Sine
Basic features
Parity	odd
Domain	(-∞,∞)
Codomain	[-1,1]
Period	2π
Specific values
At zero	0
Maxima	((2k+½)π,1)
Minima	((2k-½)π,-1)
Specific features
Root	kπ
Critical point	kπ-π/2
Inflection point	kπ
Fixed point	0
Variable k is an integer. Domain and codomain are given only for real (not complex) numbers.

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin \alpha = \frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}}
For the angle α, the sine function gives the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse.

The sine function graphed on the Cartesian plane. In this graph, the angle x is given in radians (π = 180°).

The sine and cosine functions are related in multiple ways. The derivative of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(x)

is Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \cos(x)

. Also they are out of phase by 90°: Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(\pi/2 - x)

= Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \cos(x)

. And for a given angle, cos and sin give the respective x, y coordinates on a unit circle.

In mathematics, the sine function is a function of an angle. In a right triangle, sine gives the ratio of the length of the side opposite to an angle to the length of the hypotenuse.

Sine is usually listed first amongst the trigonometric functions.

Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle containing the angle, and can equivalently be defined as the lengths of various line segments from a unit circle. More modern definitions express them as infinite series or as solutions of certain differential equations, allowing their extension to arbitrary positive and negative values and even to complex numbers.

The sine function is commonly used to model periodic phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day length, and average temperature variations throughout the year.

The function sine can be traced to the jyā and koṭi-jyā functions used in Gupta period Indian astronomy (Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.^[1] The word "sine" comes from a Latin mistranslation of the Arabic jiba, which is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word for half the chord, jya-ardha.^[2]

Right-angled triangle definition[link]

For any similar triangle the ratio of the length of the sides remains the same. For example, if the hypotenuse is twice as long, so are the other sides. Therefore respective trigonometric functions, depending only on the size of the angle, express those ratios: between the hypotenuse and the "opposite" side to an angle A in question (see illustration) in the case of sine function; or between the hypotenuse and the "adjacent" side (cosine) or between the "opposite" and the "adjacent" side (tangent), etc.

To define the trigonometric functions for an acute angle A, start with any right triangle that contains the angle A. The three sides of the triangle are named as follows:

• The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, in this case side h. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle.
• The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in (angle A), in this case side a.
• The adjacent side is the side that is in contact with (adjacent to) both the angle we are interested in (angle A) and the right angle, in this case side b.

In ordinary Euclidean geometry, according to the triangle postulate the inside angles of every triangle total 180° (π radians). Therefore, in a right-angled triangle, the two non-right angles total 90° (π/2 radians), so each of these angles must be greater than 0° and less than 90°. The following definition applies to such angles.

The angle A (having measure α) is the angle between the hypotenuse and the adjacent line.

The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin \alpha = \frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}} = \frac {a} {h}.

Note that this ratio does not depend on the size of the particular right triangle chosen, as long as it contains the angle A, since all such triangles are similar.

Relation to slope[link]

The trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of the rise, run, and slope of a line segment relative to some horizontal line.

• When the length of the line segment is 1, sine takes an angle and tells the rise
• Sine takes an angle and tells the rise per unit length of the line segment.
• Rise is equal to sin θ multiplied by the length of the line segment

In contrast, cosine is used for the telling the run from the angle; and tangent is used for telling the slope from the angle. Arctan is used for telling the angle from the slope.

The line segment is the equivalent of the hypotenuse in the right-triangle, and when it has a length of 1 it is also equivalent to the radius of the unit circle.

Relation to the unit circle[link]

In trigonometry, a unit circle is the circle of radius one centered at the origin (0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system.

Let a line through the origin, making an angle of θ with the positive half of the x-axis, intersect the unit circle. The x- and y-coordinates of this point of intersection are equal to cos θ and sin θ, respectively. The point's distance from the origin is always 1.

Unlike the definitions with the right or left triangle or slope, the angle can be extended to the full set of real arguments by using the unit circle. This can also be achieved by requiring certain symmetries and that sine be a periodic function.

The unit circle.

Illustration of a unit circle. The radius has a length of 1. The variable t is an angle measure.

Point P(x,y) on the circle of unit radius at an obtuse angle θ > π/2

Animation showing the graphing process of y = sin x (where x is the angle in radians) using a unit circle

Identities[link]

Exact identities (using radians):

These apply for all values of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \theta .

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin \theta & = \cos \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \\ & = \frac{1}{\csc \theta} \end{align}

Reciprocal[link]

The reciprocal of sine is cosecant, i.e. the reciprocal of sin(A) is csc(A), or cosec(A). Cosecant gives the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \csc A = \frac {1}{\sin A} = \frac {\textrm{hypotenuse}} {\textrm{opposite}} = \frac {h} {a}.

Inverse[link]

The usual principal values of the arcsin(x) function graphed on the cartesian plane. Arcsin is the inverse of sin.

The inverse function of sine is arcsine (arcsin or asin) or inverse sine (sin⁻¹). As sine is non-injective, it is not an exact inverse function but a partial inverse function. For example, sin(0) = 0, but also sin(π) = 0, sin(2π) = 0 etc. It follows that the arcsine function is multivalued: arcsin(0) = 0, but also arcsin(0) = π, arcsin(0) = 2π, etc. When only one value is desired, the function may be restricted to its principal branch. With this restriction, for each x in the domain the expression arcsin(x) will evaluate only to a single value, called its principal value.

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \theta = \arcsin \left( \frac{\text{opposite}}{\text{hypotenuse}} \right) = \sin^{-1} \left( \frac {a} {h} \right).

k is some integer:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin(y) = x \ \Leftrightarrow\ & y = \arcsin(x) + 2k\pi , \text{ or }\\ & y = \pi - \arcsin(x) + 2k\pi \end{align}

Arcsin satisfies:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(\arcsin x) = x\!

and

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \arcsin(\sin \theta) = \theta\quad\text{for }-\pi/2 \leq \theta \leq \pi/2.

Calculus[link]

For the sine function:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): f(x) = \sin x \,

The derivative is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): f'(x) = \cos x \,

The antiderivative is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \int f(x)\,dx = -\cos x + C

C denotes the constant of integration.

Other trigonometric functions[link]

The four quadrants of a Cartesian coordinate system.

It is possible to express any trigonometric function in terms of any other (up to a plus or minus sign, or using the sign function).

Sine in terms of the other common trigonometric functions:

Note that for all equations which use plus/minus (±), the result is positive for angles in the first quadrant.

The basic relationship between the sine and the cosine can also be expressed as the Pythagorean trigonometric identity:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \cos^2\theta + \sin^2\theta = 1\!

where sin²x means (sin(x))².

Properties relating to the quadrants[link]

Over the four quadrants of the sine function is as follows.

Points between the quadrants. k is an integer.

The quadrants of the unit circle and of sin x, using the Cartesian coordinate system.

For arguments outside those in the table, get the value using the fact the sine function has a period of 360° (or 2π rad): Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(\alpha + 360^\circ) = \sin(\alpha) , or use Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(\alpha + 180^\circ) = -\sin(\alpha) . Or use Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): cos(x)= \frac{e^{ix}+e^{-ix}}{2}

 and  Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): sin(x)=\frac{e^{ix}-e^{-ix}}{2i}  

For complement of sine, we have Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin(180^\circ-\alpha) = \sin(\alpha)

Series definition[link]

The sine function (blue) is closely approximated by its Taylor polynomial of degree 7 (pink) for a full cycle centered on the origin.

Using only geometry and properties of limits, it can be shown that the derivative of sine is cosine, and that the derivative of cosine is the negative of sine.

Using the reflection from the calculated geometric derivation of the sine is with the 4n + k-th derivative at the point 0:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin^{(4n+k)}(0)=\begin{cases} 0 & \text{when } k=0 \\ 1 & \text{when } k=1 \\ 0 & \text{when } k=2 \\ -1 & \text{when } k=3 \end{cases}

This gives the following Taylor series expansion at x = 0. One can then use the theory of Taylor series to show that the following identities hold for all real numbers x (where x is the angle in radians) :^[3]

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin x & = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots \\[8pt] & = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n}{(2n+1)!}x^{2n+1} \\[8pt] \end{align}

If x were expressed in degrees then the series would contain messy factors involving powers of π/180: if x is the number of degrees, the number of radians is y = πx /180, so

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin x_\mathrm{deg} & = \sin y_\mathrm{rad} \\ & = \frac{\pi}{180} x - \left (\frac{\pi}{180} \right )^3\ \frac{x^3}{3!} + \left (\frac{\pi}{180} \right )^5\ \frac{x^5}{5!} - \left (\frac{\pi}{180} \right )^7\ \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots . \end{align}

The series formulas for the sine and cosine are uniquely determined, up to the choice of unit for angles, by the requirements that

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin 0 = 0 & \text{ and } \sin{2x} = 2 \sin x \cos x \\ \cos^2 x + \sin^2 x = 1 & \text{ and } \cos{2x} = \cos^2 x - \sin^2 x \\ \end{align}

The radian is the unit that leads to the expansion with leading coefficient 1 for the sine and is determined by the additional requirement that

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin x \approx x \text{ when } x \approx 0.

The coefficients for both the sine and cosine series may therefore be derived by substituting their expansions into the pythagorean and double angle identities, taking the leading coefficient for the sine to be 1, and matching the remaining coefficients.

In general, mathematically important relationships between the sine and cosine functions and the exponential function (see, for example, Euler's formula) are substantially simplified when angles are expressed in radians, rather than in degrees, grads or other units. Therefore, in most branches of mathematics beyond practical geometry, angles are generally assumed to be expressed in radians.

A similar series is Gregory's series for arctan, which is obtained by omitting the factorials in the denominator.

Continued fraction[link]

The sine function can also be represented as a generalized continued fraction:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin x = \cfrac{x}{1 + \cfrac{x^2}{2\cdot3-x^2 + \cfrac{2\cdot3 x^2}{4\cdot5-x^2 + \cfrac{4\cdot5 x^2}{6\cdot7-x^2 + \ddots}}}}.

The continued fraction representation expresses the real number values, both rational and irrational, of the sine function.

Fixed point[link]

This section requires expansion.

The fixed point iteration x_n+1 = sin x_n with initial value x₀ = 2 converges to 0.

Zero is a fixed point of the sine function because sin(0) = 0.

Law of sines[link]

The law of sines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c and angles opposite those sides A, B and C:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{\sin A}{a} = \frac{\sin B}{b} = \frac{\sin C}{c}.

This is equivalent to the equality of the first three expressions below:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{a}{\sin A} = \frac{b}{\sin B} = \frac{c}{\sin C} = 2R,

where R is the triangle's circumradius.

It can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the above definition of sine. The law of sines is useful for computing the lengths of the unknown sides in a triangle if two angles and one side are known. This is a common situation occurring in triangulation, a technique to determine unknown distances by measuring two angles and an accessible enclosed distance.

Values[link]

sin(x)

Some common angles (θ) shown on the unit circle. The angles are given in degrees and radians, together with the corresponding intersection point on the unit circle, (cos θ, sin θ).

A memory aid (note it does not include 15° and 75°):

90 degree increments:

Other values not listed above:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{60}=\sin 3^\circ=\tfrac{1}{16} \left[2(1-\sqrt3)\sqrt{5+\sqrt5}+\sqrt2(\sqrt5-1)(\sqrt3+1)\right]\,

 A019812

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{30}=\sin 6^\circ=\tfrac{1}{8} \left[\sqrt{6(5-\sqrt5)}-\sqrt5-1\right]\,

 A019815

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{20}=\sin 9^\circ=\tfrac{1}{8} \left[\sqrt2(\sqrt5+1)-2\sqrt{5-\sqrt5}\right]\,

 A019818

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{15}=\sin 12^\circ=\tfrac{1}{8} \left[\sqrt{2(5+\sqrt5)}-\sqrt3(\sqrt5-1)\right]\,

 A019821

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{10}=\sin 18^\circ=\tfrac{1}{4}\left(\sqrt5-1\right)=\tfrac{1}{2}\varphi^{-1}\,

 A019827

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{7\pi}{60}=\sin 21^\circ=\tfrac{1}{16}\left[2(\sqrt3+1)\sqrt{5-\sqrt5}-\sqrt2(\sqrt3-1)(1+\sqrt5)\right]\,

 A019830

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{8}=\sin 22.5^\circ=\tfrac{1}{2}(\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}}),

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{2\pi}{15}=\sin 24^\circ=\tfrac{1}{8}\left[\sqrt3(\sqrt5+1)-\sqrt2\sqrt{5-\sqrt5}\right]\,

 A019833

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{3\pi}{20}=\sin 27^\circ=\tfrac{1}{8}\left[2\sqrt{5+\sqrt5}-\sqrt2\;(\sqrt5-1)\right]\,

 A019836

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{11\pi}{60}=\sin 33^\circ=\tfrac{1}{16}\left[2(\sqrt3-1)\sqrt{5+\sqrt5}+\sqrt2(1+\sqrt3)(\sqrt5-1)\right]\,

 A019842

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{\pi}{5}=\sin 36^\circ=\tfrac14[\sqrt{2(5-\sqrt5)}]\,

 A019845

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{13\pi}{60}=\sin 39^\circ=\tfrac1{16}[2(1-\sqrt3)\sqrt{5-\sqrt5}+\sqrt2(\sqrt3+1)(\sqrt5+1)]\,

 A019848

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\frac{7\pi}{30}=\sin 42^\circ=\frac{\sqrt6\sqrt{5+\sqrt5}-\sqrt5+1}{8}\,

 A019851

For angles greater than 2π or less than −2π, simply continue to rotate around the circle; sine periodic function with period 2π:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin\theta = \sin\left(\theta + 2\pi k \right),\,

for any angle θ and any integer k.

The primitive period (the smallest positive period) of sine is a full circle, i.e. 2π radians or 360 degrees.

Relationship to complex numbers[link]

An illustration of the complex plane. The imaginary numbers are on the vertical coordinate axis.

Sine is used to determine the imaginary part of a complex number given in polar coordinates (r,φ):

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): z = r(\cos \varphi + i\sin \varphi )\,

the imaginary part is:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \operatorname{Im}(z) = r \sin \varphi

r and φ represent the magnitude and angle of the complex number respectively. i is the imaginary unit. z is a complex number.

Although dealing with complex numbers, sine's parameter in this usage is still a real number. Sine can also take a complex number as an argument.

Sine with a complex argument[link]

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin z\,

Domain coloring of sin(z) over (-π,π) on x and y axes. Brightness indicates absolute magnitude, saturation represents imaginary and real magnitude.

sin(z) as a vector field

The definition of the sine function for complex arguments z:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin z & = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)!}z^{2n+1} \\ & = \frac{e^{i z} - e^{-i z}}{2i}\, \\ & = \frac{\sinh \left( i z\right) }{i} \end{align}

where i ² = −1. This is an entire function. Also, for purely real x,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin x = \operatorname{Im}(e^{i x}) \,

For purely imaginary numbers:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sin iy = i \sinh y \,

It is also sometimes useful to express the complex sine function in terms of the real and imaginary parts of its argument:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin (x + iy) &= \sin x \cos iy + \cos x \sin iy \\ &= \sin x \cosh y + i \cos x \sinh y \end{align}

Partial fraction and product expansions of complex sine[link]

Using the partial fraction expansion technique in Complex Analysis, one can find that the infinite series

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sum_{n = -\infty}^{\infty}\frac{(-1)^n}{z-n} = \frac{1}{z} + \sum_{n = 1}^{\infty}\frac{2z}{n^2-z^2} \end{align}

both converge and are equal to Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{\pi}{\sin \pi z} .

Similarly we can find

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \frac{\pi^2}{\sin^2 \pi z} = \sum_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{1}{(z-n)^2}. \end{align}

Using product expansion technique, one can derive

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{align} \sin \pi z = \pi z \prod_{n = 1}^\infty ( 1- \frac{z^2}{n^2}) \end{align}

Usage of complex sine[link]

sin z is found in the functional equation for the Gamma function,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Gamma(s)\Gamma(1-s)={\pi\over\sin\pi s}

.

Which in turn is found in the functional equation for the Riemann zeta-function,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \zeta(s)=2(2\pi)^{s-1}\Gamma(1-s)\sin(\pi s/2)\zeta(1-s)

As a holomorphic function, sin z is a 2D solution of Laplace's equation:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Delta u(x_1, x_2) = 0

Complex graphs[link]

Sine function in the complex plane

real component	imaginary component	magnitude

Sin^-1 in the complex plane

real component	imaginary component	magnitude

History[link]

While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180–125 BC) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 AD).

The function sine (and cosine) can be traced to the jyā and koṭi-jyā functions used in Gupta period Indian astronomy (Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.^[1]

The first published use of the abbreviations 'sin', 'cos', and 'tan' is by the 16th century French mathematician Albert Girard; these were further promulgated by Euler (see below). The Opus palatinum de triangulis of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596.

In a paper published in 1682, Leibniz proved that sin x is not an algebraic function of x.^[4] Roger Cotes computed the derivative of sine in his Harmonia Mensurarum (1722).^[5] Leonhard Euler's Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748) was mostly responsible for establishing the analytic treatment of trigonometric functions in Europe, also defining them as infinite series and presenting "Euler's formula", as well as the near-modern abbreviations sin., cos., tang., cot., sec., and cosec.^[6]

Etymology[link]

Look up sine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Etymologically, the word sine derives from the Sanskrit word for chord, jiva*(jya being its more popular synonym). This was transliterated in Arabic as jiba جــيــب , abbreviated jb جــــب . Since Arabic is written without short vowels, "jb" was interpreted as the word jaib جــيــب , which means "bosom", when the Arabic text was translated in the 12th century into Latin by Gerard of Cremona. The translator used the Latin equivalent for "bosom", sinus (which means "bosom" or "bay" or "fold") ^[7][8] The English form sine was introduced in the 1590s.

Software implementations[link]

The sin function, along with other trigonometric functions, is widely available across programming languages and platforms. Some CPU architectures have a built-in instruction for sin, including the Intel x86 FPU. In programming languages, sin is usually either a built in function or found within the language's standard math library. There is no standard algorithm for calculating sin. IEEE 754-2008, the most widely used standard for floating-point computation, says nothing on the topic of calculating trigonometric functions such as sin.^[9] Algorithms for calculating sin may be balanced for such constraints as speed, accuracy, portability, or range of input values accepted. This can lead to very different results for different algorithms in special circumstances, such as for very large inputs, e.g. sin(10²²).

A once common programming optimization, used especially in 3D graphics, was to pre-calculate a table of sin values, for example a value per degree. This allowed results to be looked up from a table rather than being calculated in real time. With modern CPU architectures this method typically offers no advantage.

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sine function

• Sine wave
• Trigonometric functions
• Sinusoidal model
• Discrete sine transform
• Law of sines
• Sine and cosine transforms
• Sine quadrant
• Aryabhata's sine table
• Madhava's sine table
• Madhava series
• Bhaskara I's sine approximation formula
• Hyperbolic function
• List of trigonometric identities
• Proofs of trigonometric identities
• Euler's formula
• Polar sine — a generalization to vertex angles
• Optical sine theorem
• Generalized trigonometry
• Sine–Gordon equation

Notes[link]