:
Ottoman Empire - Oil on Canvas by
Gentile Bellini-1480]]
Sultan (;
) is a title, with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an
Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", or "rulership", derived from the
masdar سلطة
, meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty in practical terms (i.e. the lack of dependence on any higher ruler), without claiming the overall
caliphate, or it was used to refer to a powerful
governor of a province within the caliphate.
The dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate ().
Muslim ruler under the terms of shariah (King/Prince)
, Sultan of
Egypt, 1914-1917.]] The title carries moral weight and religious authority, in the
Qur'an. The sultan, however, is not a
religious teacher himself, and in
constitutional monarchies, the sultanship can be reduced to a more limited role.
The first to title of Sultan was the Ghazni ruler Mahmud Ghaznawi (ruled 998 - 1030 CE). Later, "sultan" became the usual title of rulers of Seljuk and Ottoman Turks and Ayyubid and Mamluk rulers in Egypt. The religious validation of the title was illustrated by the fact that the shadow Caliph in Cairo bestowed the title "Sultan" on Murad I, the third ruler of the emerging Ottoman Empire in 1383; its earlier sovereigns had been beys or emirs, a lower rank in the orders of protocol.
At later stages, lesser rulers assumed the title Sultan, as was the case for the earlier leaders of today's royal family of Morocco. Today, only the Sultan of Oman, the Sultan of Brunei (both sovereign nations), the Sultans of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu (within the constitutive states of the federation) in Malaysia, and the titular sultans of Sulu, Maguindanao , and Lanao Provinces in the southern Philippines and Java (Indonesia) regions still use the title or the Maharaja title. The sultan's domain is properly called a sultanate.
A feminine form, used by Westerners, is sultana or sultanah; the very styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans. In a similar usage, the wife of a German Field-Marshal might be styled Feldmarschallin (in French, similar constructions of the type madame la maréchalle are quite common). The rare female leaders in Muslim history are correctly known as "sultanas". In the Sultanate of Sulu, the wife of the Sultan is styled as the "Panguian", not "sultana".
Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law, the term is gradually being replaced by king (i.e., malik in Arabic).
Compound ruler titles
These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message; e.g.:
Mani Sultan = Manney Sultan, meaning 'the Pearl of Rulers', or less poetically Honoured Monarch, was a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the Maharaja of Travancore
Sultan of Sultans is the 'sultanic equivalent' of King of Kings
Certain secondary titles have a devout Islamic connotation, e.g., Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad (To strive and to struggle in the name of Allah)
Sultanic Highness was a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style, exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan
Hussein Kamel of
Egypt (a British
protectorate since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of Prince (; ) or Princess, after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House after Egypt's
independence in 1922, when the sons and daughters of the newly styled King () were granted the title
Sahib(at) us-Sumuw al-Malaki, or
Royal Highness.
Former Sultans and Sultanates
, the first
Ayyubid Sultan of
Egypt and
Syria.]]
Near East and Central Asia
Ghaznavid Sultanate
Sultans of Great Seljuk
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Sultans (becoming Padishahs) of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli
Arab World
, the current Sultan of
Oman from the
Al Said dynasty.]]
in Algeria: sultanate of Tuggurt
in Egypt and Syria:
*Ayyubid Sultans
*Mamluk Sultans
in present-day Yemen, various small sultanates of the former British Aden Protectorate and South Arabia:
::
Audhali,
Fadhli,
Haushabi,
Kathiri,
Lahej,
Lower Aulaqi,
Lower Yafa,
Mahra,
Qu'aiti,
Subeihi,
Upper Aulaqi,
Upper Yafa and the
Wahidi sultanates
in present-day Saudi Arabia :
*Sultans of Nejd
*Sultans of the Hejaz
Oman Sultan of Oman (authentically referred to as
Hami), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1744 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)
Sultanate of Zanzibar two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika part of Tanzania)
in Morocco, till Mohammed V changed the style to Malik (king) on 14 August 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style Amir al-Mu´minin (Commander of the Faithful)
in Sudan:
*Darfur
*Dar al-Masalit
*Dar Qimr
*Funj Sultanate of Sinnar (Sennar)
*Kordofan
in Chad:
*Bag(u)irmi (main native title: Mbang)
*Wada'i (main native title: Kolak), successor state to Birgu
*Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes)
Horn of Africa
, the 20th Sultan of the
Somali Warsangali Sultanate.]]
Adal Sultanate, in northwestern Somalia, southern Djibouti, and the Somali, Oromia, and Afar regions of Ethiopia
Ajuuraan State, in Somalia
the Afar -, Awsa - or Aussa Sultanate, in northeastern Ethiopia
Gobroon Dynasty, in Somalia
Harar Sultanate, in eastern Ethiopia
Ifat Sultanate, in eastern Ethiopia
Majeerteen Sultanates, in northern Somalia
Marehan Sultanate, in northern Somalia
Shewa Sultanate, in central Ethiopia
Sultanate of Hobyo, in Somalia
Warsangali Sultanate, in northern Somalia
East Africa and Indian Ocean
Sultan
Angoche Sultanate, on the Mozambiquan coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms)
various Sultans on the Comoros; however on the Comoros, the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including Mfalme, Phany or Jambé and the 'hegemonic' title Sultani tibe
the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on Mayotte (separated from the Comoros)
Maliki
This was the alternative native style (apparently derived from
malik, the
Arabic word for king) of the Sultans of the
Kilwa Sultanate, in
Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).
Swahili sultan
Mfalume is the (Ki)
Swahili title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:
in Kenya:
*Pate on part of Pate island (capital also named Pate), in the Lamu Archipelago
*Witu, came under German, then British protectorate
in Tanganyika (presently part of Tanzania): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled Jembe
Sultani
This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe a female sultan
West and Central Africa
in Cameroon:
*Bamoun (Bamun, 17th cent. founded uniting 17 chieftancies) 1918 becomes a Sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftancies.
*Bibemi 1770 founded- Rulers first style Lamido to ...., then Sultan
*Mandara Sultanate since 1715 (replacing Wandala kingdom); 1902 Part of Cameroon
*Rey Bouba Sultanate founded 1804
in the Central African Republic:
*Bangassou created ca.1878; 14 June 1890 under Congo Free State protectorate, 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French.
*Dar al-Kuti - French protectorate since December 12, 1897
*Rafai ca.1875 Sultanate, 8 April 1892 under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31, 1909 under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
*Zemio ca.1872 established; December 11, 1894 under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12, 1909 under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
in Niger: Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
* the Amenokal of the Aïr confederation of Tuareg
* the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder)
in Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were generally adopted such as Emir; Sultan has also been used.
* in Borno (alongside the native title Mai)
* since 1817 in Sokoto, the suzerain (also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi) of all Fulbe jihad states and premier traditional Muslim leader in the Sahel (according to some once a Caliph)
Southern Asia
In
India:
Bahmani Sultanate
Sultanate of Bengal
the Deccan sultanates: Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar
Sultanate of Delhi several dynasties, the last (Mughal) became imperial Padshah-i Hind
Sultanate of Gujarat
Sultanate of Jaunpur
Sultanate of Kandesh
Sultanate of Malwa
In the Maldives:
Maldives Sultanate
Southeast and East Asia
In
Indonesia (formerly in the
Dutch East Indies):
, Sultan of Yogyakarta]].
, last undisputed Sultan of Surakarta]].
.]]
On Borneo
*Sultanate of Banjar
*Sultanate of Berau
*Sultanate of Bulungan
*Sultanate of Gunung Tabur
*Sultanate of Kubu
*Sultanate of Kutai Kartanegara
*Sultanate of Mempawah
*Sultanate of Paser
*Sultanate of Pontianak
*Sultanate of Sambaliung
*Sultanate of Sambas
On Celebes Island
*Sultanate of Buton
*Sultanate of Bone
*Sultanate of Gowa
*Sultanate of Luwu
*Sultanate of Soppeng
*Sultanate of Wajo
On Java Island
*Sultanate of Banten
*Sultanate of Cirebon- the rulers in three of the four palaces (kraton) from which fractioned Cirebon was ruled: Kraton Kasepuhan, Kraton Kanoman and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan the rulers title was Panembahan)
*Sultanate of Demak
*Sultanate of Pajang
*Sumedang Larang Kingdom
*Sultanate of Mataram
*Sultanate of Yogyakarta
*Sultanate of Surakarta
On Madura island: Pamekasan
In the Moluccas Archipelago
*Sultanate of Iha (Saparua)
*Sultanate of Honimoa/ Siri Sori (Saparua)
*Sultanate of Huamual (West Seram)
*Sultanate of Tanah Hitu (Ambon)
*Sultanate of Ternate
*Sultanate of Tidore
*Sultanate of Bacan
*Sultanate of Jilolo
*Sultanate of Loloda latter occupied by Ternate
In the Nusa Tenggara
*Sultanate of Bima on Sumbawa island
In the Riau archipelago: sultanate of Lingga-Riau by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud
In Sumatra
*Sultanate of Aceh (full style Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam) , which had many vassal states
*Sultanate of Asahan
* Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of Minangkabau, in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government
*Sultanate of Deli since 1814, earlier Aceh's vassal as Aru
*Sultanate of Indragiri
*Sultanate of Langkat since 1817 (previous style Rajah)
*Sultanate of Palembang (Darussalam), also holding the higher title of Susuhunan
*Sultanate of Pagaruyung
*Sultanate of Pelalawan
*Sultanate of Perlak
*Sultanate of Riau-Lingga
*Sultanate of Samudera Pasai
*Sultanate of Serdang
*Sultanate of Siak Sri Inderapura
In the
Peninsular Malaysia:
In Peninsular Malaysia or Malaya, where all nine of Malaysia's present sultanates are located:
* Sultanate of Malacca
* Sultanate of Johor
* Sultanate of Kedah
* Sultanate of Kelantan
* Sultanate of Pahang
* Sultanate of Perak
* Sultanate of Selangor
* Sultanate of Terengganu
Furthermore, the ruler of Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the Negeri Sembilan confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title Undang Luak Jelebu.
In
Brunei:
Sultan of Brunei, Brunei (on Borneo island)
In
China:
Dali, Yunnan, capital of the short-lived Panthay Rebellion
* Furthermore, the Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan.
In the
Philippines:
Sultanate of Buayan
Sultanate of Maguindanao
Sultanate of Sulu (Sulu, Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of Sabah on North Borneo)
Sultanate of Ranaw (Sultan ko Pat a Pangampong a Ranao)
Sultanates of Lanao
In
Thailand (Siam):
Sultanate of Pattani
Contemporary sovereign sultanates
Brunei
Indonesia Sultan of
Yogyakarta Special Region is governor of that province
Malaysia
*Sultan is the title of seven (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu) of the nine rulers of the Malay states. The federal head of state the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, is elected (de facto rotated) for five years by and among the hereditary state rulers, but is usually styled "king" in foreign countries; political power, however, lies with the prime minister. See also: Malay titles
Oman, an Arabian nation, formerly sultanate of Muscat and Oman
[Note: In the Philippines, the Sultanate of Sulu was put out of power by the U.S. during the colonial regime, but the Royal Family is still in existence.]
Princely and aristocratic titles
In the Ottoman dynastic system, male descendants of the ruling
Padishah (in the West also known as
Great Sultan) enjoyed a style including Sultan; so this normally monarchic title is equivalent in use to the western
Prince of the blood:
Daulatlu Najabatlu Shahzada Sultan (given name)
Hazretleri Effendi. For the Heir Apparent, however, the style was
Daulatlu Najabatlu Vali Ahad-i-Sultanat (given name)
Effendi Hazlatlari; i.e. Crown Prince of the Sultanate.
The sons of Imperial Princesses, excluded from the Ottoman imperial succession, were only styled Sultan zada (given name) Bey-Effendi, i.e. Son of a Prince[ss] of the dynasty.
In certain Muslim states, Sultan was also an aristocratic title, as in the Tartar Astrakhan Khanate.
The Sultan Valide was the title reserved for the mother of the ruling sultan.
Military rank
In a number of post-caliphal states under
Mongol or
Turkic rule, there was a
feudal type of military hierarchy, often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles (
Khan,
Malik,
Amir) as mere rank denominations.
In the Persian empire, the rank of Sultan was roughly equivalent to a western Captain, socially in the fifth rank class, styled 'Ali Jah.
See also
Other Ruling titles
Emir (Amir)
Atabeg
Bey
Caliph
Datu
Khan, Ilkhan and Khaqan
Maharajah
Malik
Mir
Padishah
Shah and Shahanshah
Notes
References
RoyalArk - see each nation, e.g. here Oman
WorldStatesmen - see each present nation
Category:Arabic words and phrases
Category:Heads of state
Category:Islamic honorifics
Category:Military ranks
Category:Royal titles
Category:Noble titles
Category:Positions of authority
Category:Titles
Category:Turkish titles
Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Category:Titles in Afghanistan
Category:Titles in Pakistan
Category:Titles in Iran
Category:Arabic loanwords
