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Mongoloid^[1] is a term sometimes used by forensic anthropologists and physical anthropologists to refer to populations that share certain phenotypic traits such as epicanthic fold and shovel-shaped incisors and other physical traits common in East Asia, Southeast Asia, North Asia, Central Asia, the Americas and the Arctic. The word is formed by the base word "Mongol" and the suffix "-oid" which means "resembling". It was introduced by early Racial science primarily to describe various central and east Asian populations, one of the proposed three major races of human kind. Since the concept of race has been largely abandoned as a useful way to describe human biological variation the terms have become mostly obsolete.^[2] Although especially forensic anthropologists continue to use them in some contexts, outside of physical anthropology the term mongoloid is now often considered derogatory.^{[3] [4]}

Populations included[link]

The term "Mongoloid" comes from the Mongol people, who invaded much of Eurasia during the 13th century, establishing the Mongol Empire. The first usage of the term Mongolian race was by Christoph Meiners in a "binary racial scheme". His "two races" were labeled "Tartar-Caucasians", which comprised Celtic and Slavic groups, and "Mongolians". ^[5]

Johann Blumenbach said he borrowed the term Mongolian from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river Amoor [Amur], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".^[6]

In 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the "Australian" as a "secondary race" (subrace) of the "principal race" of "Mongolian".^[7] In the nineteenth century Georges Cuvier used the term Mongolian again as a racial classification, but additionally included American Indians under the term.^[8] Arthur de Gobineau defined the extent of the "Mongolian" race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches."^[9][10] Later, Thomas Huxley used the term Mongoloid and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.^[11] Other nomenclatures were proposed, such as Mesochroi (middle color),^[12] but Mongoloid was widely adopted.

In 1882 Augustus Henry Keane said the "Mongolic type" included the following "races": "Tibetans", "Burmese", "Tai", "Koreans", "Japanese", "Lu-Chu", "Finno-Tatars" and "Malays".^[13] Keane said the following peoples are "mixed Mongolo-Caucasic varieties": "Anatolian Turks", "Uzbegs", and "Tajiks of Turkestan".^[13] Keane said the "Kazaks" are "intermediate" between the "Túrki" and "Mongolian" races.^[13] Keane said the "Mongolian race" is "best represented" by the "Buriats".^[13]

In 1940, anthropologist Franz Boas included the "American race" as part of the "Mongoloid race" of which he mentioned the "Aztecs of Mexico" and the "Maya of Yucatan".^[14] Boas also said that, out of the "races of the Old World", the "American native" had features most similar to the "east Asiatic".^[14]

In 1983, Douglas J. Futuyma, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan, said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "many anthropologists" who consider them "distinct races".^[15]

In 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences at the California State University at Chico,^[16] separately listed the "Mongoloid" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical variants of the same species known as races... we recognize several races Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian".^[17]

In 1998, Jack D. Forbes, professor of Native American Studies and Anthropology at the University of California, Davis, said that the racial type of the indigenous people of the Americas "does not fall into" the "Mongoloid" racial category.^[18] Forbes said that due to the various physical traits indigenous Americans exhibit, some with "head shapes which seem hardly distinct from many Europeans", indigenous Americans must have either been formed from a mixture of "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races or they descend from the ancestral, common type of both "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races.^[18]

Markku Niskanen (2002) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oulu, Finland, disputes past claims that "Finno-Ugrians" are "Mongoloid".^[19] Niskanen claims that the reality is that "Baltic-Finns", "Saami", "Volga-Finns", "Permian-Finns" and "Hungarians" are "phenotypically and genetically typical Europeans".^[19] Niskanen claims the "strong cheekbones" and "flaring zygomatic arches" considered to be evidence that "Finno-Ugrians" are "Mongoloid" are, in actuality, inherited from "Cro-Magnons".^[19] Furthermore, Niskanen refutes the claim that Finno-Ugrians have "Mongoloid-looking" "facial flatness" by showing "Finns" and "Saami" facial flatness is "close to the European average" and claiming "Finns" and "Saami" both "possess North European craniofacial configuration".^[19] In terms of genetics, Niskanen claims Finns are genetically close to their "Germanic-speaking neighbors (the Swedes, Germans, and Norwegians)" although he admits Finns are "somewhat less [genetically] distant" to the "Japanese" and "Mongols" than "Europeans are on average".^[19] Niskanen claims that the "Y-chromosomal DNA" supposedly showing "eastern paternal genetic contribution" in the gene pools of Finno-Ugrians, since it is "found most commonly among Asians", is, in actuality, a "genetic marker" of "late Ice Age population expansion".^[19] Niskanen disputes the claim that the commonality of a Uralic language means Finno-Ugrians are Mongoloid like the Samoyeds, arguing that the "Samoyeds" speak a "Uralic" language due to them having been "linguistically assimilated"^[19] and arguing that the genetic evidence shows "Finno-Ugrians" and "Samoyeds" "diverged a very long time ago".^[19]

In contrast to Niskanen, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University (1994) said that the "Saame" were shown by "genetic analysis" to be "47.5%" "Mongoloid" and "52.5%" "Caucasoid" with a "standard error" of "± 4.9%".^[20] Cavalli-Sforza said the Saami's Caucasoid side of their DNA came "probably from Scandinavia" while their "Mongoloid" side is of "Siberian origin".^[21]

In 1995, Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said "all" "Asian populations" are "grouped under the name "Mongoloid".^[22]

In 2004, Hitoshi Chiba (千葉仁志, Chiba Hitoshi^?) et al. of the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan, performed "particle agglutination tests for serum HTLV-I antibody" on 400 ethnic "Saami" to determine if they had the "HTLV-I antibody" that would link them to "Asiatic Mongoloids" and they found that the Saami were lacking this antibody.^[23] Chiba et al. concluded that if Saami were related to the "Asiatic Mongoloid", the relationship would either have to involve "Neolithic rather than Upper Paleolithic populations" or the Saami would have to have been mixed with a group that lacked the antibody.^[23]

Subraces[link]

In 1900, Joseph Deniker said, the "Mongol race admits two varieties or subraces: Tunguse or Northern Mongolian... and Southern Mongolian".^[7]

In the 1944 edition of Rand McNally's World Atlas, the three subraces of the Mongolian race are depicted as being the Mongolian race proper, the Malayan race, and the American Indian race. ^[24]

Archaeologist Peter Bellwood claims that the "vast majority" of people in Southeast Asia, the region he calls the "clinal Mongoloid-Australoid zone", are "Southern Mongoloids" but have a "high degree" of Australoid admixture.^[25]

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said that there are "Neo-Mongoloids" and "Paleo-Mongoloids".^[26] Akazawa said Neo-Mongoloids have "extreme Mongoloid, cold-adapted features" and they include the Chinese, Buryats, Eskimo and Chukchi.^[26] In contrast, Akazawa said Paleo-Mongoloids are "less Mongoloid" and less "cold-adapted".^[26] He said Burmese, Filipinos, Polynesians, Jōmon and the indigenous peoples of the Americas were Paleo-Mongoloid.^[26]

History of the concept[link]

Map by William White Howells.^[27]

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Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–90).

Caucasoid race   Aryan   Semitic   Hamitic Negroid race   black African   Hottentot   Melanesian   Negrito   Australoid Uncertain   Dravida & Sinhalese

Mongoloid race   North Mongol   Chinese & Indochinese   Japanese & Korean   Tibetan   Malay   Polynesian   Maori   Micronesian   Eskimo   American

The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in De generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind, University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and South East Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories.

In 1865, biologist Thomas Huxley presented the views of polygenesists (Huxley was not one of them) as "some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs."^[28]

In 1972, physical anthropologist Carleton Coon said, "From a hyborean [sic] group there evolved, in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized Mongoloid family."^[29] In 1962, Coon believed that the Mongoloid "subspecies" existed "during most of the Pleistocene, from 500,000 to 10,000 years ago".^[30] According to Coon, the Mongoloid race had not completed its "invasions and expansions" into Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands until "[t]oward the end of the Pleistocene".^[30] By this time Coon hypothesis that the Mongoloid race had become "sapien".^[30]

Paleo-anthropologist Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".^[31]

Mohinder Kumar Bhasin (Hindi: महेंद्र कुमार भसीन) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Delhi suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids."^[32]

Douglas J. Futuyma, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan, said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".^[15]

In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said Mongoloids originated in Xinjiang during the "Ice Age".^[26]

In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the University of New England evaluated three sites with early East Asian modern human skeletal remains (Liujiang, Liuzhou, Guangxi, China; Shandingdong Man of (but not Peking Man) Zhoukoudian's Upper Cave; and Minatogawa in Okinawa) dated to between 10,175 to 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid"; this would make Neolithic sites 5500 to 7000 years ago (e.g. Banpo) the oldest known Mongoloid remains in East Asia, younger than some in the Americas. He concludes that the origin of the Mongoloid phenotype remains unknown, and could even lie in the New World.^[33]

The human fossil remains of the Ordos Man from Salawusu site in Inner Mongolia dated between 50,000 and 35,000 BCE show strong Mongoloid features, specifically on the fore-tooth and occipital bone.^[34]

In 2006, Yali Xue (Chinese: 薛亞黎) et al. of the genome research Sanger Institute conducted a study of linkage disequilibrium that found that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 thousand years ago, before the last glacial maximum at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant megafauna of the "Mammoth Steppe", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as tubers.^[35]

In 2008, Juan Frijolé Reixach professor of cultural anthropology at the University of Barcelona showcased the racial classification systems of Carleton S. Coon and H.V. Vallois in his 2008 book series about human races.^[36] Reixach said Vallois said the "Yellow Race" included the following groups: Siberian, North Mongoloid, Central Mongoloid, South Mongoloid, Indonesian, Polynesian, Eskimo and Amerindian.^[36]

Features[link]

See also: Asian features and Epicanthal fold

"Mongoloid" eye according to anthropologist Joseph Deniker

Louis R. Sullivan Curator of Physical Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History has identified these three men as "full-blood Samoan" men

This is a recreation of the craniometric dendogram entitled "Cranial Cluster 28 Groups" in a book by anthropologist William White Howells, professor of anthropology at Harvard University who said "Indians" or "American populations" are closest in "studies of cranial distance" to "Europeans" as seen above and that among "Indians" or "American populations", only "Eskimos" are "strongly Mongoloid in form".^[27] See Also: Kennewick man

In 2004, forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkenson said Mongoloids are characterized by "absent browridges".^[37] R.G. Ong of the Department of Oral Radiology, Perth Dental Hospital, Australia found that "Mongoloid" subjects had about "20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible" when compared to "Caucasoid" subjects.^[38]

Louis R. Sullivan Curator of Physical Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, said "Samoans" are of the "Mongoloid race" but their features represent a "slightly different evolution since the time of their separation and isolation from their parental stock" or a "retention" of features that have been lost in other "Mongoloid types".^[39] Sullivan said the "wavy" and "wooly" hair of the "Samoan" is one such retention compared to the "stiff, coarse" hair that typifies the "Mongoloid".^[39] Sullivan lists most of the characteristics of the "Samoan" as having "Mongoloid" "affinities" such as: "skin color", "hair color", "eye color", "conjuctiva", "amount of beard", "hair on chest", "nasal bridge", "nostrils", "lips", "face width", "biogonial width", "cephalo-facial index", "nasal height", "ear height" and "chin".^[39]

Dr. Rukang Wu (Chinese: 吴汝康) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica, China, said "Mongoloid features" are a "mesocranic" skull, "fairly large and protruding" "cheekbones", "nasal bones are flat and broad", "nasal bridge is slightly concave" without "depression in the nasion", "the lower borders of the piriform aperature are not sharp but guttered", "prenasal fossae are shallow", small "anterior nasal spine", trace amounts of "canine fossae" and "moderate" "alveolar prognathism".^[40]

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said the "Paleoindian" has "proto-Mongoloid" "morphology" such as "pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth".^[22]

In 1882, Irish anthropologist Augustus Henry Keane who was professor at University College, London, said that the features of the "Japanese" that "attest their relationship with the great Mongolian family" are "slightly oblique eyes", "small nose", "black lank hair", "sparse beard", "salient cheek-bones" and "yellowish complexion".^[13]

Shunsuke Yuzuriha (Japanese:杠俊介) et al. of Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan, said the "Mongoloid eyelid" is characterized by "puffiness" of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the orbital septum", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and "narrowness of the palpebral fissure".^[41]

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania said the "Mongoloid racial type" is distinguished by "forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones", "comparatively flat faces", "large circular orbits", "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", "larger, more gracile braincase", "broader skull", "broader face" and "flatter roof of the nose".^[42]

Akazawa said Mongoloid skin has "thick skin cuticle" and an abundance of "carotene (yellow pigment)".^[26] Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said "Mongoloid males" have "little or no facial or body hair".^[43] Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, "blue-black "and weighs the most out of the races.^[44] Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri and Oliver H. Duggins of the Department of Anatomy Washington University said the "size of the average Mongoloid hair" is 0.0051 square millimetres (7.9×10⁻⁶ sq in) based on samples from "Chinese", "North and South American Indians", "Eskimos" and "Thais".^[45] Daniel Hrdy of the Department of Anthropology at Harvard University said that "Mongoloid" hair whether it be "Sioux," "Ifugao" or "Japanese" has the thickest diameter out of all human hair.^[46] Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said Mongoloids evolved hairlessness to keep clean while wearing heavy garments for months without bathing during the Ice Age.^[26]

In 1996, Rebecca Haydenblit of the Hominid Evolutionary Biology Research Group at Cambridge University did a study on the dentition of four pre-Columbian Mesoamerican populations and compared their data to "other Mongoloid populations".^[47] She found that "Tlatilco", "Cuicuilco", "Monte Albán" and "Cholula" populations followed an overall "Sundadont" dental pattern "characteristic of Southeast Asia" rather than a "Sinodont" dental pattern "characteristic of Northeast Asia".^[47]

Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the University of Tulsa said the traits of the "Mongoloid" skull are: "long" and "broad" skulls of intermediate "height", "arched" "sagittal contour", "very wide" "facial contour", "high" "face height", "rounded" "orbital opening", "narrow" "nasal opening", "wide, flat" "nasal bones", "sharp" "lower nasal margin", "straight" "facial profile", moderate and white "palate shape", "90%+" "shovel-shaped incisors" and "large, smooth" "general form".^[48]

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said "East Asians" ("Kyushu", "Atayal", "Philippines", "Chinese", "Hokkaido" and "Anyang") and "Amerinds" ("Yaujos", "Santa Cruz" and "Arikara") have the typical "Mongoloid cranial pattern", but other Mongoloids such as "Pacific groups" ("Easter Island", "Mokapu", "Guam" and "Moriori people"), "arctic groups" ("Eskimos" and "Buriats"), "Fuegians" ("Selk’nam", "Ya´mana", "Kawe´skar") and the "Ainu" differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".^[49]

Proto-Mongoloids[link]

This is a Maidu, American Indian man from a publication by anthropologist Franz Boas in 1905.^[50]

This is a Yurok, American Indian, woman from a publication by anthropologist Aleš Hrdlička in 1906.^[51]

Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons physical features of the "Proto-Mongoloid" were characterized as, "a straight-haired type, medium in complexion, jaw protrusion, nose-breadth, and inclining probably to round-headedness".^[52]

Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Sussex said Kanzō Umehara considered the Ainu and Ryukyuans to have "preserved their proto-Mongoloid traits".^[53]

Mark J. Hudson Professor of Anthropology at Nishikyushu University, Kanzaki, Saga, Japan, said Japan was settled by a "Proto-Mongoloid" population in the "Pleistocene" who became the "Jōmon" and their features can be seen in the "Ainu" and "Okinawan" people.^[54] Hudson said that, later, during the "Yayoi period", the "Neo-Mongoloid" type entered Japan.^[54] Hudson said "genetically" Japanese people are "primarily" Neo-Mongoloid with Proto-Mongoloid "admixture".^[54]

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania said Mongoloid traits emerged from "Transbaikalia", "central and eastern regions of Mongolia", and "several regions of Northern China".^[42] Schurr said that studies of "cranio-facial variation in Mongolia" "suggest" that the "region" of "modern-day" "Mongolians" is the origin of the "Mongoloid racial type".^[42]

Dr. Rukang Wu (Chinese: 吴汝康) of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica, China, said that the remains of "Liukiang human fossils" were an "early type of evolving Mongoloid" that indicated "South China" was the "birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated".^[40]

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said there are two hypotheses on the "origin of Mongoloids".^[22] Lahr said one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in "north Asia" due to the "regional continuity" in this region and this population conforming "best" to the standard "Mongoloid features".^[22] Lahr said the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from "Southeast Asian populations" that "expanded from "Africa to Southeast Asia" during the "first half of the Upper Pleistocene" and then traveled to "Australia-Melanesia" and "East Asia".^[22] Lahr said the "morphology" of the "Paleoindian" is consistent with the "proto-Mongoloid definition".^[22]

Anthropologist Arnold Henry Savage Landor described the Ainu as having deep-set eyes and an eye shape typical of Europeans, with a large and prominent browridge, large ears, hairy and prone to baldness, slightly-flattened hook nose with large and broad nostrils, prominent cheek bones, large mouth and thick lips and a long region from nose to mouth and small chin region.^[55]

Neoteny[link]

Shui-Hsi Miao women (1911)

According to Ashley Montagu who taught anthropology at Princeton University, "The Mongoloid skull has proceeded further than in any other people."^[56] "The Mongoloid skull, whether Chinese or Japanese, has been rather more neotenized than the Caucasoid or European."^[56] "The female skull, it will be noted, is more pedomorphic in all human populations than the male skull."^[56] In Ashley Montagu's list of "[n]eotenous structural traits in which Mongoloids... differ from Caucasoids", Montagu lists "Larger brain, larger braincase, broader skull, broader face, flat roof of the nose, inner eye fold, more protuberant eyes, lack of brow ridges, greater delicacy of bones, shallow mandibular fossa, small mastoid processes, stocky build, persistence of thymus gland into adult life, persistence of juvenile form of zygomatic muscle, persistence of juvenile form of superior lip muscle, later eruption of full dentition (except second and third molars), less hairy, fewer sweat glands, fewer hairs per square centimeter [and] long torso".^[56]

According to Clive Bromhall who has a Ph.D. in zoology from Oxford University, "Mongoloid races are explained in terms of being the most extreme pedomorphic humans."^[57]

Richard Grossinger, professor of anthropology at University of Maine at Portland, said "The intuition that advanced human development was pedomorphic rather than recapitulationary and accelerated was disturbing to many Eurocentric nineteenth century anthropologists."^[58] "If juvenilization was the characteristic for advanced status, then it was clear that the Mongoloid races were more deeply fetalized in most respects and thus capable of the greatest development."^[58]

Java women (1902)

Stephen Oppenheimer of the Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology at Oxford University said "An interesting hypothesis put forward by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould many years ago was that the package of the Mongoloid anatomical changes could be explained by the phenomenon of neoteny, whereby an infantile or childlike body form is preserved in adult life. Neoteny in hominids is still one of the simplest explanations of how we developed a disproportionately large brain so rapidly over the past few million years. The relatively large brain and the forward rotation of the skull on the spinal column, and body hair loss, both characteristic of humans, are found in foetal chimps. Gould suggested a mild intensification of neoteny in Mongoloids, in whom it has been given the name pedomorphy. Such a mechanism is likely to involve only a few controller genes and could therefore happen over a relatively short evolutionary period. It would also explain how the counterintuitive retrousse [turned up at the end] nose and relative loss of facial hair got into the package."^[59] "[D]ecrease unnecessary muscle bulk, less tooth mass, thinner bones and smaller physical size; ...this follows the selective adaptive model of Mongoloid evolution."^[59]

Cold adaption[link]

"Eskimo Group" by photographer William Dinwiddie (1894)

Eskimo women and one Eskimo man (1922)^[60]

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto Japan, said Mongoloid features are an adaption to the "cold" of the "Mammoth Steppe".^[26] He mentions the "Lewis waves" of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral capillaries in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold.^[26] He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface to mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptions to cold.^[26]

Takasaki Yuji (Japanese:高崎裕治) of Akita University, Japan,^[61] in the Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science said, "Mongoloid ancestors had evolved over time in cold environments" and the short limbs of the Mongoloid was due to "Allen's ecological rule".^[62]

Professor of anthropology at Trent University Ontario, Canada, Joseph K. So (Chinese: 蘇) (198) cited a study by J. T. Steegman (1965) that the "so-called" "cold-adapted Mongoloid face" has been shown in an experiment, using Japanese and European subjects, to not offer greater protection to frostbite.^[63] In explaining Mongoloid cold-adaptiveness, So (蘇) cites the work of W. L. Hylander (1977) where Hylander said that in the Eskimo, for example, the reduction of the brow ridge and flatness of the face is due to "internal structural configurations" that are "cold adapted" in the sense that they produce a large vertical bite force necessary to chew frozen seal meat.^[63]

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the "high and narrow nose of Eskimos" and "Neanderthals" is an "adaption to a cold and dry environment", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".^[49]

A.T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at State University of New York investigated the assumption that Allen's rule caused the structural configuration of the "Arctic Mongoloid" face.^[64] Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of rats in the cold.^[64] Steegman found the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold.^[64] Steegman paralleled his findings with the "Arctic Mongoloids", particularly the "Eskimo" and "Aleut," by claiming these "Arctic Mongoloids" have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow nasal passage, relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.^[64]

Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at Oregon State University noted that the indigenous people of the Americas have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes.^[65] Beals explanation is that these peoples have not yet evolved the appropriate cephalic index for their climate, being, comparatively, only recently descended from the cold-adapted "Arctic Mongoloid".^[65]

Genetic research[link]

This genetic distance map made in 2002 is an estimate of 18 world human groups by a neighbour-joining method based on 23 kinds of genetic information. It was made by Saitou Naruya (Japanese:斎藤成也) professor at the (Japanese) National Institute for Genetics.^[67] Saitou et al. said the Pan-Mongoloid^{[disambiguation needed ]} grouping includes the Australoid, Amerindian and Asian Mongoloid groups.^[68]

This is a genetic distance map made by geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University that shows the "Mongoloid group" among others.^[20]

This map is a reproduction of a map made by Naruya Saitou (Japanese: 斎藤成也) professor at the (Japanese) National Institute for Genetics. It shows the human migration path out of Africa.^[67] Saitou et al. said the Pan-Mongoloid^{[disambiguation needed ]} grouping includes the Australoid, Amerindian and Asian Mongoloid groups.^[68]

In 1994, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University divided a principal coordinant map of 42 Asian populations into three groupings: Asian Caucasoids, Northeast and East Asian and Southeast Asian.^[20] Along Southeast Asia, Cavalli-Sforza said there is a separation between northern and southern Mongoloids.^[20] To the West, Cavalli-Sforza said there is an approximate boundary between Caucasoids and Mongoloids from the Urals to the eastern part of India.^[20] Along this boundary there has been hybridization, causing a Caucasoid-Mongoloid gradient.^[20] More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the Northeast and East Asian cluster were the Koryak, Chukchi, Reindeer Chukchi, Nganasan Samoyed, N. Tungus, Nentsy, N. Chinese, Tibetan, Bhutanese, Ainu, Mongol, Japanese and Korean.^[20] Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the Southeast Asian cluster were the Indonesian, Malaysian, Taiwan aborigines, Viet Muong, Thai, Philippine, S. Chinese, Balinese and Gurkha.^[20] Geneticist Cavalli-Sforza LL and Institute of Genetics Chinese Academy of Sciences shows that S. Chinese are also an intermediate between the N. Chinese and Southeast Asian.^[69][70] Moving off the coast, Cavalli-Sforza said there are Australoid and Negrito peoples, but also that the Polynesians are a diluted Mongoloid type, the Negritos of the Andaman Islands and Semang Negritos have a high frequency of the Mongoloid inner epicanthic eyefold and that among Australoid Micronesians some individuals look more Mongoloid.^[20] Moving to the Americas, Cavalli-Sforza said the Eskimos and Aleuts derived from the Siberian Mongoloids and came after the American Indians who are both Mongoloid in general and uniform racially.^[20]

In 2008, biochemist Boris Abramovich Malyarchuk (Russian: Борис Абрамович Малярчук) et al. of the Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Magadan, Russia, used a sample (n=279) of Czech individuals to determine the frequency of Mongoloid mtDNA lineages.^[71] Malyarchuk found Czech mtDNA lineages were typical of Slavic populations with 1.8% Mongoloid mtDNA lineage.^[71] Malyarchuk added that Slavic populations almost always contain Mongoloid mtDNA lineage.^[71] Malyarchuk said the Mongoloid component of Slavic people was partially added before the split of Balto-Slavics in 2,000-3,000 BCE with additional Mongoloid mixture occurring among Slavics in the last 4,000 years.^[71] Malyarchuk said the Russian population was developed by the assimilation of the indigenous pre-Slavic population of Eastern Europe by true Slavs with additional assimilation of Finno-Ugric populations and long-lasting interactions with the populations of Siberia and Central Asia.^[71] Malyarchuk said that other Slavs Mongoloid component was increased during the waves of migration from steppe populations (Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Mongols), especially the decay of the Avar Khaganate.^[71]

In 1999, Vladimir Orekhov (Russian: Владимир Орехов) et al. of the Institute of General Genetics, Moscow, Russia, found that there is evidence for influence of Mongoloid populations on the ethnogenesis of Russians due to the presence of mytotypes 26, 33, and 47 of Mongoloid haplogroup C in the Russian population as well as evidence for Finno-Ugric populations in the ethnogenesis of Eastern Slavs due to the presence of Finno-Ugric mitotype (mitotype 31) in the Russian population, but he found that that Russian mtDNA pools differed by Russian regions with Russians of the Eastern-European plain close to European ethnic groups.^[72]

Considering Y-DNA, in 2010 Alexander Shtrunov (Russian: Александр Штрунов) who published in the Russian Journal of Genetic Genealogy said the introduction of haplogroup N1c (M46+) in Eastern Europe was spread by people with a Uraloid appearance with both Mongoloid and Caucasoid features in the Mesolithic period, forming the gradual appearance of mixed anthropological types with the pre-existing Caucasoid Paleo-European population of Northern Europe who were carriers of the Nordic haplogroup I1a (I1 (M253+)).^[73]

Atsushi Tajima (Japanese: 田嶋敦) et al. of Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan, found evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining Y chromosome lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Southeast Asians, and Japanese.^[74]

In 1997, Masatoshi Nei (Japanese: 根井正利), Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University, said clusters of genetic distances conform to the customary three major races of man, namely, Negroids, Caucasoids and Mongoloids.^[75] Moreover, Nei said that Mongoloid populations irrespective of north and south show small genetic distances from any populations in Oceania and Americas.^[75] Nei said the Northern Mongoloid included the Evens, Buryat, Hui, Mongolian, Tibetan, Japanese, Ainu, Northern Chinese and Korean.^[75] In the Southern Mongoloid, Nei included the Dong, Zhuang, Southern Chinese, Taiwanese-aborigines, Thai, Indonesian and Filipino.^[75] However Geneticist Cavalli-Sforza shows that S. Chinese are also an intermediate between the Northern Mongoloid and Southern Mongoloid.^[69] Based on genetic data, Nei said the Amerindians descend from two populations: an original Northeast Asians migration which became the Paleo-Indian and a later migration which became both the Na-Dene and Eskimos.^[75] Based on the genetic data, Nei said Southeast Asian Mongoloids are closer to the Micronesian and Polynesian than to the Papuan and Australian.^[75] In 1993, Nei said the Mongoloids were contained within a larger genetic grouping called the Greater Asians or Greater Mongoloids^[75] which also included Pacific Islanders and Australopapuans.^[76] In the Australopapuan grouping, Nei included Dravidians, Andamanese, Australian, Papuan and Philippine Negritos.^[76] Since Nei found Australopapuans were most closely related to East Asians, Nei offered an explanation for their peculiar traits. Nei rejected the hypothesis that Australopapuans have traits of black Africans due to convergent-evolution, since he estimated it would have taken far longer for them to have re-evolved frizzled-hair.^[76] Nei supported the other hypothesis put forward by Chris B. Stringer of the Paleontology Department of the National History Museum^{[disambiguation needed ]} that there were two populations and that the original African population had absorbed most of its gene pool from the Mongoloid group.^[76]

Satoshi Horai (Japanese: 宝来聡) of the Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizouka, Japan, said phylogenetic analysis indicated that the there are two distinct groups of Mongoloids - one which early on diverged from Negroids and another that diverged from Caucasoids later.^[77] Horai said Mongoloid distribution corresponds to North and South America, Oceania, Southeast Asia, east Asia, and Siberia.^[77]

A study conducted by the HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 used principal components analysis, which makes no prior population assumptions, on genetic data sampled from a large number of points across Asia. They found that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations. It was noted that genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography.^[78]

In 2010, Sung-Soo Hung et al. (Korean:윤승수) of the Department of Biology at Seoul National University found that Mongoloids were relatively homogenous in 9-bp deletion type of the mtDNA COM/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region.^[79]

Criticism[link]

Dr. George W. Gill is a professor of anthropology at the University of Wyoming and Dennis O'Neil professor of anthropology at Palomar College said that "Mongoloid" concept originated with a now disputed typological method of racial classification.^[80][81] All the -oid racial terms (e.g. Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid, etc.) are now often controversial in both technical and non-technical contexts and may sometimes give offense no matter how they are used.^[82]

According to Ward O. Conner who wrote a book about John Langson Down, since people with Down syndrome may have epicanthic folds, Down syndrome was widely called "Mongol" or "Mongoloid Idiocy".^[83] John Langdon Down, for whom the syndrome was named, said in his book Observations on the Ethnic Classification of Idiots (1866) that the Mongol-like features represented an evolutionary degeneration when manifested in Caucasoids.^{[citation needed]} In slang usage the term came to be used as an insult. A shortened version of the term, mong or mongol, is also used in the United Kingdom.^[84]

See also[link]

Look up mongoloid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Asian people
• Craniofacial anthropometry
• Eurasian (mixed ancestry)

References[link]

Bruce Conner (November 18, 1933 – July 7, 2008) was an American artist renowned for his work in assemblage, film, drawing, sculpture, painting, collage, and photography, among other disciplines.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Born in McPherson, Kansas, Conner was raised in Wichita, Kansas, attended Wichita University (now Wichita State), and received his B.F.A in Art at Nebraska University in 1956. Conner then received a scholarship to the Brooklyn Museum Art School, where he studied for a semester. He then attended the University of Colorado on scholarship; also there was Jean Sandstedt, whom he had met at Nebraska and who would become his wife. On September 30, 1957, the two married and immediately flew to San Francisco. There, Conner quickly assimilated into the city's famous Beat community and founded the Rat Bastard Protective Association.^[1]

Early career (late 1950s / early 1960s)[link]

Conner worked in a variety of mediums from an early age. His first solo gallery show in New York City took place in 1956 and featured paintings. His first solo shows in San Francisco, in 1958 and 1959, featured paintings, drawings, prints, collages, assemblages, and sculpture.

Conner first attracted widespread attention with his moody, nylon-shrouded assemblages, complex amalgams of found objects such as women's stockings, bicycle wheels, broken dolls, fur, fringe, costume jewelry, and candles, often combined with collaged or painted surfaces. Erotically charged and tinged with echoes of both the Surrealist tradition and of San Francisco's Victorian past, these works established Conner as a leading figure within the international assemblage "movement." Generally, these works do not have precise meanings, but some of them suggest what Conner saw as the discarded beauty of modern America, the deforming impact of society on the individual, violence against women, and consumerism. Social commentary and dissension remained a common theme among his later works.

Conner also began making short movies in the late 1950s. Conner’s first and possibly most famous film was entitled A MOVIE (1958). A MOVIE (Conner explicitly titles his movies in all capital letters) was a poverty film in that instead of shooting his own footage Conner used compilations of old newsreels and other old films. He skillfully re-edited that footage, set the visuals to a recording of Ottorino Respighi's Pines of Rome, and created an entertaining and thought-provoking 12 minute film, that while non-narrative has things to say about the experience of watching a movie and the human condition. A MOVIE subsequently (in 1994) was selected for preservation by the United States National Film Registry at the Library of Congress. Conner subsequently made nearly two dozen mostly non-narrative experimental films.

A 1959 exhibition at the Spatsa Gallery in San Francisco involved an early exploration by Conner into the notion of artistic identity. To publicize the show, the gallery printed up and distributed an exhibition announcement in the form of a small printed card with black borders (in the manner of a death announcement) with the text "Works by the Late Bruce Conner."

A work of Conner's titled CHILD—a small human figure sculpted in black wax, mouth agape as if in pain and partially wrapped in nylon stockings, seated in—and partly tied by the stockings to—a small, old wooden child's high chair—literally made headlines when displayed at San Francisco's De Young Museum in December 1959 and January 1960.^[2] A meditation or perhaps comment on the then pending Caryl Chessman execution, the work horrified many. "It's Not Murder, It's Art," the San Francisco Chronicle headlined; its competitor the News-Call Bulletin headlined its article, "The Unliked 'Child'". Today, this powerful sculpture no longer exists. It was in the collection of the New York Museum of Modern Art, which kept it in storage for many years. An attempt to conserve its very fragile wax elements resulted in its disintegration.

A New York City exhibition of assemblages and collage in late 1960 garnered favorable attention in the New York Times, The New Yorker, Art News, and other national publications. Later that year Conner had the first exhibition at the Batman Gallery, in San Francisco; Conner had the entire gallery painted black to show his work, and the show received very favorable reviews locally. Another exhibition in New York in 1961 again received positive notices.

In 1961, Conner completed his second film, COSMIC RAY, a 4 minute, 43 second black-and-white quick edit collage of found footage and film that Conner had shot himself, set to a soundtrack of Ray Charles' "What'd I Say." The movie premiered in 1962; most suggest the film concerns sex and war.

Mid-career (early 1960s to circa 2000)[link]

Conner and his wife moved to Mexico circa 1962, despite the increasing popularity of his work. The two —along with their just born son— returned to USA and were living in Massachusetts in 1963, when John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Conner filmed the television coverage of the event and edited and re-edited the footage with stock footage into another meditation on violence which he titled REPORT. The film was issued several times as it was re-edited.

In 1964, Conner had a show at the Batman Gallery in San Francisco that lasted just three days, with Conner never leaving the gallery. The show was announced only via a small notice in the want ads of the Los Angeles Times. Part of the exhibition is documented in Conner's film VIVIAN.

Also in 1964, Conner decided he would no longer make assemblages, even though it was precisely such work that had brought him the most attention.

According to Conner's friend and fellow film-maker Stan Brakhage in his book Film at Wit's End, Conner was signed into a New York gallery contract in the early 1960s, which stipulated stylistic and personal restraint beyond Conner's freewheeling nature. It is unlikely that Conner would ever sign such a restrictive document. Many send-ups of artistic authorship followed, including a five page piece Conner had published in a major art publication in which Conner's making of a peanut butter, banana, bacon, lettuce, and Swiss cheese sandwich was reported step-by-step in great detail, with numerous photographs, as though it were a work of art. Just before Conner moved to Mexico in 1961, he repainted a worn sign on a road surface so that it read "LOVE."

Conner produced work in a variety of forms from the 1960s forward. He was an active force in the San Francisco counterculture of the mid-1960s as a collaborator in light shows at the legendary Family Dog at the Avalon Ballroom. He also made—using the new-at-the-the-time felt-tip pens—intricate black-and-white mandala-like drawings, many of which he subsequently (in the very early 1970s) lithographed into prints. One of Conner's drawings was used (in boldly colored variations) on the cover of the August, 1967 issue (#9) of the San Francisco Oracle.^[3] He also made collages made from 19th-century engraving images, which he first exhibited as THE DENNIS HOPPER ONE MAN SHOW.

He also completed a number of short films in the mid-1960s, in addition to REPORT and VIVIAN. these include TEN SECOND FILM (1965), an advertisement for the New York Film Festival which the Festival rejected as being "too fast," BREAKAWAY (1966), featuring music sung by and danced to by Toni Basil), THE WHITE ROSE (1967), documenting the removal of fellow artist Jay DeFeo's magnum opus from her San Francisco apartment, with Miles Davis' "Sketches of Spain" as the soundtrack), and LOOKING FOR MUSHROOMS (1967), a three minute color wild ride with music by the Beatles.

During the 1970s Conner focused on drawing and photography, including many photos of the late 1970s West Coast punk rock scene. A 1978 film used Devo's "Mongoloid" as a soundtrack. Conner in the 1970s also created along with photographer Edmund Shea a series of life-size photograms called ANGELS. Conner would pose in front of large pieces of photo paper, which after being exposed to light and then developed produced images of Conner's body in white against a dark background. Conner also began to draw elaborately-folded inkblots.

In the 1980s and 1990s Conner continued to work on collages, including ones using religious imagery, and inkblot drawings that have been shown in numerous exhibitions, including the 1997 Whitney Biennial. Throughout Conner's entire body of work, the recurrence of religious imagery and symbology continues to underscore the essentially visionary nature of his work.^[4]

In 1999, to accompany a traveling exhibition, a major monograph of his work was published by the Walker Art Center, titled 2000 BC: The Bruce Conner Story, Part II. The exhibition, which featured specially built in-gallery screening rooms for Conner's films as well as selected assemblages, felt-tip pen and inkblot drawings, engraving collages, photograms, and conceptual pieces, was seen at the Walker, the Modern Art Museum in Fort Worth, the de Young in San Francisco, and the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles.

Late career (circa 2000 to 2008)[link]

Conner announced his retirement at the time of the "2000 BC" exhibition, but in fact continued to make art until shortly before his death. However, much of this work, including in particular the many inkblot drawings he made, including a series responding to 9/11, were presented using pseudonyms or the name "Anonymous." Conner also made collages from old engravings, and completed (depending on how they are counted) three or four experimental films. He also used computer-based graphics programs to translate older engraving collages into large-sized woven tapestries, and made paper-based prints in that way as well. Various other artistic projects were completed as well, including in the year of his death a large assemblage titled KING.^[5][6] Conner also in late 2007 directed and approved an outdoor installation of a large painting, resulting in what one observer suggested is a final work-in-progress.^[7]

Films[link]

His innovative technique of skillfully montaged shots from pre-existing borrowed or found footage can be seen in his first film A MOVIE (1958). His subsequent films are most often fast-paced collages of found footage or of footage shot by Conner; however, he made numerous films, including most notably CROSSROADS, his 30 plus minute meditation on the atom bomb, that are almost achingly deliberate in their pace. Conner was among the first to use pop music for film sound tracks. His films have inspired generations of filmmakers, and are now considered to be the precursors of the music video genre. When told of his impact on music videos and his status as "the Father of MTV,", Conner would reply, "Not my fault."

Conner's works are often metamedia in nature, offering commentary and critque on the media — especially television and its advertisements — and its effect on American culture and society. His film REPORT (1967) which features repetitive, found footage of the Kennedy assassination paired with a soundtrack of radio broadcasts of the event and consumerist and other imagery — including perhaps most notably the film's final image of a close-up of a "SELL" button — may be the Conner film with the most visceral impact. REPORT "perfectly captures Conner's anger over the commercialization of Kennedy's death" while also examining the media's mythic construction of JFK and Jackie — a hunger for images that "guaranteed that they would be transformed into idols, myths, Gods."^[8]

Conner's collaborations with musicians include Devo (MONGOLOID), Terry Riley (LOOKING FOR MUSHROOMS (long version) and EASTER MORNING), Patrick Gleeson and Terry Riley (CROSSROADS), Brian Eno and David Byrne (AMERICA IS WAITING, MEA CULPA) and three more films with Gleeson (TAKE THE 5:10 TO DREAMLAND, TELEVISION ASSASSINATION, and LUKE). His film of dancer and choreographer Toni Basil, BREAKAWAY (1966), featured a song recorded by Basil.

Prints and tapestries[link]

Conner also continued to work on editioned prints and tapestries during the last 10 years of his life. These works often used digital technology to revisit earlier imagery and themes; for example, his Jacquard tapestry editions, created in collaboration with Donald Farnsworth of Magnolia Editions in Oakland, CA, were translated from digitally manipulated scans of small-scale paper collages, made in the 1990s from engraving illustrations from Bible stories.^[9][10]

Death[link]

Conner, who had twice announced his own death as a conceptual art event or prank,^[11] died on 7 July 2008, and is survived by his wife, American artist Jean Sandstedt Conner, and his son, Robert.

Filmography[link]

• A MOVIE (1958)
• COSMIC RAY (1961)
• VIVIAN (1964)
• TEN SECOND FILM (1965)
• EASTER MORNING RAGA (1966)
• BREAKAWAY (1966)
• REPORT (1963–1967)
• THE WHITE ROSE (1967)
• LOOKING FOR MUSHROOMS (1967)
• PERMIAN STRATA (1969)
• MARILYN TIMES FIVE (1968–1973)
• CROSSROADS (1976)
• VALSE TRISTE (1978)
• TAKE THE 5:10 TO DREAMLAND (1977)
• MONGOLOID (1978)
• MEA CULPA (1981)
• AMERICA IS WAITING (1982)
• TELEVISION ASSASSINATION (1995)
• LOOKING FOR MUSHROOMS (long version, 1996)
• LUKE (2004)
• EVE-RAY-FOREVER (three screen installation) (2006)
• THREE SCREEN RAY (three screen installation) (2006)
• HIS EYE IS ON THE SPARROW (2006)
• EASTER MORNING (2008)

Exhibition[link]

• 2010: Les Rencontres d'Arles festival, France;

Contributions[link]

2008 Life on Mars, the 2008 Carnegie International [1]

Galleries[link]

Bruce Conner is represented by Gallery Paule Anglim in San Francisco, CA.^[12]

Selected bibliography[link]

• Sophie Dannenmüller: "Bruce Conner et les Rats de l'Art", Les Cahiers du Musée national d'art moderne, Editions du Centre Pompidou, Paris, n° 107, avril 2009, p. 52-75. (text in French)
• 2000 BC: The Bruce Conner Story Part II. Exh. cat. edited by Joan Rothfuss. Contributions by Kathy Halbreich, Bruce Jenkins, Peter Boswell. Walker Art Center, Minneapolis 1999.

References[link]