both இலங்கை ilaṅkai, IPA: [iˈlaŋɡai]. The name derives from the Sanskrit श्री लंका śrī (venerable) and lankā (island),^[23] the name of the island in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". In 1978 it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".^[24] The name Ceylon is still in use in the names of a number of organisations; in 2011, the Sri Lankan government announced a plan to rename all of those for which it is responsible.^[25]

History[link]

Pre-historic Sri Lanka[link]

The pre-history of Sri Lanka dates back over 125,000 years Before Present (BP) and possibly even as early as 500,000 BP.^[26] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron ages. Among the Paleolithic (Homo Erectus) human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveler monk Fa-Hsien), which dates back to 37,000 BP,^[27] Batadombalena (28,500 BP)^[28] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. The remains of Balangoda Man, an anatomically modern human, found inside these caves,^[29] suggests that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.^[30]

Frescos on the Sigiriya rock fortress in Matale District, 5th century

This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that had been created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma, for Kubera, the lord of wealth.^[31] It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful Emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara.^[32] The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravana's airport.^[33]

Ravana belonged to the tribe Raksha, which lived alongside four Hela tribes named Yaksha, Deva, Naga and Gandharva.^[34] These early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Vedda people,^[35] an indigenous community living in modern-day Sri Lanka, which numbers approximately 2,500. Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorised Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish, from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. Early inhabitants of the country spoke the Elu language, which is considered the early form of the modern Sinhala language.^[36]

Ancient Sri Lanka[link]

Avukana Buddha statue, a 12m standing Buddha statue belongs to the reign of Dhatusena, 5th century AD

According to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in Pāli language, the ancient period of Sri Lanka begins in 543 BC with the landing of Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who arrived in the country with 700 followers from the southwest coast of what is now the Rarh region of West Bengal.^[37] He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern day Mannar. Vijaya is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka that the chronicles like Dipavamsa, Mahāvamsa, Chulavamsa, and Rājāvaliya describe (see List of Sri Lankan monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history spanned a period of 2359 years, from 543 BC to AD 1815, until the land became part of the British Empire.^[38]

The Sigiriya rock fortress.

The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to Anuradhapura in 380 BC, during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital of the country for nearly 1400 years.^[39] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled in various constructions such as tanks, dagobas and palaces.^[40] The society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC,^[41] bhikkhu Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale, carrying the message of Buddhism.^[42] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.^[43] The succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia as well.^[44] In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened.^[45] It is considered the oldest tree in the world, with a continuous historical record. (Bodhivamsa)^[46]

Sri Lanka experienced the first foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India.^[43] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya.^[47] During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava.^[48] There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.^[49]

Claudius Ptolemy's map of Ceylon, 1st century AD

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler; Queen Anula who reigned during 47–42 BC.^[50] Sri Lankan monarchs attained some remarkable construction achievements like Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky". It was a constructed during the reign of Kashyapa I. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The 5th century palace is also renowned for frescos on the rock the surface.^[49] It has been declared by UNESCO as the 8th Wonder of the world.^[51][52] Among the other constructions, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics, allowing water to flow outside the dam keeping the pressure to a minimum.^[53] Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to have established a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century.^[54] It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world, and has maintained close ties with European civilizations including the Roman Empire. For example, King Bhatikabhaya (22 BC—AD 7) had sent an embassy to Rome and got down coral for a net to be cast over the Ruwanwelisaya.^[55] Bhikkhuni Devasāra and ten other fully ordained bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka went to China and established the bhikkhuni sāsana there in AD 429.^[56]

Medieval Sri Lanka[link]

A Buddhist statue in the ancient capital city of Polonnaruwa, 12th century

The medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the country.^[57] Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in AD 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura.^[57] Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.^[58] This marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen year long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.^[59][60] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.^[61] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided to three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.^[62]

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great ( AD 1153–1186).^[63] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.^[64][65] He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in the history, repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs.^[66] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,^[67] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns — in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.^[68]

After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army on 100 large ships from Kalinga.^[66] Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.^[69] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.^[70][71] The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal.^[72] He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467.^[73] The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,^[74] Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.

Early modern Sri Lanka[link]

A 17th century painting of Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602.

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lorenzo de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.^[75] The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 Vimaladharmasuriya I moved the kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location more secure against an attack from western invaders.^[76] Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century. In 1619, due to the attacks of Portuguese, independent existence of Jaffna kingdom, came to an end.^[77]

Colonial Coat of arms of British Ceylon

During the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived in the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.^[78] The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they captured, violating the treaty. An ethnic group named Burgher people integrated into the Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule.^[79] The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.^[80] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic – the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese – to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth.^[80] Even with intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom was able to survive. A succession crisis emerged in Kandy, upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India and was childless by them.^[80] Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princess, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.^[81] The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of Nayakkar dynasty, launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.^[82]

During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.^[83] Two years later, in 1798, Rajadhi Rajasinha, 3rd of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka died of a fever. Following the death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, 18-year-old Konnasami was crowned.^[84] The new king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha faced a British invasion in 1803, but was able to retaliate successfully. By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company, as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. But on 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British, in the second Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lanka's independence.^[84] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka was exiled to India.^[85] The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts of Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine the British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.^[86]

Modern Sri Lanka[link]

Sri Lanka under the British rule[link]

Tea plantation was introduced to Sri Lanka by James Taylor, a British planter in 1867.

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833.^[87] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.^[87] An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of representative legislature in the country. By this time, experiments with coffee plantation were largely successful. Soon it grew to become the primary commodity export of the country. The falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.^[88] These harsh measures antagonized the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.^[89] A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within 15 years. The British officials desperately searched for a substitute, and the promising replacement they found was tea. Production of tea in Sri Lanka thrived within the decades to come.

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class which transcended the divisions of race and caste was emerging as a result of British attempts to nurture a range of professionals for the Ceylon Civil Service and for the legal, educational, and medical professions.^[90] The country's new leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. In the meantime, attempts were underway for Buddhist and Hindu revivalism and to react against Christian missionary activities on the island.^[91][92] The first two decades in the 20th century are distinguished for the harmony that prevailed among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has not been the case ever since.^[93] In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam.^[94] It kept pressing the colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But due to its failure to appeal to the masses and the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost its momentum towards the mid 1920s.^[95] The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticized by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.^[96][97] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944/45.

Post independence Sri Lanka[link]

The Soulbury constitution ushered the Dominion status for Ceylon, delivering it independence on 4 February 1948.^[98] The office of Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in 1947, with D. S. Senanayake as the first prime minister.^[99] Prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet.^[96][100] Although the country gained independence, the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee, remained there until 1956. 1953 hartal, against the withdrawal of the rice ration, resulted in the resignation of the then prime minister, Dudley Senanayake.^[101] S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected as the prime minister in 1956. His 3 year rule had a profound impact on the direction of the country. He emerged as the "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture" and promised radical changes in the system.^[102] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although it was partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived their language and culture were threatened.^{[103][104][105]} Federal Party (FP) launched satyagraha against the move, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.^[106] However the pact was not carried out due to protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.^[107] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.^[108]

The formal ceremony marking the start of self rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence Square.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of late S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who took office as prime minister in 1960, faced an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During the second term as prime minister, her government instituted socialist economic polices, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country became a republic, repudiating the dominion status and changing its name to Sri Lanka. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during 1970s.^[109] The policy of standardization by Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrollment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education,^[110] in turn reducing the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student populace; acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.^[111][112] Assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 marked an important turn of the events.^[113][114]

The Government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government, towards its final years.^[115] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a powerful executive presidency modelled after France, and a free market economy. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.^[116] From 1983, ethnic tensions blew into on-and-off insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Following the riots in July 1983, more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fled the island, seeking asylum in other countries.^[117] Lapses in foreign policy resulted in neighbouring India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.^{[118][119][120]} In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region by neutralising the LTTE.^[121] The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka.^[122] As their efforts did not become successful, IPKF was called back in 1990.^[123] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.^[105]

Sri Lanka was affected by the devastating 2004 Asian tsunami, which left at least 35,000 people dead.^[124] From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held 4 rounds of peace-talks, none of them helping a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.^[105] In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, and re-established control of the entire country under the Sri Lankan Government.^[125][126] The 26 year war caused 60,000 to 100,000 deaths.^[127][128] U.N Secretary General's experts panel report had said that at least 40,000 Tamil civilians could have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war.^[129] Following the LTTE's defeat, Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution.^[130][131] The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.^[132][133] According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.^[134] In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009.^[135][136] Sri Lanka, emerging after a 26 year war, has become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.^[18][137]

Geography[link]

Topographic map of Sri Lanka

The island of Sri Lanka lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.^[138] It is positioned in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10°N, and longitudes 79° and 82°E.^[139] Sri Lanka is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. According to the Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.^[140] It was reportedly passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel.^[141][142]

A view of Sripada from Maskeliya

The island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from about 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately 33 °C (91.4 °F) in other low-altitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (57.2 °F) to 18 °C (64.4 °F).^[143]

Rainfall pattern of the country is influenced by Monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 mm (47 in) and 1,900 mm (75 in) of rain annually.^[144] The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 mm (31 in) to 1,200 mm (47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.^[145]

The longest of the 103 rivers in the country is Mahaweli River, covering a distance of 335 kilometres (208 mi).^[146] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls, having a height of 10 meters or more. The highest one is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).^[147] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km long.^[148] It claims to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles. This is approximately 6.7 times the country's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs, shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.^[149] Sri Lanka inherits 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons too.^[148] Country's mangrove ecosystem which spans over 7,000 hectares, played a vital role in buffering the force in the waves of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.^[150] The island is rich with minerals such as Ilmenite, Feldspar, Graphite, Silica, Kaolin, Mica and Thorium.^[151][152] Existence of Petroleum in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and extraction attempts are underway.^[153]

Flora and fauna[link]

The Sri Lankan Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sri Lanka. According to the 2011 elephant census, the country is home to at least 5879 elephants.^[154]

Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world.^[155] Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity per 10,000 square km in Asia.^[156] Remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List), are endemic.^[157] Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and anteaters.^[158]

Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.^[159]

The Sri Lankan Leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri Lanka.

The Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National Park, the largest national park in Sri Lanka, in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves, Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.^[160] Out of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive Red-faced Malkoha, Green-billed Coucal and Sri Lanka Blue Magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Out of the 211 woody trees and lianas so far identified within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings has been estimated to be around 240,000 individuals per hectare.

In addition, Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.^[161] During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km² (730 sq mi) as national parks. However the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had been fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.^[162][163]

Politics[link]

The old parliament building of Sri Lanka, near the Galle Face Green, now the Presidential Secretariat.

Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in South Asia.^[164][165] The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult franchise) in the country.^[166] It was the first time a non-caucasian country within the empires of Western Europe was given one man, one vote and the power to control domestic affairs. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, for the Ceylon State Council.^[164] Sir D. B. Jayatilaka was elected as the Leader of the House.^[167] In 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for Independence was fought on "constitutionalist" lines under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake.^[168] The draft constitution was enacted in the same year and Senanayake was appointed as the Prime Minister from the parliamentary election in 1947. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and Independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.^[166]

Current politics in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).^[169] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.^[170] Out of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935 is the oldest.^[171] UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was considered to be the largest single political party until recently.^[172] It is the only political group which had a representation in all parliaments since the independence.^[172] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration, before he left the UNP in July 1951.^[173] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.^[173] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of state.^[174]

G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,^[175] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. As an objection to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) aka Federal Party. It was the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next 2 decades.^[176] Federal party advocated a more aggressive stance vis-à-vis the Sinhalese.^[177] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, these parties created a common front, the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Tamil National Alliance, formed in October 2001 is the current successor of these Tamil political parties which had undergone much turbulences as Tamil militants' rise to power in late 1970s.^[177][178] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist-Leninist political party, founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as the 3rd force in the current political context.^[179] It endorses radical leftist policies, with respect to the traditionalist leftist politics of LSSP and Communist Party.^[177] Founded in 1981, Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.^[180]

Government[link]

National Symbols of Sri Lanka[181][182]
Flag	Lion Flag
Emblem	Gold Lion Passant
Anthem	Sri Lanka Matha
Butterfly	Troides darsius
Bird	Sri Lanka Junglefowl
Flower	Red and Blue Water Lily
Tree	Ceylon Ironwood (Nā)
Game	Volleyball

Sri Lanka is a democratic, socialist republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.^[183] It constitutes a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of Sri Lanka. Most provisions of the Constitution of Sri Lanka can be amended by a two-thirds majority in Parliament of Sri Lanka. However, the amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval at a nation-wide referendum.

The Sri Lankan government has 3 branches:

• Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term.^[184] In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the parliament. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliament.^[185] President is immune from legal proceedings while in office in respect of any acts done or omitted to be done by him either in his official or private capacity.^[186] With the 18th amendment to the constitution in 2010, the President has no term limit, which previously stood at 2.^[187]

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo

• Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka, is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 by proportional representation.^[188] Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.^[189] President's deputy, the Prime Minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.

• Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record,^[189] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. Its highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.^[190] The Criminal law is almost entirely based on British law. Basic Civil law relates to the Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.^[191] Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai and the Sharia law too are followed on special cases.^[192] The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.

Administrative divisions[link]

Bay of Bengal

Palk Strait

Northern Province

Gulf of
Mannar

North Central Province

North Western
Province

Eastern
Province

Central
Province

Uva Province

Western
Province

Sabaragamuwa
Province

Southern Province

Indian Ocean

For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces^[193] and 25 districts.^[194]

Provinces

Provinces (Sinhala: පළාතTamil: மாகாணம்) have existed in Sri Lanka since the 19th century. But they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka.^[195] The provincial council is an autonomous body and is not under any Ministry. It undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by the Central Government Ministries, Departments, Corporations and Statutory Authorities.^[195] But importantly, land and police authorities are not given to provincial councils in practice.^[196][197] Between 1988 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.^[198][199] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:

Districts and local authorities

Sri Lanka is also divided into 25 districts (Sinhala: දිස්ත්‍රි‌ක්‌ක sing. දිස්ත්‍රික්කයTamil: மாவட்டம்).^[200] Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these in turn, to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions.^[201] The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa and in Tamil as Māwaddam. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. The Government Agent, who is known as District Secretary, administers a district.

There are 3 other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha (aka Pradesha Sabhai, 256).^[202] Local authorities were originally based on the feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as 'D.R.O. divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'.^[203] Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. divisions'. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a 'Divisional Secretary'.