Colonel Charles Perry Stacey, OC, OBE, CD, FRSC (30 July 1906 – 17 November 1989) was a Canadian historian and university professor. He was the official historian of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, and has been published extensively on matters both military and political.

Early life, education[link]

Stacey was born in Toronto, Ontario. After attending the University of Toronto Schools, he received a B.A. degree in History from the University of Toronto in 1924. He received a second Bachelor's degree in History from Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1929. In 1933, he received a Ph.D. degree from Princeton University. From 1933 to 1940, he was a member of the History department at Princeton University.

Service in Canadian Army[link]

Stacey joined the Militia before the Second World War. His service as one of the Canadian Army's historians is well chronicled in his autobiography. He served in the United Kingdom for the majority of the war, collecting and collating information for future historians, as well as writing contemporary reports. Stacey's works have contributed much to the study of certain controversial operations such as the Dieppe Raid and Operation Spring. Stacey benefited from his access to the major Canadian military and political figures involved in the War, both during the conflict and afterwards, when the official histories were being finalized for publication. He attained the rank of Colonel. In total He served in the Army for 35 years (1924-1959).

Professor[link]

From 1959 to 1975, he was a Professor of History at the University of Toronto. Stacey published an autobiography entitled A Date With History, which presented much background information regarding the writing of the Official History of the Canadian Army. He extended these themes in volumes such as The Half Million (dealing with the Canadian forces stationed in Britain), and Arms, Men, and Government (concerning the government in Canada) during World War II. He also sheds light on the poorly managed writing of the Official History of World War I (only one of the projected eight volumes by the original author ever appeared in print).

He died in Toronto in 1989. His personal and research papers are in the University of Toronto Archives.

A comment he made following World War II regarding war brides, calling them "Most excellent citizens," became the title of a book on the subject by Eswyn Lyster.

Selected bibliography[link]

• Canada and the British Army (1936)
• The Canadian Army 1939-1945 (1948), winner of the 1948 Governor General's Awards
• Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Six Years of War: The Army in Canada, Britain, and the Pacific (Ottawa: The Queens Printer, 1955)
• Quebec, 1759: The Siege and the Battle (1959)
  • (An updated version was published in 2001 with new material by Donald E. Graves.)
• Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-West Europe, 1944-1945 (Ottawa: The Queens Printer, 1960)
• Arms, Men, and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939-1945 (Ottawa: Minister of National Defence, 1970)
• A Very Double Life: The Private World of Mackenzie King (1976)
• Canada and the Age of Conflict Vol. 1 (1977), (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), ISBN 0-8020-6560-0.
• Canada and the Age of Conflict Vol. 2 (1981), (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), ISBN 0-8020-2397-5.
• (with Barbara M. Wilson) The Half-Million: The Canadians in Britain, 1939-1946 (1987), (Toronto: University of Toronto Press).
• A Date With History ISBN 0-88879-086-4

See also[link]

• Most Excellent Citizens - a book on the World War II war bride experience, title based on a quote from C.P. Stacey

References[link]

• "Biography C.P. Stacey". Department of National Defence. http://www.forces.gc.ca/dhh/history_archives/engraph/stacey_e.asp?cat=1. 

External links[link]

• biography at canadiansoldiers.com
• Charles Perry Stacey at The Canadian Encyclopedia
• Eswyn Lyster's war bride webpage
• Most Excellent Citizens
• C.P. Stacey's Biography on Department of National Defence Website

C

The C Programming Language[1] (aka "K&R") is the seminal book on C.
Paradigm(s)	Imperative (procedural), structured
Appeared in	1972[2]
Designed by	Dennis Ritchie
Developer	Originally: Dennis Ritchie & Bell Labs ANSI C: ANSI X3J11 ISO C: ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14
Stable release	C11 (December 2011)
Typing discipline	Static, weak, manifest, nominal
Major implementations	Clang, GCC, Intel C, MSVC, Turbo C, Watcom C
Dialects	Cyclone, Unified Parallel C, Split-C, Cilk, C*
Influenced by	B (BCPL, CPL), ALGOL 68,[3] Assembly, PL/I, FORTRAN
Influenced	Numerous: AMPL, AWK, csh, C++, C--, C#, Objective-C, BitC, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Pike, Processing
OS	Cross-platform (multi-platform)
Usual filename extensions	.h .c
C Programming at Wikibooks

C (pronounced see, like the letter C) is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.^[4]

Although C was designed for implementing system software,^[5] it is also widely used for developing portable application software.

C is one of the most widely used programming languages of all time^[6][7] and there are very few computer architectures for which a C compiler does not exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which began as an extension to C^{[citation needed]}.

Design[link]

C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language.

Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

Characteristics[link]

Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines, which are called "functions" (although not in the strict sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.

The C language also exhibits the following more specific characteristics:

• There are a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives: for, if, while, switch, and do..while. There is basically one namespace, and user-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
• There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc.
• More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
• Function return values can be ignored when not needed.
• Typing is static, but weakly enforced: all data has a type, but implicit conversions can be performed; for instance, characters can be used as integers.
• Declaration syntax mimics usage context. C has no "define" keyword; instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no "function" keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list.
• User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.
  • Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be accessed, for example assigned, as a unit.
  • Array indexing is a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects; they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no "array" keyword, in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, e.g. month[11].
  • Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers.
  • Strings are not a separate data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters.
• Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers.
• Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with a dummy return type void.
• Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
• Function and data pointers permit ad hoc run-time polymorphism.
• A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.
• There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
• Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.

C does not include some features found in newer, more modern high-level languages, including:

• Object orientation
• Garbage collection

History[link]

Early developments[link]

Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie

The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973;^[3] according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language.

The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's inability to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of C.

The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.)

K&R C[link]

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language.^[8] This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as K&R C. The second edition of the book^[9] covers the later ANSI C standard.

K&R introduced several language features:

• standard I/O library
• long int data type
• unsigned int data type
• compound assignment operators of the form =op (such as =-) were changed to the form op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by such constructs as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10

Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.

In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-int value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return type int, if its value was used.

For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">

long some_function(); /* int */ other_function();

/* int */ calling_function() {

   long test1;
   register /* int */ test2;

   test1 = some_function();
   if (test1 > 0)
         test2 = 0;
   else
         test2 = other_function();
   return test2;

}

</syntaxhighlight>

All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C.

Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.

In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included:

• void functions (i.e. functions with no return value)
• functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
• assignment for struct data types
• enumerated types

The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C[link]

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C". This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.

ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.

One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.

C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written today is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.

In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C.

C99[link]

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99". It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.^[10]

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.

C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.

C11[link]

In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1X" until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.

The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++.

Embedded C[link]

Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language^[11] to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing.

Uses[link]

C is often used for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to pun types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low run-time demand on system resources. C can also be used for website programming using CGI as a "gateway" for information between the Web application, the server, and the browser.^[12] Some reasons for choosing C over interpreted languages are its speed, stability, and near-universal availability.^[13]

One consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. The primary implementations of Python (CPython), Perl 5, and PHP are all written in C.

Due to its thin layer of abstraction and low overhead, C allows efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, which is useful for programs that perform a lot of computations. For example, the GNU Multi-Precision Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, it is not necessary to develop machine-specific code generators. Some languages and compilers which have used C this way are BitC, C++, COBOL, Eiffel, Gambit, GHC, Modula-3, Squeak, and Vala.^[14] However, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, but much of that development has shifted to newer languages.

Syntax[link]

C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.^[15] Unlike languages such as FORTRAN 77, C source code is free-form which allows arbitrary use of whitespace to format code, rather than column-based or text-line-based restrictions. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line.

C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures.

As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if(-else) conditional execution and by do-while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.

Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators (see below) and may contain function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence point"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, ||, ?: and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.

Character set[link]

The basic C source character set includes the following characters:

• Letters: a – z, A – Z, _
• Digits: 0 – 9
• Punctuation: ~ ! @ # % ^ & * ( ) - + = : ; " ' < > , . ? | / \ { } [ ]
• Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline

Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multibyte encoded characters may be used, but are not portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multinational Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using a \uDDDD encoding (where DDDD denotes a Unicode character code), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.

The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.

Keywords[link]

C89 has 32 keywords (reserved words with special meaning):

C99 adds five more keywords:

C11 adds seven more keywords:^[16]

Most of the recently added keywords begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language.

Operators[link]

C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:

• arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
• assignment: =
• augmented assignment: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=
• bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^
• bitwise shifts: <<, >>
• boolean logic: !, &&, ||
• conditional evaluation: ? :
• equality testing: ==, !=
• calling functions: ( )
• increment and decrement: ++, --
• member selection: ., ->
• object size: sizeof
• order relations: <, <=, >, >=
• reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
• sequencing: ,
• subexpression grouping: ( )
• type conversion: (typename)

Criticism[link]

Although mimicked by many languages because of its widespread familiarity, C's syntax has often been criticized. Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language, "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better."^[17] The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software.

Some specific problems are:

• Non-intuitive operator precedence, such as == binding more tightly than & and | in expressions like x & 1 == 0, which would need to be written (x & 1) == 0 to be properly evaluated.^[18]
• Use of the = operator, reserved in mathematics to express equality, to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives.
• Similarity of the assignment and equality operators (= and ==), making it easy to accidentally substitute one for the other. In many cases, each may be used in the context of the other without a compilation error (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression in if (a=b) is true if a is not zero after the assignment.^[19]
• A declaration syntax that some find unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "declaration reflects use".)^[20]
• C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.
• C has no implicit array-size check at run-time, again for efficiency reasons. If array size checking is needed, it must be done manually.

"Hello, world" example[link]

The "hello, world" example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of programming language. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was:^[21]

<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> main() {

   printf("hello, world\n");

} </syntaxhighlight>

A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is:^{[nb 1]}

<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">

1. include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {

   printf("hello, world\n");
   return 0;

} </syntaxhighlight>

The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers standard headers to other headers having the same name. (Double quotes are used to include local or project-specific header files.)

The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.^{[nb 2]}

The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.

The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal "hello, world\n". The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The \n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The return statement terminates the execution of the main function and causes it to return the integer value 0, which is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution.

The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function.

Data types[link]

C has a static weak typing type system that shares some similarities with that of other ALGOL descendants such as Pascal. There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, characters, and enumerated types (enum). C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and untagged unions (union).

C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Pointers[link]

C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. (See Array-pointer interchangeability below.) Pointers are used for many different purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch) or as callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may be deallocated and reused (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.

Arrays[link]

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. (The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.) However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers (see below) means that declared arrays and these dynamically allocated simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable. Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common in carelessly written code, and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions.

C does not have a special provision for declaring multidimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multidimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order.

Multidimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, since arrays are passed merely as pointers, the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this is to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns.)

C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address some, but not all, of the issues with ordinary C arrays.

Array-pointer interchangeability[link]

A distinctive (but potentially confusing) feature of C is its treatment of arrays and pointers. The array-subscript notation x[i] can also be used when x is a pointer; the interpretation (using pointer arithmetic) is to access the (i + 1)th object of several adjacent data objects pointed to by x, counting the object that x points to (which is x[0]) as the first element of the array.

Formally, x[i] is equivalent to *(x + i). Since the type of the pointer involved is known to the compiler at compile time, the address that x + i points to is not the address pointed to by x incremented by i bytes, but rather incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. The size of these elements can be determined with the operator sizeof by applying it to any dereferenced element of x, as in n = sizeof *x or n = sizeof x[0].

Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), the name of an array is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element; this implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.

The number of elements in a declared array x can be determined as sizeof x / sizeof x[0].

A demonstration of the interchangeability of pointers and arrays is shown below. The four assignments are equivalent and each is valid C code. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> /* x is an array OR a pointer. i is an integer. */

x[i] = 1; /* equivalent to *(x + i) */

• (x + i) = 1;
• (i + x) = 1;

i[x] = 1; /* equivalent to *(i + x) */ </syntaxhighlight>

Note that although all four assignments are equivalent, only the first represents good coding style. The last line might be found in obfuscated C code.

Despite this apparent equivalence between array and pointer variables, there is still a distinction to be made between them. Even though the name of an array is, in most expression contexts, converted into a pointer (to its first element), this pointer does not itself occupy any storage, unlike a pointer variable. Consequently, what an array "points to" cannot be changed, and it is impossible to assign a value to an array variable. (Array contents may be copied, however, by using the memcpy function, or by accessing the individual elements.)

Memory management[link]

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:

• Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
• Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited
• Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or free

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various tradeoffs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.

Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary. Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.)

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.

Another issue is that heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program in order for it to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before free() is called, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed but continue to be referenced, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the symptoms will appear in a portion of the program far removed from the actual error, making it difficult to track down the problem. (Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.)

Libraries[link]

The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "math library").

The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation. (“Freestanding” C implementations, which target embedded systems, may provide only a subset of the standard library.) This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.

Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python.

Language tools[link]

Tools have been created to help C programmers avoid some of the problems inherent in the language, such as statements with undefined behavior or statements that are not a good practice because they are likely to result in unintended behavior or run-time errors.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.

There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as array bounds checking, buffer overflow detection, serialization, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.

Related languages[link]

C has directly or indirectly influenced many later languages such as C#, D programming language, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix's C Shell. The most pervasive influence has been syntactical: all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.

Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.

When object-oriented languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.

The C++ programming language was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as one approach to providing object-oriented functionality with C-like syntax. C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions (see Compatibility of C and C++).

Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C.

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Banahan, M.; Brady, D.; Doran, M. (1991). The C Book (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. http://publications.gbdirect.co.uk/c_book/. 
• Jones, Derek M.. The New C Standard: A Cultural and Economic Commentary. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-70917-1. http://www.coding-guidelines.com/cbook/cbook1_2.pdf. 
• King, K. N. (April 2008). C Programming: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.). Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-97950-3. 
• Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). "The Development of the C Language". The second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) (ACM): 201–208. DOI:10.1145/154766.155580. ISBN 0-89791-570-4. http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html. 
• Thompson, Ken. A New C Compiler. Murray Hill, New Jersey: AT&T Bell Laboratories. http://doc.cat-v.org/bell_labs/new_c_compilers/new_c_compiler.pdf. 

External links[link]

Wikibooks covers the subject mentioned in this article, C (programming language).

Wikiversity has learning materials about Topic:C

Media related to C (programming language) at Wikimedia Commons

• ISO C Working Group official website
• comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
• ISO/IEC 9899. Official C99 documents.
• ANSI C Standard (ANSI X3J11/88-090) (Published 13 May 1988), Third Public Review
• ANSI C Rationale (ANSI X3J11/88-151) (Published 18 November 1988)
• The current draft Standard (C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included)PDF (3.61 MB)

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (April 2010)

Stacey Lauretta Dash (born January 20, 1966) is an American film and television actress.

Career[link]

She made her first TV appearance in Farrell for the People starring Valerie Harper and a virtually unknown Ed O'Neill in 1982, which did not make it past its pilot episode. Her notable first appearance was as 'Michelle' in the 1985 The Cosby Show episode "Denise's Friend" alongside Lisa Bonet, and in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air.^[1] Dash's first substantial television role was in the 1988 television series TV 101, which also featured Matt LeBlanc and Sam Robards. The series was canceled after 13 episodes.

Dash's first major film role was in the Richard Pryor comedy Moving in 1988. She also had sizeable roles in Mo' Money and Renaissance Man during this time. In 1995, Dash starred as a femme fatale in a low budget film, Illegal in Blue. Dash received her big break with the 1995 film Clueless, which starred Alicia Silverstone and Brittany Murphy. Dash played Cher's high school best friend Dionne Marie Davenport, even though Dash was twenty-eight at the time. In 1996 the film spawned a television spinoff, also called Clueless, in which Dash reprised her role as Dionne and Rachel Blanchard played Cher. The series ran from 1996–1999.

After the television series ended, she appeared in View from the Top (2003) and smaller budget films, including Gang Of Roses (2003), and Getting Played (2005). She also has appeared in small guest roles on television shows such as Eve and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. Dash played Vanessa Weir in the television series, The Strip, which was not successful and was canceled after several episodes.

In 2001, Dash was featured in a music video by Carl Thomas for the single "Emotional". In 2004, Dash was featured in a music video by Kanye West, label mate of her cousin Damon Dash for the single "All Falls Down." At age 40, Stacey Dash posed nude in the August 2006 issue of Playboy. Also in 2006, she was featured in singer Marques Houston's video, "Favorite Girl". In 2006, she launched her own lingerie line called Letters of Marque.^[2]

In 2007, she completed filming roles in I Could Never Be Your Woman, Nora's Hair Salon II, Fashion Victim, Ghost Image and American Primitive. For 2008 release, she filmed Phantom Punch and Secrets Of A Hollywood Nurse for television, and the feature film Close Quarters.

Dash performed in the 2008 reality television series, Celebrity Circus. Prior to the series premiere, Dash suffered a broken rib while training. Despite the injury, Dash performed on the trapeze bungee during the premiere and continued on to be a finalist. Dash finished second behind Antonio Sabato, Jr.

Dash made a guest appearance on the television series The Game in early 2009. In March 2010, she said she will be starring in her own reality show on VH1.^[3]

Dash starred in the first season VH1 original series Single Ladies, as Valerie "Val" Stokes, a woman who is a " 'good girl' looking for a good man".^[4] She did not return for season 2.^[5][6][7]

Personal life[link]

Dash was born in The Bronx, New York. She is an alumna of Paramus High School in Paramus, New Jersey. Her mother, Linda, was the general manager of DME Interactive Holdings.^[8] Her father was a methadone addict.^[9] She is of Bajan,^[10] African American, and Mexican descent,^[3][11] with "clear green" eyes.^[12] Her brother is Darien Dash, the CEO of DME Interactive Holdings and her first cousin is Damon Dash, the former CEO and co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records.^[13]

In 2010, she filed a restraining order against her now ex-husband Emmanuel Xuereb.^[14][15]

Filmography[link]

References[link]