1. REDIRECT Israel–Lebanon relations  

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Israeli-Lebanese conflict Part of Arab-Israeli conflict 150px Israel and Lebanon (regional map) Date 1948-present Location Israel and Lebanon Status Mounting tensions between both countries 2010 Israel-Lebanon clashes Belligerents Lebanon Hezbollah SSNP LCP Amal Movement Syrian Army PLO (until 1994, following the Oslo Accords) Israel SLA (until 2000) Lebanese Front (until 1983) Casualties and losses 1,900 killed Lebanese Factions 11,000 killed Palestinian Factions 20,000+ killed Lebanese Civilians[citation needed] 1,400 killed IDF 954-1,456 killed SLA 191+ killed Israeli Civilians

v t e Israeli–Lebanese conflict Timeline Rocket attacks on Israel Incursions into Lebanon Conflicts 1948 War Palestinian insurgency (1968-1982) 1982 War South Lebanon conflict Shebaa farms 2006 War 2010 border clash

The Israeli–Lebanese conflict describes a series of related military clashes involving Israel, Lebanon, and Syria, as well as various non-state militias acting from within Lebanon.

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) recruited militants in Lebanon from among the families of Palestinian refugees who had been expelled or fled due to the creation of Israel in 1948.^[1][2] By 1968, the PLO and Israel were committing cross border attacks against each other.^[3] After the PLO leadership and its Fatah brigade were expelled from Jordan for fomenting a revolt, they entered Lebanon and the cross-border violence increased. Meanwhile, demographic tensions over the Lebanese National Pact led to the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990).^[4] Israel's 1978 invasion of Lebanon pushed the PLO north of the Litani River, but the PLO continued their campaign against Israel. Israel invaded Lebanon again in 1982 and forcibly expelled the PLO. Israel withdrew to a slim borderland buffer zone, held with the aid of proxy militants in the South Lebanon Army (SLA). In 1985, Hezbollah, a Lebanese Shia resistance movement sponsored by Iran,^[5] called for armed struggle to end the Israeli occupation of Lebanese territory.^[6] When the Lebanese civil war ended and other warring factions agreed to disarm, Hezbollah and the SLA refused. Combat with Hezbollah weakened Israeli resolve and led to a collapse of the SLA and an Israeli withdrawal in 2000 to their side of the UN designated border.^[7] Citing Israeli control of the Shebaa farms territory, Hezbollah continued cross border attacks intermittently over the next six years. Hezbollah now sought freedom for Lebanese citizens in Israeli prisons and successfully used the tactic of capturing Israeli soldiers as leverage for a prisoner exchange in 2004.^[8][9] The capturing of two Israeli soldiers by Hezbollah ignited the 2006 Lebanon War.^[10] Its ceasefire called for the disarmament of Hezbollah and the remaining armed camps of the PLO, and for Lebanon to control its southern border militarily for the first time in four decades.

Hostilities were suspended as of 8 September 2006. As of 2012 Hezbollah had not disarmed.^[11] On 18 June 2008, Israel declared that it was open to peace talks with Lebanon.^[12]

Background[link]

Zones of French and British influence and control imagined by the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement

The territory of what would become the states of Israel and Lebanon was once part of the long-lived Ottoman Empire (1299–1924) until its defeat in World War I. As a result of Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1917, the British occupied Palestine and parts of what would become Syria. French troops took Damascus in 1918. The League of Nations officially gave the French the Mandate of Syria and the British the Mandate of Palestine after the 1920 San Remo conference, in accordance with the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement.

The largely Christian enclave of the French Mandate became the French-controlled Lebanese Republic in 1926. Lebanon became independent in 1943 as France was under German occupation, though French troops did not completely withdraw until 1946.

The rise of anti-Semitism in Europe, culminating in the Holocaust during World War II, had meant an increase of Jewish immigrants to a minority Jewish, majority Arab Mandate.^[13] During the Great Arab Revolt of 1936–1939, and thereafter, the British increasingly came to rely on Jewish police forces to help maintain order.^[14] Eventually, the resultant rise in ethnic tensions and violence between the Arabs and Jews due to Jewish immigration and collaboration would force the British to withdraw in 1947. (The area of their mandate east of the Jordan river had already become the independent state of Jordan in 1946.) The United Nations General Assembly developed a gerrymandered 1947 UN Partition Plan,^[15] to attempt to give both Arabs and Jews their own states from the remains of the British Mandate; however, the situation quickly devolved into a full-fledged civil war.

1948 Arab-Israeli war[link]

In 1948, the Lebanese army had by far the smallest regional army, consisting of only 3,500 soldiers.^[16] At the prompting of Arab leaders in the region, Lebanon agreed to join the other armies that were being assembled around the perimeter of the British Mandate territory of Palestine for the purpose of invading Palestine.^{[citation needed]} Lebanon committed 1,000 of these soldiers to the cause. The Arab armies waited for the end of the Mandate and the withdrawal of British forces, which was set for March 15, 1948.

Israel declared its independence on May 14, 1948. The next day, the British Mandate officially expired and, in an official cablegram, the seven-member Arab League, including Lebanon, publicly proclaimed their aim of creating a democratic "United State of Palestine" in place of the two-state solution proposed by the United Nations. The League soon entered the conflict on the side of the Palestinian Arabs, thus beginning the international phase of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Transjordan, and Iraq declared war on the new state of Israel. They expected an easy and quick victory in what came to be called the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The Lebanese army joined the other Arab armies in the invasion. It crossed into the northern Galilee. By the end of the conflict, however, it had been repulsed by Israeli forces, which occupied South Lebanon. Israel signed armistice agreements with each of its invading neighbors. The armistice with Lebanon was signed on 23 March 1949.^[17] As part of the agreement with Lebanon, Israeli forces withdrew to the international border.

By the conclusion of that war, Israel had signed ceasefire agreements with all of the neighbouring Arab countries.^[18] The territory it now controlled went well beyond what had been alloctaed to it under the United Nations Partition Plan, incorporating much of what had been promised to the Palestinian Arabs under the Plan. However, it was understood by all the state parties at the time that the armistice agreements were not peace treaties with Israel, nor the final resolution of the conflict between them, including the borders.

After the war, the United Nations estimated 711,000^[19] Palestinian Arabs, out an estimated 1.8 million dwelling in the Mandate of Palestine,^[20] fled, emigrated or were forced out of Israel and entered neighboring countries. By 1949, there were 110,000 Palestinian Arabs in Lebanon,^[21] moved into camps established by and administered by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.^[22]

With the exception of two camps in the Beirut area, the camps were mostly Muslim.^[22] Lebanese Christians feared that the Muslim influx would affect their political dominance and their assumed demographic majority.^[22] Accordingly, they imposed restrictions on the status of the Palestinian refugees. The refugees could not work, travel, or engage in political activities. Initially the refugees were too impoverished to develop a leadership capable of representing their concerns.^[22] Less democratic regimes also feared the threat the refugees posed to their own rule, but Lebanon would prove too weak to maintain a crackdown.^[1]

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) recruited militants in Lebanon from among the families of Palestinian refugees who had left Israel in 1948.^[1][2]

The 1967 Six-Day War[link]

Despite sharing in the ongoing border tensions over water,^[23] Lebanon rejected calls by other Arab governments to participate in the 1967 Six-Day War.^[24] Militarily weak in the south, Lebanon could not afford conflict with Israel.^[24]

Nevertheless, the loss of the remainder of Palestine radicalized the Palestinians languishing in refugee camps hoping to return home.^[1] The additional influx of refugees turned Palestinian camps throughout the Middle East into centers of guerrilla activity.^[1]

Rise of the PLO (1968–1975)[link]

From 1968 onwards, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) began conducting raids from Lebanon into Israel, and Israel began making retaliatory raids against Lebanese villages to encourage the Lebanese people to themselves deal with the fedayeen.^[3] After an Israeli airline was machine-gunned at Athens Airport, Israel bombed the Beirut International Airport in retaliation, destroying 13 civilian aircraft.^[1]

The unarmed citizenry could not expel the armed foreigners, while the Lebanese army was too weak militarily and politically.^[3] The Palestinian camps came under Palestinian control after a series of clashes in 1968 and 1969 between the Lebanese military and the emerging Palestinian guerrilla forces.^[22] In 1969 the Cairo Agreement guaranteed refugees the right to work, to form self-governing committees, and to engage in armed struggle.^[22] "The Palestinian resistance movement assumed daily management of the refugee camps, providing security as well as a wide variety of health, educational, and social services."^[22]

On 8 May 1970, a PLO faction, called the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, (DFLP) crossed into Israel and carried out the Avivim school bus massacre.

In 1970, the PLO attempted to overthrow a reigning monarch, King Hussein of Jordan, and following his quashing of the rebellion in what Arab historians call Black September, the PLO leadership and their troops fled from Jordan^[25] to Syria and finally Lebanon, where cross-border violence increased.

With headquarters now in Beirut, PLO factions recruited new members from the Palestinian refugee camps.^[2] South Lebanon was nicknamed "Fatahland" due to the predominance there of Yasser Arafat's Fatah organization. With its own army operating freely in Lebanon, the PLO had created a state within a state.^[26] By 1975, more than 300,000 Palestinian displaced persons lived in Lebanon.^[27]

In reaction to the 1972 Munich massacre, Israel carried out Operation Spring of Youth. Members of Israel's elite Special Forces landed by boat in Lebanon on 9 April 1973, and with the aid of Israeli intelligence agents, infiltrated the PLO headquarters in Beirut and assassinated several members of its leadership.

In 1974 the PLO altered its focus to include political elements, necessary for a dialogue with Israel. Those who insisted on a military solution left to form the Rejectionist Front, and Yassir Arafat took over the PLO leadership role.^[28]

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command, which split from the PLO in 1974, carried out the Kiryat Shmona massacre in April of that year. In May 1974, the DFLP crossed again into Israel and carried out the Ma'alot massacre.

Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990)[link]

The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) was a complex conflict in the form of various factions and shifting alliances between and among Lebanese Maronite Catholics, Lebanese Muslims, Palestinian Muslims, Lebanese Druze, and other non-sectarian groups. Governmental power had been allotted among the different religious groups by the National Pact based partially on the results of the 1932 census. Changes in demographics and increased feelings of deprivation by certain ethnic groups, as well as Israeli-Palestinian clashes in the south of the county all contributed to the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War.^[4]

Beginning in May 1976, Israel supplied the Maronite militias, including the Lebanese Forces, led by Bachir Gemayel, with arms, tanks, and military advisers.^[29][30] The border between Israel and Lebanon was at this time was nicknamed the Good Fence.

Fearing loss of commercial access to the port of Beirut, in June 1976 Syria intervened in the civil war to support the Maronite dominated government,^[31] and by October had 40,000 troops stationed within Lebanon.

Operation Litani[link]

On 11 March 1978, eleven PLO militants made a sea landing in Haifa, Israel, where they hijacked a bus,^[32] full of people, killing those on board in what is known as the Coastal Road massacre. By the end of the day, nine hijackers^[33] resulting in 37 Israeli civilians killed.^[32]

In response, on 14 March 1978, Israel launched Operation Litani occupying southern Lebanon, except for the city of Tyre,^[34] with 25,000 troops. The objective was to push the PLO away from the border and bolster a Lebanese Christian militia allied with Israel, the South Lebanese Army (SLA).^[32] However, the PLO concluded from the name of the operation that the invasion would halt at the Litani River and moved their forces north, leaving behind a token force of a few hundred men.^[35] As a result, the casualties were almost all civilians.^[35]

SLA leader Saad Haddad (right) in a conversation with Norwegian UNIFIL personnel in Metula, Israel, 1980

On 19 March 1978, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 425, which called for Israel's immediate withdrawal and the establishment of a United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon.^[36] When Israel forces withdrew later in 1978, they turned over its positions in Lebanon to the South Lebanon Army which would continue fighting as a proxy for Israel against the PLO until Israel drove the PLO out of Lebanon in 1982.

On 22 April 1979, Samir Kuntar and three other members of the Palestine Liberation Front, a sometimes faction of the PLO, landed in Nahariya, Israel from Tyre, Lebanon by boat. After killing a police officer who had discovered their presence, they took a father and his daughter hostage in an apartment building. After fleeing with the hostages from police back to the beach, a shootout killed one policeman and two of the militants. Kuntar then executed the hostages before he and the remaining invader were captured.

In April 1981, the United States brokered a cease-fire in southern Lebanon among Israel, Syria and the PLO.

1982 Lebanon war and Israeli occupation (June 6, 1982–January 1985)[link]

The 1982 Lebanon war began on 6 June 1982,^[37] when Israel invaded again for the purpose of attacking the Palestine Liberation Organization. During the conflict, over 17,000 Lebanese were killed,^{[38][verification needed]} and the Israeli army laid siege to Beirut. Fighting also occurred between Israel and Syria. The United States, fearing a widening conflict and the prestige the siege was giving PLO leader Yasser Arafat, got all sides to agree to a cease-fire and terms for the PLO's withdrawal on 12 August. The predominantly Muslim Multinational Force in Lebanon arrived to keep the peace and ensure PLO withdrawal. The PLO leadership retreated from Beirut on 30 August 1982 and moved to Tunisia.

The National Assembly of Lebanon narrowly chose Bachir Gemayel as president-elect, but when he was assassinated on 14 September 1982, Israel reoccupied West Beirut and Maronite militias carried out the Sabra and Shatila massacre.

In 1983, the United States brokered the May 17 Agreement, a peace treaty between Israel and Lebanon in all but name. The agreement called for a staged Israeli withdrawal over the next eight to twelve weeks and the establishment of a "security zone" to be patrolled by the Lebanese army in southern Lebanon,^[39] but was conditional on Syrian withdrawal as well. In August 1983, as Israel withdrew from the areas southeast of Beirut to the Awali River,^[40] Lebanese factions clashed for control of the freed territory.^[41]

In February 1984, the Lebanese Army collapsed, with many units forming their own militias. The National Assembly of Lebanon, under pressure from Syria and Muslim militias, cancelled the May 17 Agreement on 5 March 1984.^[41]

On 15 January 1985, Israel adopted a phased withdrawal plan, finally retreating to the Litani River to form the 4–12 kilometer (2.5–9 mi) deep^[30] Israeli Security Zone (map at^[42]) while using the native South Lebanese Army militia to help control it.

Consolidation of Hezbollah (February 1985–May 2000)[link]

Map of southern Lebanon, featuring the Blue Line, UNIFIL zone, and Litani River (2006)

On 16 February 1985, Shia Sheik Ibrahim al-Amin declared a manifesto^[6] in Lebanon, announcing a resistance movement called Hezbollah, whose goals included combating the Israeli occupation. During the 1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict the Hezbollah militia waged a guerrilla campaign against Israeli forces occupying Southern Lebanon and their South Lebanon Army proxies. "Throughout the period of 1985-92, there were very few limited exchanges between Israeli and Hezbollah or Amal forces in southern Lebanon", and "with the exception of 1988, during which twenty-one Israeli soldiers were killed, the number of Israeli fatalities per year over this period was in the single-digit figure".^[43]

By the end of 1990 the Lebanese Civil War was effectively over. In March 1991, the National Assembly of Lebanon passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its enactment, and in May 1991, the militias—with the important exceptions of Hezbollah and the SLA—were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution.

In 1992, Hezbollah won ten out of 128 seats in the Lebanese National Assembly.

On 25 July 1993 Israel launched Operation Accountability, known in Lebanon as the Seven-Day War, in retaliation for attacks by both Hezbollah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command which had killed five soldiers in the security zone.^[44] Thousands of buildings were bombed, resulting in 120 dead and 300,000 displaced civilians. Israeli forces also destroyed infrastructure such as power stations and bridges. Hezbollah retaliated with rocket attacks on Israeli villages, though inflicting significantly fewer casualties.

On 11 April 1996 Israel initiated Operation Grapes of Wrath, which Hezbollah calls the April War, subsequent to Hezbollah launching missiles into Israel, which was in turn a response to the killing of two Lebanese by an IDF missile, and the killing of Lebanese boy by a road-side bomb. Israel conducted massive air raids and extensive shelling in southern Lebanon. 106 Lebanese died in the shelling of Qana, when a UN compound was hit in an Israeli shelling. The conflict ended on 26 April 1996 with the Israeli-Lebanese Ceasefire Understanding^[45] in which both Hezbollah and Israel agreed to forgo attacks on civilians.

From 1985 through 2000, Israel continued to fund the South Lebanon Army. In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the man responsible for day to day SLA operations, Colonel Akel Hashem.^[46][47] The Israeli Air Force, in apparent response, on 7 February struck Lebanon's civilian infrastructure, including power stations at Baalbek, Deir Nbouh and Jambour. Eighteen people were reported to have been injured.^[48]

Following its declaration of intent to implement UNSC Resolution 425 on 1 April 1998, and after the collapse of the South Lebanon Army in the face of a Hezbollah onslaught, Israel declared 24 May 2000 that they would withdraw to their side of the UN designated border,^[7] the Blue Line, 22 years after the resolution had been approved. The South Lebanon Army's equipment and positions largely fell into the hands of Hezbollah. Lebanon celebrates 25 May, Liberation Day, as a national holiday.

Border clashes, assassinations (September 2000–July 2006)[link]

• In September 2000, Hezbollah forged an electoral coalition with the Amal movement. The ticket swept all 23 parliamentary seats allotted for south Lebanon in that region's first election since 1972.^[49]

• On October 7, 2000, three Israeli soldiers – Adi Avitan, Staff Sgt. Benyamin Avraham, and Staff Sgt. Omar Sawaidwere – were abducted by Hezbollah across the Israeli-Lebanese border.^[50] The soldiers were killed either during the attack or in its immediate aftermath.^[51]

• After Hezbollah killed an Israeli soldier in an attack on an armored bulldozer that had crossed the border to clear bombs on 20 January 2004, Israel bombed two of the group's bases.^[52]

• On 29 January 2004, in a German-mediated prisoner swap, one time Amal security head Mustafa Dirani, who had been captured by Israeli commandos in 1994, and 22 other Lebanese detainees, about 400 Palestinians, and 12 Israeli-Arabs were released from Israeli prisons in exchange for Israeli businessman Elchanan Tenenbaum, who had been captured by Hezbollah in October 2000. The remains of 59 Lebanese militants and civilians and the bodies of the three Israeli soldiers captured on 7 October 2000 were also part of the exchange. Hezbollah requested that maps showing Israeli mines in South Lebanon be included in the deal.^[8][9]

In May 2004, Hezbollah militiamen killed an Israeli soldier along the border within the Israeli held Shebaa Farms.

Between July and August 2004 there was a period of more intense border conflict. Hezbollah said the clash began when Israeli forces shelled its positions, while Israel said that Hezbollah had started the fighting with a sniper attack on a border outpost.

On 2 September 2004 Resolution 1559 was approved by the United Nations Security council, calling for the disbanding of all Lebanese militia. An armed Hezbollah was seen by the Israeli government as a contravention of the resolution.^[53] The Lebanese government differed from this interpretation.^[54][55]

Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon in April 2005.^[56]

On 26 May 2006, a car bomb killed Palestinian Islamic Jihad leader Mahmoud Majzoub and his brother in Sidon. Prime Minister of Lebanon Fuad Saniora called Israel the prime suspect, but Israel denied involvement.^[57] On 28 May 2006, rockets were fired from Lebanon into Israel. Hours later, Israel responded by bombing suspected militant rocket launch sites and exchanging fire across the border. The United Nations negotiated a ceasefire the same day.^[58]

On 10 June 2006 the Lebanese army arrested members of an alleged Israeli spy ring, including Mahmoud Rafeh, his wife, and two children.^[59] Police discovered bomb-making materials, code machines and other espionage equipment in his home.^[59] Rafeh reportedly confessed to the Majzoub killings and to working for Mossad,^[60] and admitted that his cell had assassinated two Hezbollah leaders in 1999 and 2003 and the son of Ahmed Jibril, leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, in 2002.^[61] Former Lebanese Minister Walid Jumblatt, an outspoken critic of Hezbollah, suspected that the exposure of the spy ring was a Hezbollah fabrication.^[59]

2006 Lebanon War[link]

On 12 July 2006, in an incident known as Zar'it-Shtula incident, the Hezbollah initiated diversionary rocket attacks on Israeli military positions near the coast and near the Israeli border village of Zar'it,^[10] while another Hezbollah group crossed from Lebanon into Israel and ambushed two Israeli Army vehicles, killing three Israeli soldiers and seizing two.^[62][63]

Hezbollah promptly demanded the release of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel, including Samir Kuntar and an alleged surviving perpetrator of the Coastal Road massacre, in exchange for the release of the captured soldiers.^[64]

Heavy fire between the sides was exchanged across the length of the Blue Line, with Hezbollah targeting IDF positions near Israeli towns.^[10]

Thus began the 2006 Lebanon War. Israel responded with massive airstrikes and artillery fire on targets throughout Lebanon, an air and naval blockade, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. In Lebanon the conflict killed over 1,500 people, mostly civilians, severely damaged infrastructure, displaced about one million people. Israel suffered 42 civilian deaths as a result of prolonged rocket attacks being launched into northern Israel causing the displacement of half a million Israelis.^[65] Normal life across much of Lebanon and northern Israel was disrupted. These are besides the deaths in combat.

A United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006. The blockade was lifted on 8 September.^[66]

Post-2006 war activity[link]

Since the 2006 Lebanon War, there have been only isolated incidents.

On 7 February 2007, there was an exchange of gunfire near Avivim between the Lebanese Armed Forces and the Israel Defence Forces, culminating in the firing of two IDF tank shells over the border. There were no injuries on either side.^[67] The UN Secretary-General stated it was first armed incident since the end of the last war and that the first fire was by the Lebanese army without any provocation since the IDF was operating inside Israeli territory.^[68]

On 17 June 2007, an unknown militant group fired two rockets from Lebanon into northern Israel, an action which the UN condemned as a serious violation of the ceasefire. Hezbollah denied involvement in the incident, and Israel emphasized that it would restrain itself from responding by force. Saniora pledged that "The state ... will spare no effort in uncovering those who stand behind this incident."^[69]

As of December 2007, Hezbollah had not disarmed, and continued to recruit armed fighters, with a focus on influencing anti-Government protests in Lebanon.^[11]

On August 3, 2010, IDF forces clashed with the Lebanese army, resulting in the deaths of one Israeli officer, 2 Lebanese soldiers and a Lebanese journalist. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu addressed the situation, stating that he holds the "Lebanese Government totally responsible for violating United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701"^{[citation needed]}. The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) confirmed Israeli soldiers were on the Israeli side of the Blue Line border when Lebanese troops opened fire.^[70] However, the Syrian, Egyptian, and Lebanese governments hold the IDF accountable for the breach the UN resolution.^{[citation needed]}

On August 19, 2010, the Lebanese military reported that 12 aircraft belonging to the IDF entered into Lebanese territory, which they claim is a violation of Resolution 1701. In the three incidents, the IDF planes made circle maneuvers, fired no shots and left Lebanese airspace soon after.^[71]

On August 1, 2011, Israeli soldiers and Lebanese soldiers clashed in a fire fight. At first it was reported that a Lebanese soldier was killed, but UNIFIL later said no one was killed. UNIFIL findings showed that Israel had not crossed the border, and there was no cause for the clash.^[72][73]

See also[link]

• 1958 Lebanon Crisis
• Black September in Jordan
• Syrian occupation of Lebanon
• Cedar Revolution
• 2008 conflict in Lebanon
• List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

References[link]

External links[link]

Articles[link]

• Israel-Lebanon Offshore Oil & Gas Dispute – Rules of International Maritime Law Martin Waehlisch, ASIL Insight (American Society of International Law), Vol. 15, Issue 3, Dec. 5, 2011.