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Chola empire
Early Cholas | Medieval Cholas | Later Cholas

The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period (300 BCE – 200 CE) were one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. Their early capitals were Urayur and Kaveripattinam. Along with Pandyas and Cheras, Chola history goes back to the period where the history is covered with the mists of time.

Although we hear the exploits of a number of Cholas of this period through Sangam literature and later folklore, it is hard to elucidate exact histories with any amount of certainty.

Sources[link]

On the history of Cholas, as in many other subjects of Indian history, we have very little authentic written evidence. Historians during past 150 years have gleaned a great treasury of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions of the imperial cholas from the 10th century CE^{[citation needed]}.

The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81 – 96 CE) and contains precious little information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy has more to tell us about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities.

Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, also recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants.

Cholas also are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms, which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.^[1]

Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the 2nd century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states (‘’Tamiradesasanghatam’’) which had lasted 132 years.^[1]

Chronicles such as the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu recount that Kulakkottan, an early Chola king and descendant of Manu Needhi Cholan, was the restorer of the ruined Koneswaram temple and tank at Trincomalee in 438 CE, the Munneswaram temple of the west coast, and as the royal who settled ancient Vanniyars in the east of the island Eelam.^[2][3]

Early legends[link]

The inscriptions of the Medieval Cholas are replete with legends about the mythical Early Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kavery into existence. There is also the story of the king Manu who sentenced his son to death for having accidentally killed a calf. Mahavamasa portrays King Elara who was defeated by Duttha Gamini (c. 2nd century BCE) as the just king who '..had a bell with a rope attached at the head of his bed, so that all who sought redress might ring it..'. King Shibi who rescued a dove from a hawk by giving his own flesh to the hungry hawk was also part of the early Chola legends. King Shibi was also called Sembiyan, a popular title assumed by a number of Chola kings.

These legends received enormous emphasis in the later Chola period in the long mythical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters of the 10th and 11th centuries. The earliest version of this is found in the Anbil Plates which gives fifteen names before Vijayalaya Cholan including the genuinely historical ones of Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four, and the Kanyakumari Plate runs up to fifty-two. There are other lists gathered from literary works such as Kalingathuparani. No two of these lists agree, although some names and details are common to all.

Cholas in Sangam literature[link]

The earliest Chola kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Sangam literature, written in the period 200 BCE–300 CE.^[4][5] Unfortunately, it has not been possible to piece together an internal chronology of the Sangam works. Due to this, we know of several rulers, but not their chronology. The early Cholas were anxious to connect themselves with the Mahabharata to prove their antiquity, as is evident from the Sangam works. All three kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or involved in feeding both the armies at that legendary war.

Karikala Chola[link]

Karikala Chola (c. 120 CE) stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in Pattinappaalai. Karikala’s father was Ilamcetcenni, a brave king and a hard fighter. 'Karikala' means 'elephant feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire which befell the prince early in his life. Pattinappaalai describes this accident and the enterprising way in which the prince escaped and established himself in the Chola throne. Pattinappalai is a long poem on the then Chola capital Kaveripattinam. This work also describes the numerous battles Karikala fought against the other two Tamil kings in one of which the Chera king was disgraced (received a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was formed against him and established hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras.

Kallanai / Grand Anicut built by Karikala Cholan, on the River Kaveri, near Tiruchirappalli

In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks, Grand Anicut, of the Kaveri River with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam.

Nalankilli and Nedunkilli[link]

The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola chieftains Nalankilli and Nedunkilli. Nedunkilli shut himself in a fort in Avur, which was being besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli’s younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city.

In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the loser will be a Chola.

Kocengannan[link]

Kalavali by Poygayar mentions the Chola king Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera, sang Kocenganna’s prince in 40 stanzas. The Chola king, pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam, near the Chera capital.

Kocengannan became the subject of many legends in later times and is portrayed as a pious Siva devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river Kaveri.

Social conditions[link]

Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic conditions during the early chola period. The culture is best described as an amalgam of the Dravidian and Aryan. The stories of Mahabharata and Ramayana were well known to the Tamil people, shown by the claims of some kings to have fed both the opposing army in the Mahabharata War. The claim that Shibi, who gave his own flesh to save a dove, as a Chola is obviously influenced by northern legends.

The land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food. Sangam poems say that in the Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lie, one can produce enough grain to feed seven.

Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war was not uncommon. The sphere of the state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm.

The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the king in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of the later Cholas where the Emperor was kept much away from contact with the lay people. The kings often took the field in person in battles and if the kings was killed or wounded in battle, his army immediately gave up the fight and surrendered.

The trade that flourished between the Chola country and the ancient Roman Empire is given in much detail by Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 75 CE).

See also[link]

• Legendary early Chola kings
• Sangam literature
• Kingdom of Chu
  • Chu (state)

Notes[link]

References[link]

Raja Raja Chola I (Tamil: ராஜ ராஜ சோழன்) born Arunmozhi Thevar^[1] (also called as Raja Kesari Varman Raja Raja Devar^[2] and respectfully as Peruvudaiyar), popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE. He established the Chola empire by conquering the kingdoms of southern India expanding the Chola Empire as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Orissa) in the northeast. He fought many battles with the Chalukyas in the north and the Pandyas in the south. By conquering Vengi, Rajaraja laid the foundations for the Later Chola dynasty. He invaded Sri Lanka and started a century-long Chola occupation of the island. He streamlined the administrative system with the division of the country into various districts and by standardising revenue collection through systematic land surveys. Being an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva, he built the magnificent Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as the Brihadeeswarar Temple) in Thanjavur and through it enabled wealth distribution amongst his subjects. His successes enabled his son Rajendra Chola I to extend the empire even further.

Dates[link]

The key dates of Raja Raja are difficult to come by, scholar N Sethuraman, concludes that he was born in circa 947 ACE, was crowned on 18 July 985 and died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka.^[3]

Popular Prince[link]

Rajaraja Chola was born as the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola and Vanavan Maha Devi of the Velir Malayaman dynasty. After a long apprenticeship of an heir apparent, he ascended the throne after the death of Madurandhagan Chola.^[4] During the lifetime of his father Sundara Chola, Arulmozhi had carved a name for himself by his exploits in the battles against the Sinhala and Pandyan armies. Sundara Chola’s eldest son and heir apparent Aditya II was assassinated under unclear circumstances.^[4] madurandhaghan, as the only child of Gandar Adityar, wanted the Chola throne as he felt it was his birthright. After the death of Aditya II, madurandhagan forced Sundara Chola to declare him as their apparent ahead of Arulmozhi.^[4] The Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscriptions say:

"…Though his subjects…entreated Arulmozhi Varman, he…did not desire the kingdom for himself even inwardly ".

This was to say that Raja Raja was very much legally elected through the kind of democratic process followed by Cholas as seen in their Uttiramerur inscription. No other interpretation of the same is correct. Another example of such a process is selection to Pallava throne of Sri Nandi Varman II. In as much as it could very much be possible that the king rejected the offer in order to continue to devote time and energy to build the resources to realise the Cholan military objectives. The assertion seems to be very much true as we see right from the beginning how the king was involved in the Cholan expeditions and also the organised structure of their military. Madhurandhagan made a compromise with Sundara Chola that Madhurandhagan will be succeeded by Arulmozhi and not his own son. The Thiruvalangadu inscription again states:

"Having noticed by the marks (on his body) that Arulmozhi was the very Vishnu, the protector of the three worlds, descended on earth, [madhurandhagan] installed him in the position of yuvaraja (heir apparent) and himself bore the burden of ruling the earth…"

Military conquests[link]

Southern wars[link]

The southern kingdoms of Pandyas, Cheras and the Sinhalas were often allied against the Cholas.^[5] It was the case when Rajaraja came to the throne. Rajaraja's initial campaigns were against the combined Pandya and Chera armies. There is no evidence of any military campaign undertaken by Rajaraja until the eighth year of his reign. During this period he was engaged in organising and augmenting his army and in preparing for military expeditions.^[6]

Kandalur Salai[link]

The first military achievement of Rajaraja’s reign was the campaign in Kerala c. 994 CE. Rajaraja’s early inscriptions use the descriptive ‘Kandalur salai kalamarutta’ (காந்தளுர் சாலைக் களமறுத்த). In this campaign Rajaraja is said to have destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur, which appears to have been situated in the dominions of the Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978–1036 CE).^[6][7] Inscriptions found around Thanjavur show that frequent references are made to the conquest of the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai-nadu (the west coast of South India). Kandalur-Salai, which later inscriptions claim to have belonged to the Chera king, was probably held by the Pandyas when it was conquered by Rajaraja. Some years' fighting apparently was necessary before the conquest could be completed and the conquered country could be sufficiently settled for its administration could be properly organised.^[8] In the war against the Pandyas, Rajaraja seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and the Chola general captured the port of Virinam. To commemorate these conquests Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi-Chola, (the Chola king who wears three crowns – the Chera, Chola and Pandya) and according to tradition the title Raja Raja was conferred on him by serving members of Chidambaram temple of ancient who had also the duty of conducting the swearing in ceremony of chola and pallava princes.

Malai Nadu[link]

In a battle against the Cheras sometime before 1008 CE, Rajaraja captured Udagai in the western hill country. Kalingattuparani, a war poem written during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Chera court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. Rajaraja's son Rajendra was the Chola general leading the army in this battle.^[6] A place named Udagai is mentioned in connection with the conquest of the Pandyas. The Kalingattu-Parani refers to the “storming of Udagai” in the verse, which alludes to the reign of Rajaraja. The Kulottunga-Cholan-ula also mentions the burning of Udagai. This was probably an important stronghold in the Pandya country, which the Chola king captured. The Tamil poem Vikkirama Cholan ula mentions the conquest of Malai Nadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.^[9]

Invasion of Lanka[link]

To eliminate the remaining actor in the triumvirate, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka in 993 CE. The copper-plate inscription mention that Rajaraja’s powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the kingdom of Lanka. Mahinda V was the king of Sinhalas. In 991 CE, Mahinda’s army mutinied with help from mercenaries from Kerala. Mahinda had to seek refuge in the southern region of Rohana. Rajaraja utilised this opportunity and invaded the island. Chola armies occupied the northern half of Lanka and named the dominion ‘Mummudi Chola Mandalam’. Anuradhapura, the 1400-year-old capital of Sinhala kings was destroyed. The destruction was so extensive the city was abandoned. Cholas made the city of Polonnaruwa as their capital and renamed it Jananathamangalam. The choice of this city demonstrates the desire of Rajaraja to conquer the entire island. Rajaraja also built a Temple for Siva in Pollonaruwa.^[9] RajaRajan's desire to bring the whole Lankan island under Cholan empire was never fulfilled and the southern part of the island (Ruhuna) remained independent. Later, king Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.^[10][11]

Northern Wars[link]

Rajaraja also expanded his conquests in the north and northwest. The regions of Gangapadi (Gangawadi), Nolambapadi (Nolambawadi), Tadigaipadi came into Chola possession during Rajaraja.

Mural found in the Brihadeesvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century. The belief that this represents Rajaraja Chola (in the background) and his guru Karuvurar is contested.^[12]

Ganga Wars[link]

Before his 14th year c. 998–999 CE, Rajaraja conquered Gangapadi (Gangawadi) and Nurambapadi (Nolambawadi), which formed part of the present Karnataka State. This conquest was facilitated by the fact the Cholas never lost their hold of the Ganga country from the efforts of Sundara Chola. Nolambas who were the feudatories of Ganga could have turned against their overlords and aided the Cholas to conquer the Gangas, who were the chief bulwark against the Chola armies in the northwest.

The invasion of the Ganga country was a success and the entire Ganga country was under the Chola rule for the next century. The easy success against the Gangas was also due to the disappearance of Rashtrakutas c. 973 CE as they were conquered by the western Chalukyas. From this time, the Chalukyas became the main antagonists of Cholas in the northwest.

Western Chalukya Wars[link]

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola, there were continuous wars with the Western Chalukyas to assert supremacy and there are multiple epigraphic evidences that show that the Cholas were constantly fighting with the Chalukyas or against the vassals of the latter. It is unclear as to why Rajaraja mounted an invasion against Satyasraya. According to historian Eugen Hultzsch the circumstances that led to the war are not mentioned in any of Rajaraja's inscriptions. But we do know that the rulers of these two conquered provinces were originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas.^[13] An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyasraya from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukya Ahvamalla for he describes himself as a bee at the lotus feet of Ahavamalldeva in 1002 A.D. An inscription of Rajaraja asserts that he captured Rattapadi by force. Rajendra led the Chola armies against the Western Chalukyas and would turn Manyakheta, the Chalukyan capital into his own playground. Raja Raja I claims damages worth "seven and a half lakshas from Irattapadi which was evidently the site of war with Satyashraya resulting in victory for Raja Raja I and payment of damages by the Chalukya king. Chalukya kingdom Satyashraya would renege on his promise of agreeing to Chola suzerainty, but would be defeated by Rajendra Chola I when he became king. Irivabedanga Satyasraya partially acknowledges this Chola onslaught in his Hottur (Dharwad) inscription as he screams in pain. In his own words he calls himself the ornament of Chalukya race and the slayer of the Tamil. He identifies his opponent as Rajaraja Nittavinodha Rajendra Vidyadhara, the ornament of the Chola kula Nūrmadi Chola(one hundred times more powerful).^[14] In the same inscription, he accuses Rajendra of having arrived with a force of 900,000 and of having gone on rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the Dharmasastras.^[15] He says that his opponent destroyed the caste (jāti nāsa) of his people. Historians like James Heitzman, Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola and the Chalukya kingdoms, the feeling of otherness and their inability to identify with the other side that degenerated to a level of violence that overthrew the established social order(destruction of caste). They also draw a parallel between this relationship and the enmity between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.^[16] There is also epigrahic evidence of earlier encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas during the reign of Rajaraja Chola. An inscription from the roof of the Gopalakrishna temple at Kaleyur in the Tirumukudalu Narasipur taluk dated in Saka 929 being current, Parabhava, corresponding to 1006 A.D, records that Rajaraja's viceroy Aprameya displayed his valor by slaying the Hoysala minister Naganna and multiple other generals of the Hoysalas like Manjaga, Kalega(or Kali Ganga), Nagavarman, etc.^[17] There is also a similar inscription in the Channapatna taluk that shows Rajaraja crushing the Hoysalas.^[18] Rajaraja evidently attached much importance to his victory over Satyasraya, as he is said to have presented gold flowers to the Rajarajesvara temple on his return from the expedition. At the end of this war, the southern banks of the Tungabadhra river became the frontier between these two empires.

War against Vengi[link]

The cholas in pursuit of their objective of annihilating to ground evil kingdoms" and hence destroy the excessive wickedness of age of Kali had clashed with many kingdoms and one of which was Vengi. Parantaka Chola I who had made extensive conquests had in fact subdued the Deccan kingdom that flourished in this region in 913.C.E. Even in Inscriptions of Sundarachola we find a Chola regiment in Eastern Deccan preparing to invade Orissa. Thus there is no truth in the proposition of "Chola Throne" ties with "Vengi".

Some of Chola Inscriptions of Raja Raja note how during a war against Vengi, the king himself took initiative and killed a certain ruler called Bheema ruling that area because " he felled one of his commanders". Thus even if Cholas had reigned supreme in Eastern Deccan it was certainly a military vision and the small province of Vengi most probably served as a military base for Cholas who frequently sent in expeditions to Orissa and Western Deccan. We know about such base building activities down south in Pandyan country and also near Suchindram and Colombo in Lanka where the Cholas are known to have built naval bases and also " some temples for Lord Vishnu ".

Kalinga conquest[link]

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga must have occurred subsequent to the conquest of Vengi.^[19] Rajendra Chola, as the commander of the Chola forces invaded and defeated the Andhra king Bhima.

Naval Conquests[link]

Detail of the main gopura (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the ‘old islands of the sea numbering 12,000’, the Maldives.^[20]

We have no further details regarding this expedition, however this is a sufficient indication of the abilities of the Chola Navy, which was utilised effectively under Rajendra I. Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Lanka.^[21]

The increasing realisation of the importance of a good Navy and the desire to neutralise the emerging Chera Naval power were probably the reasons for the Kandalur campaign in the early days of Rajaraja’s reign.^[22]

Nagapattinam on the Bay of Bengal was the main port of the Cholas and could have been the navy headquarters.Bay of Bengal called as Chola lake

Thanjavur Temple[link]

Rajaraja’s reign is commemorated by the Siva temple in Thanjavur, called Raajarajeswaram. The temple is now recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, forming part of the Great Living Chola Temples site.

The construction of the temple is said to have been completed on the 275th day of the 25th year of his reign.^[23] After its commemoration the temple and the capital had close business relations with the rest of the country and acted as a centre of both religious and economic activity. Year after year villages from all over the country had to supply men and material for the temple maintenance.^[24]

Administration[link]

Rajaraja Chola's statue at Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur.

From the 23rd to the 29th year of Rajaraja’s rule his dominions enjoyed peace and the king apparently devoted his energies to the task of internal administration. The building of the Rajarajesvara temple in Thanjavur and the various endowments and gifts to it must have occupied a prominent place in the king’s mind during these years.

Rajaraja carried out a revenue and settlement during the final years of his reign. Inscriptions found in the Thanjavur temple bear testimony to the accuracy of this operation. Land as small in extent as 1/52,428,800,000 of a ‘veli’ (a land measure) was measured and assessed to revenue. The revenue survey enabled for the confiscation of lands of the defaulting landlords.^[25]

Rajaraja also perfected the administrative organisation by creating a strong and centralised machinery and by appointing local government authorities. He installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while not curtailing their autonomy.

Military Organisation[link]

Rajaraja created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy which achieved even greater success under his son Rajendra. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant, and shows the spirit with which he treated his soldiers. A number of regiments are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions and it is evident that Rajaraja gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests.

In most of the foregoing names the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or of his son. That these regiments should have been called after the king or his son is indicative of the attachment the Chola king bore towards his army.

It is possible that these royal names were pre-fixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments. To some of these regiments, the management of certain minor shrines of the temple was entrusted and they were expected to provide for the requirements of the shrine. Others among them took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. We are not, however, told to what productive purpose they applied this money. At any rate all these transactions show that the king created in them an interest in the temple he built.

Officials and Feudatories[link]

Rajendra Chola was made co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. He was also the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions. Uttarangudaiyan Kon Vidividangan alias Villavan Muvendavelan was one of the top officers (Perundaram) of Rajaraja. He figures in many of his inscriptions most notably when he and other top officers take a vow to light lamps and make other donations if they escaped from being disgraced during the military operations towards the end of Rajaraja's reign.

Paluvettaraiyars from the region of Thiruchirapalli were closely associated with the Cholas from the time of Parantaka I when he married a Paluvettaraiyar princess, were occupying a high position in the Chola administration. They were apparently enjoying full responsibility and administration of the region of Paluvur. One of the names of these feudal chieftains found in inscriptions were Adigal Paluvettaraiyar Kandan.He built a massive temple in Gangai konda cholapuram a mile stone of chola architecture. Madurantakan Gandaradityan who served in Rajaraja’s court as an important official in the department of temple affairs. He conducted enquiries into temple affairs in various parts of the country, punishing defaulters.

The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Sri Krishnan Raman, the Samantha chief Vallavarayan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Standardised Inscriptions[link]

Example of a typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements in every one of his inscriptions he handed down to posterity some of the important events of his life. As far as we know at present, Rajaraja was the first king of South India to introduce this innovation into his inscriptions. Before his time powerful kings of the Pallava, Pandya and Chola dynasties had reigned in the South, and some of them had made extensive conquests. But none of them seems to have considered leaving a record on stone of his military achievements.

The idea of Rajaraja to add a short account of his military achievements at the beginning of every one of his inscriptions was entirely his own. His action in this respect is all the more laudable because his successors evidently followed his example and have left us more or less complete records of their conquests. But for the historical introductions, which are often found at the beginning of the Tamil inscriptions of Chola, kings the lithic records of the Tamil country would be of very little value, and consequently even the little advance that has been made in elucidating the history of Southern India would be difficult.

An inscription by Rajaraja in Tamil, found in the Mulbagal district of Karnataka, shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:^[26]

ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக் காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை நாடும் கங்கைபாடியும் நுளம்பபாடியும் தடிகை பாடியும் குடமலை நாடும் கொல்லமும் கலிங்கமும் எண்டிசை புகழ்தர ஈழ மண்டலமும் இரட்டபாடி ஏழரை இலக்கமும் திண்டிறல் வென்றி தண்டால் கொண்டதன் பொழில் வளர் ஊழியுள் எல்லா யாண்டிலும் தொழுதகை விளங்கும் யாண்டே செழிஞரை தேசுகொள் ஸ்ரீ்கோவிராஜராஜகேசரி பந்மரான ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ தேவர்

The historical side of Rajaraja’s intellectual nature is further manifested in the order he issued to have all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple engraved on stone. Rajaraja not only was particular about recording his achievements, but also was equally diligent in preserving the records of his predecessors. For instance, an inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi near Thruchi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.

Religious Policy[link]

An ardent follower of Saivism (one of the 4 major streams of Hinduism), Rajaraja was nevertheless tolerant towards other faiths and creeds. He also had several temples for Vishnu constructed. He also encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.

[edit] Tirumurai Compilation

Raja Raja Chola embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Tevaram in his court.^[28] He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple.^[29] It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.^[28][29] The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.^[28][30] Rajaraja thus became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai.^[30] Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.^[30] Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Campantar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book.^[31] The first seven books were later called as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135 CE) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.^[31]

Personal Life and Family[link]

Rajaraja was born Arulmozhi Thevar and was the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola.

Rajaraja Chola's mother, Vaanavan Maadevi, was the daughter of Thirukkovilur king, Malayamaan Thirumudi Kaari.

His elder brother Aditya II was assassinated c. 969 CE. He had great respect for his elder sister Ālvār Sri Parāntakan Sri Kundavai Pirāttiyār or more popularly referred to as Kundavai Pirāttiyār. We also know of at least one daughter of Rajaraja called Rajaraja Kundavai Alvar who he named after his sister.^[32][33] Rajaraja had a number of wives. According to inscriptions, at least 15 names are mentioned as his wives - Ulagamaga Deviyari,Thidaipiran magal Chola Madeviyar,Abhimanavaliyar,Thirailokiya Madeviyar,Panchavan Madeviyar,Piruthivi Madeviyar,Elada Madeviyar,Meenavan Madeviyar,Nakkan Thillai Alzagiyar,Kaadan Thongiyar,Koothan Veeraniyar,Elangon Pichiyar.^[34] Also Elangon Pichiyar was the daughter of Vallavaraiyan Vandhiyathevan and Kundavai Nachiyar. The mother of Rajendra I, the only known son of Rajaraja, was Vaanathi (otherwise called as Thiripuvana Madeviyar), Princess of Kodumbaalur. Rajaraja must have had at least three daughters. One of the daughter was named after Rajaraja Cholan's sister -Kundavai who was married to the Chalukya Prince Vimaladithan. Another daughter was called as Mathevalzagal and was mentioned as the Naduvit Penn (meaning middle daughter) in one of the Thiruvilachuzhi inscriptions.^[34] The name of the third daughter is not known.

Rajaraja was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. His natal star was Sadhayam. It was celebrated as Sadhaya-nal vizha, a 7 day festival culminating on his star birthday during the king and his son's reign.^[35] Rajaraja also bore the title Telungana Kula Kala.^[36][37][38] He was also known as Rajaraja Sivapada Sekhara (he who had the feet of Lord Shiva as his crown).^[39][40]

Historic novels featuring Rajaraja Chola-I[link]

1. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Kalki Krishnamurthy’s historical novel Ponniyin Selvan. Its plot revolves around the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditya Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne. Kalki imagines Arulmozhi sacrificing his rightful claim to the throne by crowning Uttama during his own coronation.
2. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Vembu Vikiraman’s historical novel Nandipurathu Nayagi. The plot of the story revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Raja Raja's tour to the distant sea countries.
3. Rajaraja Cholan – Drama, written by Aru. Ramanathan, called as Kathal Ramanathan. (TKS Group made numerous Stage Shows on this Drama and later it was taken as Movie acted by Shivaji Ganesan). This drama as a book Published by Prema Pirasuram, Chennai. is made as a Study Material in South Indian Universities.
4. Balakumaran has also written the story Udaiyar based on the life of Rajaraja Chola. While Kalki's novel describes his life at his youth at the time of the death of Aditya Karikala, Bala Kumaran deals with Rajaraja Chola's life after he becomes the emperor.
5. In January 2007, Kaviri Mainthan – a novel set in the Chola period and a sequel to Ponniyin Selvan was written by Anusha Venkatesh, published by The Avenue Press.
6. Sujatha wrote a novel "Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai", which deal with the situations leading Raja raja to invade Kandhalur, a sea port.
7. Gokul Seshadri has written a novel "Rajakesari", which deals with the after effects of Kandhalur invasion, in Rajaraja Chola's life. Also there is an incomplete novel "Cherar Kottai" by the same author, which deals with the Kandhalur invasion by Rajaraja Chola.

His grave found at udayalur near Kumbakonam, just 1 km from Kumbakonam RTO office

Documetary Film[link]

“The Hidden Temples of India.” Mysteries of Asia. Produced by The Learning Channel. Narrated by Michael Bell. Freely available at http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/lost-temples-of-india

Notes[link]

32. Lost temples of India details the life of Raja Raja Chola. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnANjdReAlY&playnext=1&list=PLF536E03081FC8AAA&index=5

References[link]

• Cort, John E. (1998). Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0=7914-3786-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC&pg=PA178&dq=tevaram&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sy3-TsnyCIy5twfq64TQDQ&ved=0CGAQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Cutler, Norman (1987). Songs of experience: the poetics of Tamil devotion. USA: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data. ISBN 0-253-35334-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA4&dq=tevaram&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gfX8Tq-SJo_1gAfEydSuAg&ved=0CEoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=tevaram&f=false. 
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/01956606868|01956606868]]. 
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1984). The Cholas. Madras: University of Madras. 
• Keay, John (2000). India, a History. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-638784-5. 
• Vasudevan, Geeta (2003). Royal Temple of Rajaraja: An Instrument of Imperial Chola Power. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 0-00-638784-5. 
• Kearney, Milo (2003). The Indian Ocean in World History. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31277-9. 
• Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, Mysore archaeological series By Benjamin Lewis Rice, Mysore (India : State). Archaeological Dept, Mysore Archaeological Survey, Mangalore, Basel Mission Press, 1905
• "Discovery Channel movie clip about Rajaraja". http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5096103596865842301&q=rajaraja&total=39&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=0. 
• The political structure of early medieval South India By Kesavan Veluthat
• Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift
• South Indian inscriptions: Volume 2, Parts 1–2 By E. Hultzsch, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology
• Raasa Manickanar (2009). Cholar Varalaaru. Naam Tamilzar Publications. 
• Zvelebil, Kamil (1974). A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature). Otto Harrasowitz. ISBN 3-447-01582-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA130&dq=five+epics+of+tamil+literature&hl=en&ei=nZLmTrmaIsmXtwf1kaWfAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=five%20epics%20of%20tamil%20literature&f=false.