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The Motion Picture Association of America's film-rating system is used in the U.S. and its territories to rate a film's thematic and content suitability for certain audiences. The MPAA rating scheme applies only to films submitted for rating. The MPAA rating system is a voluntary scheme not enforced by law; and films can be exhibited without a rating, though many theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or X-rated films. Non-members of MPAA may also submit films for rating.[1] Other media (such as television programs and video games) may be rated by other entities. The MPAA rating system is one of various motion picture rating systems used to help parents decide what movies are appropriate for their children.
In the United States, the MPAA rating scheme is the most-recognized guide for parents regarding the content of films and each rating has been trademarked by MPAA so that they cannot be used by other organizations. The MPAA system has been criticized for the secrecy of its decisions as well as for perceived inconsistencies.[2]
The MPAA's rating system is administered by the Classification & Ratings Administration, which is not a government agency. MPAA ratings serve primarily as a consumer suggestion by a group of corporate analysts. After screening films, their personal opinions are used to arrive at one of five ratings. Theater owners voluntarily agree to enforce corporate film ratings as determined by the MPAA, which in turn facilitates their access to new film releases.
Films are often released with different versions and different ratings, as versions that may be unprofitable in theaters may have better success in the home entertainment market (see the section entitled "Commercial viability of the NC-17 rating" below).
Since 1990, the MPAA movie ratings have been as follows:
| Rating symbol |
Meaning[3] |
|
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- G – General Audiences
- All ages admitted
- (1968–present)
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- PG – Parental Guidance Suggested
- Some material may not be suitable for children
- (1978–present; between 1972 and 1984, the word "children" instead read "pre-teenagers.")
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- PG-13 – Parents Strongly Cautioned
- Some material may be inappropriate for children under 13.
- (1984–present)
|
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- R – Restricted
- Under 17 requires an accompanying parent or adult guardian.
- (1970–present; during 1968 and 1969, the designated age was 16)
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- NC-17 – No Children Under 17
- (1996–present; between 1990 and 1996, the wording was "No One Under 17 Admitted")
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If a film is not submitted for rating, the label NR (Not Rated) or UR (Unrated) is often used. Many older films have the label NR or UR, but merely because a film is labelled NR or UR does not always mean that it is unsuitable for children.
Jack Valenti, who had become president of the MPAA in May 1966, deemed the Hays Code – in place since 1930 and rigorously enforced since July 1, 1934 – as hopelessly out of date and no longer appropriate for the current film and cultural environment. He felt compelled to take this position by the release of major studio films such as The Pawnbroker (1965), Blow-Up (1966), and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966), which were among the first to feature nudity and profanity.[4]
Valenti felt action was required on the part of the respective studios to edit their films appropriately, but that having to deal with each film one at a time in this manner was awkward and inefficient.[4] The Code was revised in 1966 to include the "SMA" (Suggested for Mature Audiences) advisory as a stopgap measure. However, Valenti realized that a new approach to film rating was needed in response to "the irresistible force of creators determined to make 'their films'", and to avoid "the possible intrusion of government into the movie arena".[4]
On November 1, 1968, the voluntary MPAA film rating system took effect, with three organizations serving as its monitoring and guiding groups: the MPAA, the National Association of Theater Owners (NATO), and the International Film Importers & Distributors of America (IFIDA).[4]
The original movie ratings were[4]:
- G: General Audiences – Suggested for General Audiences – (all ages)
- M: Mature Audiences – Suggested for Mature Audiences – Parental Discretion Advised
- R: Restricted – People Under 16 Not Admitted Unless Accompanying Parent or Adult Guardian
- X: Adults Only – People Under 18 will not be Admitted (changed to 17 later that year)
This content classification system originally was to have three ratings with the intention of allowing parents to take their children to any film they choose. However, the National Association of Theater Owners urged the creation of an adults only category, fearful of possible legal problems in local jurisdictions. The "X" rating was not an MPAA trademark: any producer not submitting a movie for MPAA rating could self-apply the "X" rating (or any other symbol or description that was not an MPAA trademark).[4]
With the MPAA's introduction of its rating system, the U.S. was a latecomer as far as film classification was concerned. Countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom had begun this practice earlier in the 20th century.[5]
The M rating was changed because parents were confused as to whether "M"-rated films or "R"-rated films had more intense content. This led to the "GP" rating in January 1970.[6]
The ratings used from 1970 to 1972 were:
- Rated G: All Ages Admitted. General Audiences.
- Rated GP: All ages Admitted. Parental Guidance Suggested.
- Rated R: Restricted. Under 17 Requires Accompanying Parent or Adult Guardian.
- Rated X: No One Under 17 Admitted.
Also in 1970 the ages of viewers admitted to R- and X-rated movies was raised from 16 to 17. It was then changed from 17 to 18 for X to stop underage kids from seeing pornography.[7][8] However, the age on the X rating varied per the jurisdiction.[citation needed]
By 1972, parents perceived the "GP" rating as not indicative of a film's true content. In 1971, the MPAA added content advisories such as: Contains material not generally suitable for pre-teenagers. In February 1972 the MPAA replaced the GP rating with the new PG rating.[9]
The ratings used from 1972 to 1984 were:
- Rated G: General Audiences – All Ages Admitted.
- Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – Some Material May Not be Suitable for Pre-Teenagers.
- Rated R: Restricted – Under 17 Requires Accompanying Parent or Adult Guardian.
- Rated X: No One Under 17 Admitted.
By late 1978, the PG rating was reworded, with pre-teenagers being replaced with children.[10][11]
In 1984, explicit violence and gore in the films Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins caused an uproar among parents over their PG rating.[12][13] Their complaints led Hollywood figure Steven Spielberg, director of Temple of Doom and producer of Gremlins, to suggest a new rating to MPAA president Jack Valenti for movies that have too much adult content to be rated PG, but not quite enough to be rated R. Spielberg's suggestion was for an intermediate rating of PG-13 or PG-14.[14] On conferring with cinema owners, Valenti and the MPAA introduced the PG-13 rating on July 1, 1984, indicating that some material may be inappropriate for children under 13. The Spielberg films were never re-rated.
The first film distributed with a PG-13 rating was Red Dawn (1984). Dreamscape and The Woman in Red were released on the same day the following week. The Flamingo Kid (1984) was the first film to receive the rating, but was not released until December 1984.[15]
The ratings used from 1984 to 1986 were:
- Rated G: General Audiences – All Ages Admitted.
- Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – Some Material May Not be Suitable for Children.
- Rated PG-13: Parents Are Strongly Cautioned to Give Special Guidance for Attendance of Children Under 13 – Some Material may be Inappropriate for Children Under 13.
- Rated R: Restricted – Under 17 Requires Accompanying Parent or Adult Guardian.
- Rated X: No One Under 17 Admitted.
In 1986, the PG-13 rating's wording was changed to: Parents Strongly Cautioned – Some Material May be Inappropriate for Children Under 13.
In the rating system's early years, X-rated movies, such as Midnight Cowboy (1969), A Clockwork Orange (1971), Fritz the Cat (1972), and Last Tango in Paris (1973) were understood to be non-pornographic films with adult content that were nonetheless mainstream films that did well at the box office. However, pornographic films – if rated at all – sometimes self-imposed the non-trademarked X rating. Thus, the X rating (along with the hyperbolic "XXX", typically for hardcore pornography) soon became a synonym for pornography in American mainstream culture.[16]
In 1989, two critically acclaimed art films, The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover and Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer, were released featuring very strong adult content. Neither was approved for an R rating, thus limiting their commercial distribution.[1]
On September 27, 1990, the MPAA introduced the rating NC-17 ("No Children Under 17 Admitted") as its official rating for adult-oriented films bearing the MPAA seal.[17] Henry & June was the first film to receive the NC-17 rating.[17][18]
The ratings used from 1990 to the late 1990s were:
- Rated G: General Audiences – All Ages Admitted.
- Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – Some Material May Not be Suitable for Children.
- Rated PG-13: Parents Strongly Cautioned – Some Material May be Inappropriate for Children Under 13.
- Rated R: Restricted – Under 17 Requires Accompanying Parent or Adult Guardian.
- Rated NC-17: No Children 17 or Under Admitted.
In the late 1990s the NC-17 rating age limit was changed by rewording it from "No Children Under 17 Admitted" to "No One 17 And Under Admitted". In January 18, 2012, it was changed back to "No Children Under 17". And, in practice, media that refused to advertise X-rated films and movies also refused to advertise NC-17 movies and films.[citation needed] In addition, large video distribution businesses such as Blockbuster Video and Hollywood Video refused to stock NC-17 movies.[19]
Midnight Cowboy was rated X when released in 1969, but re-rated R in 1971.[20]
Since September 1990, the MPAA has added brief explanations of why a particular film received an R rating, allowing parents to know what type of content the film contained. For example, Martin Scorcese's 2006 film The Departed was rated R for "Strong Brutal Violence, Pervasive Language, Some Strong Sexual Content, and Drug Material". Sometime later, the MPAA began applying rating explanations for PG, PG-13 and NC-17 films as well.[21]
As of October 2011[update], most, if not all, films assigned with an official MPAA rating provide reasons as to why they were rated because of said content. Some pre-1990 films may contain rating explanations if re-released for home video.
The MPAA also rates film trailers, print advertising, posters, and other media used to promote a film. Trailers are commonly referred to as "green band", "yellow band", or "red band" based on the rating given to the trailer by the MPAA. Green, yellow, or red title cards displayed before the start of a trailer indicates the trailer's rating.
- Green band: approved for all or appropriate audiences; can be shown before a movie with any rating.
- Yellow band: approved for age-appropriate audiences; Internet trailers only.[22]
- Red band: approved for restricted audiences; can be shown before R, NC-17 or unrated films.[23]
- If a film uses "one of the harsher sexually derived words" (such as fuck) one to four times, it is routine today for the film to receive a PG-13 rating, provided that the word is used as an expletive and not with a sexual meaning (this was mentioned in Be Cool, when Chili Palmer complains about the movie industry.).[citation needed] There has been two exceptions so far: Gunner Palace, a documentary of soldiers in the Second Gulf War, has 42 uses of the word, 2 used sexually[24], and The Hip Hop Project has 17 uses[25]. Both films were appealed in order to get PG-13 ratings from the MPAA.
- A reference to drugs, such as marijuana, usually gets a movie a PG-13 rating at a minimum. A well known example of an otherwise PG movie getting a PG-13 for a drug reference (momentary, along with brief language) is Whale Rider. The film contained only mild profanity but received a PG-13 because of a scene where drug paraphernalia were briefly visible. Critic Roger Ebert criticized the MPAA for the rating and called it "a wild overreaction."[26]
- In May 2007, the MPAA announced that depictions of cigarette smoking would be considered in a film's rating.[27][28]
Walt Disney Pictures no longer allows smoking in its movies, or at least in its newer movies, as at least one older movie, 101 Dalmatians, was released uncut on DVD after Disney banned smoking in its films despite the fact that it features Cruella de Vil and Roger Radcliffe as heavy smokers. The 2011 Nickelodeon-animated film Rango caused some controversy over its PG rating among anti-smoking advocates. It was argued that the movie showed over sixty depictions of characters smoking in the film, and was therefore inappropriate for the child-friendly PG rating.[29]
As of 2010, the MPAA has added a descriptor of "male nudity" to movies featuring said content.[30]
According to This Film Is Not Yet Rated, the members of the board as of December 2005[31] were:
- Joan Graves, Chair
- Anthony "Tony" Hey, Senior Rater, 61,
- Scott Young, Senior Rater, 51,
- Joann Yatabe, Senior Rater, 61,
- Matt Ioakimedes, 46,
- Barry Freeman, 45,
- Arleen Bates, 44,
- Joan Worden, 56,
- Howard Fridkin, 47,
- Kori Jones, now deceased
and the MPAA Appeals Board members:
- Matt Brandt, President, Trans-Lux Theatres
- Pete Cole, Film Buyer, The Movie Experience
- Bruce Corwin, Chairman & CEO, Metropolitan Theatres
- Alan Davy, Film Buyer, Regal Entertainment Group
- Mike Doban, President, Archangelo Entertainment
- Steve Gilula, CEO 20th Century Fox
- Frank Haffar, COO, Maya Cinemas
- John Lodigian, Vice President of Sales, AMC Theatres
- Michael McClellan, Vice President & Film Buyer, Landmark Theatres
- Milton Moritz, CA/NV Chapter President, National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO)
- Lew Westenberg, VP of Operations West Coast Division, Loews Cineplex Theatres
- Jonathan Wolf, Director, American Film Market
- Reverend James Wall, United Methodist Minister, National Council of Churches
- Harry Forbes, Representative, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
According to the documentary This Film is Not Yet Rated out of all the rating systems across over 30 different countries only the American system are the members not disclosed by the organization. Members must sign contracted agreements that they will not disclose any information about the MPAA to the public. [31]
During the last decade PG ratings have begun to be associated with children's films, and are widely considered to be commercially bad for films targeted at teenagers and adults. For example, the 2004 film Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow, which was not targeted at children, received a PG rating, which some believe caused it to underperform at the box office as preteens and teenagers may have brushed it off as a "kiddie flick".[32]
In its initial years of use, few movies with the NC-17 rating were profitable. Today, the NC-17 rating is found primarily in art house films where patrons are less likely to have a positive or negative impression of the rating. During the controversy about the MPAA's decision to give the film Blue Valentine an NC-17 rating (the Weinstein Company challenged this decision, and the MPAA ended up rewarding the same cut an R rating on appeal), star Ryan Gosling noted that NC-17 films are not allowed wide advertisement and that, given the refusal of major cinema chains like AMC and Regal to show NC-17s, many such films will never be accessible to people who live in markets that do not have art house theatres.
In 1995, United Artists released the big-budget film Showgirls (1995). It became the most widely-distributed movie with an NC-17 rating (showing in 1,388 cinemas simultaneously), but a financial failure that grossed only 45% of its $45 millon budget.[33] This helped establish the perception that the NC-17 rating was commercially untenable.
When the horror film Scream was submitted, it received an NC-17 rating for its graphic violence. However, Miramax Films, which funded the film, refused to release a film with this rating, so director Wes Craven fought long and hard, making many cuts to attempt to get an R rating. In the end, it took a second showing, with the members having an open mind toward the humorous subject matter, to get the wanted rating. Ironically, when the film was released to video, the version shown was the original, uncut version, though that was fixed in subsequent releases.
Requiem for a Dream (2000) was given an NC-17 rating. When Darren Aronofsky refused to edit the film for an R rating, Artisan Entertainment backed him up by releasing an unrated final cut. An R-rated cut was released later.
Some modest successes can be found among NC-17 theatrical releases, however. Fox Searchlight Pictures released the original NC-17-rated American edition of the European movie The Dreamers (2003) in theaters in the United States, and later released both the original NC-17 and the cut R-rated version on DVD. A Fox Searchlight spokesman said the NC-17 rating did not give them much trouble in releasing this film (they had no problem booking it, and only Mormon-owned Deseret News refused to take the film's ad), and Fox Searchlight was satisfied with this film's United States box office result.[34] Another notable exception is Bad Education, a NC-17 foreign-language film which grossed $5.2 million in the United States theatrically[35] (a moderate success for a foreign-language film[36]).
With the growth of the home entertainment market since the late 1990s, a successful marketing vehicle for NC-17 films has emerged. Since R ratings are preferred for theatrical exhibition, filmmakers often cut films to meet the requirements. The "uncut" (either unrated or NC-17) version is sometimes released in limited engagements, other formats (such as DVD or Blu-Ray), and in foreign markets. This practice has become commonplace as an enticement to sell the movies for home entertainment use.[citation needed]
As of March 2007, according to Variety, MPAA chairman Dan Glickman had been made aware of the attempts to introduce a new rating, or find ways to reduce the stigma of the NC-17 rating. Film studios have pressured the MPAA to retire the NC-17 rating, because of its likely impact on their film's box office revenue.[37][38]
Legal scholar Julie Hilden wrote that the MPAA has a "masterpiece exception" that it has made for films that would ordinarily earn an NC-17 rating, if not for the broader artistic masterpiece that requires the violence depicted as a part of its message. She cites Saving Private Ryan, with its bloody depiction of the D-Day landings, as an example. This exception is troubling, Hilden argues, because it ignores context and perspective in evaluating other films and favors conventional films over edgier films that contribute newer and more interesting points to public discourse about violence.[39]
Starting in 2004, GKC Theatres (now Carmike Cinemas) had 'R-Cards' that let teens see R-rated films without adult accompaniment. The cards generated much controversy, and Jack Valenti of the MPAA said in a news article: "I think it distorts and ruptures the intent of this voluntary film ratings system. All R-rated films are not alike."[40] The president of the National Association of Theatre Owners, John Fithian, also says that the cards can be harmful. He noted in a news article for the Christian Science Monitor that the R rating is "broad enough to include relatively family-friendly fare such as Billy Elliot and Erin Brockovich (both rated R for language) along with movies that push the extremes of violence, including Pulp Fiction and Kill Bill.".[41] Though the quote is cited correctly, Billy Elliot was actually rated PG-13 when it was released on video.
The movie rating system has had a number of high profile critics. Film critic Roger Ebert argues that the system places too much emphasis on sex while allowing the portrayal of massive amounts of gruesome violence. The uneven emphasis on sex versus violence is echoed by other critics, including David Ansen, as well as many filmmakers. Moreover, Ebert argues that the rating system is geared toward looking at trivial aspects of the movie (such as the number of times a profane word is used) rather than at the general theme of the movie (for example, if the movie realistically depicts the consequences of sex and violence). He has called for an A (adults only) rating, to indicate films high in violence or mature content that should not be marketed to teenagers, but do not have NC-17 levels of sex. He has also called for the NC-17 rating to be removed and have the X rating revived. He felt that everyone understood what X-rated means while fewer people understood what NC-17 meant. He called for ratings A and X to identify whether an adult film is pornographic or not. [42] [43] [44] [45]
MPAA chairman Dan Glickman has disputed these claims, stating that far more films are initially rated NC-17 for violence than for sex but that these are later edited by studios to receive an R rating.[46]
Despite this, an internal critic of the early workings of the ratings system is film critic and writer Stephen Farber, who was a CARA intern for six months during 1969 and 1970. In The Movie Ratings Game,[47] he documents a prejudice against sex in relation to violence. This Film Is Not Yet Rated also points out that four times as many films received an NC-17 rating for sex rather as they did for violence according to the MPAA's own website.
The South Park film Bigger, Longer & Uncut focuses largely on censorship. One of the last lines in the movie (spoken by the character Sheila Broflovski) is "Just remember what the MPAA says: Horrific, deplorable violence is okay, as long as people don't say any naughty words!"
The 2011 documentary Bully received an R rating due to language, spawning controversy as the rating would prevent most of the intended audience, middle and high schoolers, from seeing the film.[48] Common Sense Media disagreed with the rating, recommending the film to mature teens thirteen and older.[49] The film's director Lee Hirsch said "It's nothing that they've never heard before." A petition collected more than 300,000 signatures to change the film's rating.[50] A version with less profanity was finally given a PG-13 rating.
Many critics of the MPAA system, especially independent distributors, have charged that major studios' releases often receive more lenient treatment than independent films. They allege that Saving Private Ryan, with its intense depiction of the D-Day invasion of Normandy, would have earned an NC-17 had it not been a Steven Spielberg film. The independent film Saints and Soldiers, which contains no nudity, almost no sex (there is a scene where a German soldier is about to rape a French woman), very little profanity, and a minimum of violence, was said to have been rated R for a single clip where a main character is shot and killed, and required modification of just that one scene to receive a PG-13 rating.[51][52]
The comedy Scary Movie, released by a division of The Walt Disney Company's Dimension Films, contained "strong crude sexual humor, language, drug use and violence," including images of ejaculation and an erect penis, but was rated R, to the surprise of many reviewers and audiences; by comparison, the comparatively tame porn spoof Orgazmo, an independent release by South Park creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker, contained "explicit sexual content and dialogue" and received an NC-17 (the only onscreen penis seen is a dildo). As Parker and Stone did not have the money and the time to edit the film, it retained its NC-17 rating. Adam Carolla's movie The Hammer was given an R rating for brief language which prompted him to question why the MPAA would rate the movie R, despite there being one to two instances of "fuck", and other minimal profanities, which is mostly considered PG-13 rated fare. A similar incident occurred with the Oscar winning independent film The King's Speech, which had a rough total of 17 instances of "fuck" used over two brief scenes. The film's subsequent R rating was criticized due to the tame content of the rest of the film, as well as the relative importance to the plot the cursing plays. Eventually, an edited, PG-13 rated version was released, but never released on DVD. To help counter this imbalance, some studio executives and successful producers who had worked with the MPAA have gone on to form companies that work with filmmakers to submit their films. Examples include Dunn Films and Motion Picture Consulting LLC.[citation needed]
Many critics of the system, both conservative and liberal, would like to see the MPAA ratings unveiled and the standards made public. The MPAA has consistently cited nationwide scientific polls (conducted each year by the Opinion Research Corporation of Princeton, New Jersey), which show that parents find the ratings useful. Critics (such as Kirby Dick) respond this proves only that parents find the ratings more useful than nothing at all.[31] In the film it is also discussed how the MPAA will not reveal any information about who or why certain decisions are made. They will not even reveal to the film maker the specific scenes that need to be cut in order to get alternative rating.
Although there has always been concern about the content of films,[53] the MPAA has, in recent years, been accused of a "ratings creep", whereby the films that fall into today's ratings categories now contain more objectionable material than those that appeared in the same categories two decades earlier.[54] A study put forward by the Harvard School of Public Health in 2004 concluded that there had been a significant increase in the level of profanity, sex and violence in films released between 1992 and 2003.[55] Kimberly Thompson, director of the study, stated: "The findings demonstrate that ratings creep has occurred over the last decade and that today’s movies contain significantly more violence, sex, and profanity on average than movies of the same rating a decade ago."[55]
Several independent consumer information services have stated that they have perceived a trend in movies containing more objectionable material. In September 2000, the ChildCare Action Project published a report with conclusions similar to that of the Harvard School of Public Health's, where they claimed that their findings indicated a "ratings creep" towards more explicit material.[56]
Slashfilm.com managing editor David Chen wrote on the website: "It's time for more people to condemn the MPAA and their outrageous antics. We’re heading towards an age when we don’t need a mommy-like organization to dictate what our delicate sensibilities can and can’t be exposed to. I deeply hope that the MPAA’s irrelevance is imminent." [57] Chicago Tribune movie critic Michael Phillips wrote that the MPAA ratings board "has become foolish and irrevelvant [sic], and its members do not have my interests at heart, or yours. They’re too easy on violence yet bizarrely reactionary when it comes to nudity and language."[58]
The MPAA system is not mandatory for films produced outside the major studios and therefore can be bypassed. In 2010, the Voluntary Media Rating (known as VoMeR for short) system was created by US-based filmmakers frustrated with the MPAA system, yet do not wish their films released 'unrated.'[59] The Voluntary Media Rating is a self-rating system for film, music and new-media producers. The system has a key feature of two levels of parental admonishment; with Adult under age [ wA < (age) ] and Restricted content under age [ Rc < (age) ]. The admonishment scale is refined by the age number. There are two informative parts to the voluntary self-rating; a Letter+Age code and disclosure details.[59]
The US feature film Spectrauma was the first to adopt the Voluntary Media Rating system with a wA < 14 rating.[59][60]
- ^ a b Maljack Prouctions v MPAA, US Dist. Court, DC Circuit
- ^ Bowles, Scott (2007-04-10). "Debating the MPAA's mission". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2007-04-09-movie-ratings-main_N.htm.
- ^ http://www.mpaa.org/ratings/what-each-rating-means
- ^ a b c d e f http://www.skepticfiles.org/en001/mpaarate.htm
- ^ Austin, Bruce A. (1989). "The Movie Rating System". Immediate Seating: A Look at Movie Audiences. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 0-534-09366-3.
- ^ http://www.mpaa.org/Ratings_hstry_Rvsns.asp
- ^ Siskel, Gene (1970-01-28). "The Movies". Chicago Tribune: p. B5.
- ^ Beck, Joan (1970-02-24). "Children's Film Fare Skimpy". Chicago Tribune: p. B3.
- ^ United Press International (1972-02-03). "New 'PG' Film Rating Clarifies Picture Type". Chicago Tribune: p. W14.
- ^ "The Influence of the MPAA'S Film-Rating System on Motion Picture Attendance: a Pilot Study" in Journal of Psychology, Vol. 106, 1980, by Bruce A. Austin
- ^ MPAA rating at end of movie clip on YouTube
- ^ "Gremlins in the Rating System" from TIME
- ^ The Top 10 Most Inappropriate PG Movies from Spike
- ^ Q&A: Steven Spielberg on Indiana Jones from Vanity Fair
- ^ Eller, Claudia (2000-09-29). "FTC Playing Parent or Big Brother?". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2000/sep/29/business/fi-30703. "The Motion Picture Assn. of America ... gave the first PG-13 rating that same year to Garry Marshall's "The Flamingo Kid" ..."
- ^ The MPAA Rating Systems
- ^ a b "X-Film Rating Dropped and Replaced with NC-17"
- ^ "Henry Miller Meets the MPAA"
- ^ First Major Film With an NC-17 Rating Is Embraced by the Studio from New York Times
- ^ IMDb contributors; Rick1990, coasterman16, construct, BagsBeast, mickib4206 and others. "Parents Guide for Midnight Cowboy (1969)". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064665/parentalguide. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
- ^ Changes in the Rating System
- ^ Halbfinger, David (2007-06-13). "Attention, Web Surfers: The Following Film Trailer May Be Racy or Graphic". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/13/movies/13yell.html?ex=1348459200&en=42bf69fab0a0c9cc&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink.
- ^ http://www.mpaa.org/FlmRat_Advertising.asp
- ^ "SCREEN IT! PARENTAL REVIEW: GUNNER PALACE". screenit.com. 2005-03-11. http://www.screenit.com/movies/2005/gunner_palace.html. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ "'The Hip Hop Project' Rated PG-13, Despite 17 F-Words – The Moviefone Blog". 2007-04-27. http://blog.moviefone.com/2007/04/27/the-hip-hop-project-rated-pg-13-despite-17-f-words/. Retrieved 2012-3-31.
- ^ Ebert, Roger (2003-11-16). "Movie Answer Man". Chicago Sun-Times. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20031116/ANSWERMAN/311160302. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ "FILM RATING BOARD TO CONSIDER SMOKING AS A FACTOR" (PDF). MPAA. 2007-05-10. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20070612173748/http://mpaa.org/press_releases/mpaa+statement+smoking+as+a+rating+factor+_2_.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ "Universal Pictures Policy Regarding Tobacco Depictions in Films". Universal Studios. 2007-04-16. http://www.universalpictures.com/legal/tobacco/index.html. Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ Rubin, Rita (2011-03-08). "PG-rated 'Rango' has anti-smoking advocates fuming". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/yourlife/health/2011-03-08-rango08_ST_N.htm.
- ^ Thompson, Brian (2010-10-11). "Spangle Magazine". Spangle Magazine. http://www.spanglemagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=551. Retrieved 2011-02-01.
- ^ a b c Kirby Dick (2006-01-25). This Film is not Yet Rated (Film).
- ^ Byrne, Bridget (2004-09-20). ""Sky Captain" Takes Flight". E! Online. Archived from the original on 2004-09-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20040922020013/http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,14962,00.html. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ http://www.filmsite.org/greatestflops16.html
- ^ NC-17 comes out from hiding from Los Angeles Times
- ^ Bad Education performance from Box Office Mojo
- ^ Foreign affairs from The Hollywood Reporter
- ^ BD Horror News – MPAA Creating 'Heavy-R', A More PC Version of NC-17 from bloody-disgusting.com
- ^ MPAA Wants New Rating For 'Heavy R' – Cinematical
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