The fleur-de-lis or fleur-de-lys (plural: fleurs-de-lis)[pron 1] is a stylized lily (in French, fleur means flower, and lis means lily) or iris that is used as a decorative design or symbol. It may be "at one and the same time, religious, political, dynastic, artistic, emblematic, and symbolic", especially in heraldry.[4] It is represented in Unicode at U+269C (⚜) in the Miscellaneous Symbols block.
While the fleur-de-lis has appeared on countless European coats of arms and flags over the centuries, it is particularly associated with the French monarchy in a historical context, and continues to appear in the arms of the King of Spain and the Grand Duke of Luxembourg and members of the House of Bourbon. It remains an enduring symbol of France that appears on French postage stamps, although it has never been adopted officially by any of the French republics. According to French historian Georges Duby, the three leaves represent the medieval social classes: those who worked, those who fought and those who prayed.[5]
In North America, the fleur-de-lis is often associated with areas first named or settled by the French. In the US, they tend to be along or near the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Some of the places that have the fleur-de-lis in their flag or seal are the cities of St. Louis, Louisville, Detroit, New Orleans, and Baton Rouge and the states of Louisiana and Missouri. In Canada, the national coat of arms uses the fleur-de-lis, as do those of the provinces of (officially French-speaking) Quebec and (officially bilingual) New Brunswick. The Queen of Canada's personal flag also features the symbol. There are many French-speaking people in other Canadian provinces for whom the fleur-de-lis remains a symbol of their cultural identity.
In France it is widely used in city emblems like in the coat of arms of the city of Lille. Some cities that had been particularly faithful to the Crown were awarded an heraldic augmentation of two or three fleurs-de-lis on the chief of their coat of arms; such cities include Lyon, Angers, Poitiers, Tours, Le Havre, Chartres and Laon among others. It is also the emblem of the city of Florence, and of the Swiss municipality of Schlieren.
The coat of arms of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia contained six fleurs-de-lis, understood as the native Bosnian or Golden Lily, Lilium bosniacum.[6] This emblem was revived in 1992 as a national symbol of Bosniaks, and was the flag of Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1998.[7] Although the state insignia were changed in 1999 on request of two other ethnic groups (Serbs and Croats), the flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina still contains a fleur-de-lis alongside the Croatian chequy. Fleurs also appear in the flags and arms of many cantons, municipalities, cities and towns. It is still used as official insignia of the Bosniak Regiment of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[8]
In the United Kingdom, a fleur-de-lis has appeared in the official arms of the Norroy King of Arms for hundreds of years.
In Mauritius, slaves were branded with a fleur-de-lis.
The Welsh poet Hedd Wyn used Fleur de Lys as his pen name when he won his chair at the National Eisteddfod of Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru), the national poetry contest.
Fleurs-de-lis appear on military insignia and the logos of many organizations. During the 20th century the symbol was adopted by various Scouting organizations worldwide for their badges. Architects and designers use it alone and as a repeated motif in a wide range of contexts, from ironwork to bookbinding, especially where a French context is implied.
The symbol is also often used on a compass rose to mark the north direction, a tradition started by Flavio Gioja, a Neapolitan mariner of the 14th century.
In French, fleur de lis literally means "lily flower". It is widely thought to be a stylized version of the species Iris pseudacorus. Decorative ornaments that resemble the fleur-de-lis have appeared in artwork from the earliest human civilizations. According to Pierre-Augustin Boissier de Sauvages, an 18th century French naturalist and lexicographer:[10]
"The old fleurs-de-lis, especially the ones found in our first kings' sceptres, have a lot less in common with ordinary lilies than the flowers called flambas [in Occitan], or irises, from which the name of our own fleur-de-lis may derive. What gives some colour of truth to this hypothesis that we already put forth, is the fact that the French or Franks, before entering Gaul itself, lived for a long time around the river named Luts in the Netherlands. Nowadays, this river is still bordered with an exceptional number of irises —as many plants grow for centuries in the same places—: these irises have yellow flowers, which is not a typical feature of lilies but fleurs-de-lis. It was thus understandable that our kings, having to choose a symbolic image for what later became a coat of arms, set their minds on the iris, a flower that was common around their homes, and is also as beautiful as it was remarkable. They called it, in short, the fleur-de-lis, instead of the flower of the river of lis. This flower, or iris, looks like our fleur-de-lis not just because of its yellow colour but also because of its shape: of the six petals, or leaves, that it has, three of them are alternatively straight and meet at their tops. The other three on the opposite, bend down so that the middle one seems to make one with the stalk and only the two ones facing out from left and right can clearly be seen, which is again similar with our fleurs-de-lis, that is to say exclusively the one from the river Luts whose white petals bend down too when the flower blooms."
Sauvages' hypothesis seems to be supported by the archaic English spelling fleur-de-luce.[11]
15th century manuscript illumination of an
angel sending the fleurs-de-lis to
Clovis
It has consistently been used as a royal emblem, though different cultures have interpreted its meaning in varying ways. Gaulish coins show the first Western designs which look similar to modern fleurs-de-lis.[12] In the East it was found on the gold helmet of a Scythian king (illustration) uncovered at the Ak-Burun kurgan and conserved in Saint Petersburg's Hermitage Museum.[13]
Fleur-De-Lis is also the name of a small village in the South Wales Valleys, known as "The Flower of the Valley".
By the 12th century the fleur-de-lis had become the heraldic emblem of the Capetian kings of France, whose court propaganda traced the first adoption of the fleur-de-lis to the conversion of the Frankish King Clovis I in 493.[14] The story takes various forms, many of which relate to Clovis' conversion, and support the claim of the anointed Kings of France that their authority came directly from God, without the mediation of either the Emperor or the Pope.
Anne Lombard-Jourdan[15] traces the fleur-de-lis to a transformation of the Merovingian crista, a symbol evoking the rising sun (word derived from crescere, "to grow", alluding to the newborn Sun) represented on their coinage, which had the form of a Greek cross with the horizontals curved upwards on either side. Though Lombard-Jourdan associates the emblem with a Romano-Gallic sanctuary Christianized as the Basilica of Saint-Denis in a seamless continuity, most scholars[16] would hesitate to pursue the sign so far.
Some versions of the legend enhance the mystique of royalty by describing a vial of oil sent from heaven to anoint and sanctify Clovis at his coronation,[17] perhaps brought by a dove to Saint Remigius. Another variation says a lily appeared at Clovis' baptismal ceremony as a gift of blessing from an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary, who is often associated with the flower.[18]
Clovis' Burgundian wife, Clotilde, later to be Saint Clothilda, is usually significant in these stories. As well as her part in encouraging her husband to become a Christian, her presence helps emphasise the importance of Burgundy's support for the monarch.[19]
A story which places less emphasis on Christianity and the divine right of the French kings tells of Clovis putting a flower in his helmet just before his victory at the Battle of Vouillé, leading him to choose the fleur-de-lis as a royal symbol.[20]
The graphic evolution of crita to fleur-de-lis was accompanied by textual allegory. By the late 13th century, an allegorical poem by Guillaume de Nangis (d. 1300), written at the abbey of Joyenval at Chambourcy, relates how the golden lilies on an azure ground were miraculously substituted for the crescents on Clovis' shield, a projection into the past of contemporary images of heraldry. Through this propagandist connection to Clovis, the fleur-de-lis has been taken in retrospect to symbolize all the Christian Frankish kings, most notably Charlemagne.
In the 14th century French writers asserted that the monarchy of France, which developed from the Kingdom of the West Franks, could trace its heritage back to the divine gift of royal arms received by Clovis. This story has remained popular, even though scepticism started in the 17th century and modern scholarship has established that the fleur-de-lis was a religious symbol before it was a true heraldic symbol.[21] Along with true lilies, it was associated with the Virgin Mary, and in the 12th century Louis VI and Louis VII started to use the emblem, on sceptres for example, so connecting their rulership with this symbol of saintliness. Louis VII ordered the use of fleur-de-lis clothing in his son Philip's coronation in 1179,[22] while the first visual evidence of clearly heraldic use dates from 1211: a seal showing the future Louis VIII and his shield strewn with the "flowers".[23] Until the late 14th century the French royal coat of arms was Azure semé-de-lis Or (a blue shield "sown" (semé) with a scattering of small golden fleurs-de-lis), but Charles V of France changed the design from an all-over scattering to a group of three in about 1376.[a][b] These two coats are known in heraldic terminology as France Ancient and France Modern respectively.
In the reign of King Louis IX (St. Louis) the three petals of the flower were said to represent faith, wisdom and chivalry, and to be a sign of divine favour bestowed on France.[24] During the next century, the 14th, the tradition of Trinity symbolism was established in France, and then spread elsewhere.
In 1328, King Edward III of England inherited a claim to the crown of France, and in about 1340 he quartered France Ancient with the arms of Plantagenet, as "arms of pretence". [c] After the kings of France adopted France Modern, the kings of England adopted the new design as quarterings from about 1411.[25] The monarchs of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to quarter the French arms until 1801, when George III abandoned his formal claim to the French throne.
King Charles VII ennobled Joan of Arc's family on 29 December 1429 with an inheritable symbolic denomination. The Chamber of Accounts in France registered the family's designation to nobility on 20 January 1430. The grant permitted the family to change their surname to du Lys.......
[edit] France Modern
France Modern remained the French royal standard, and with a white background was the French national flag until the French Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor of modern-day France. The fleur-de-lis was restored to the French flag in 1814, but replaced once again after the revolution against Charles X of France in 1830.[d] In a very strange turn of events after the end of the Second French Empire, where a flag apparently influenced the course of history, Henri, comte de Chambord, was offered the throne as King of France, but he agreed only if French gave up the tricolor and bring back the white flag with fleurs-de-lis.[26] His condition was rejected and France became a republic.
France Modern was also on the coat of arms of the old French province of Île-de-France (for instance, as a badge on the uniforms of the local gendarmerie).
Fleurs-de-lis feature prominently in the Crown Jewels of England and Scotland. In English heraldry, they are used in many different ways, and can be the cadency mark of the sixth son.
The tressure flory-counterflory (flowered border) has been a prominent part of the design of the Scottish royal arms and Royal Standard since James I of Scotland.[e]
The treasured fleur-de-luce he claims
To wreathe his shield, since royal James
In Florentine fleurs-de-lis,[f] the stamens are always posed between the petals. This heraldic charge is often known as the Florentine lily to distinguish it from the conventional design. As an emblem of the city, it is therefore found in icons of the bishop Zenobius.[28] The currency of Florence, the fiorino, was decorated with it, and it influenced the appearance and name of the Hungarian forint and other florins. Elsewhere in Italy, fleurs-de-lis have been used for some papal crowns[g] and coats of arms, Farnese Dukes of Parma, and by some doges of Venice.
The fleur-de-lis was also the symbol of the House of Kotromanić, a ruling house in medieval Bosnia allegedly in recognition of the Angevin, where the flower is thought of as a Lilium bosniacum. It was used on the Bosnia and Herzegovina flag between 1992 and 1998.[h] Today, fleur-de-lis is a national symbol of Bosniaks,[i] one of three Bosnian constitutive ethnic groups, the other two being Serbs and Croats.
Other countries using the emblem heraldically include Serbia and Spain in recognition of the Bourbons. Coins minted in XIV century Romania, from the region that was the Principality of Moldova at the time, ruled by Petru_Mușat I, carry the fleur-de-lis symbol ([29]).
The heraldic fleur-de-lis is widespread: among the numerous cities which use it as a symbol are some whose names echo the word 'lily', for example, Liljendal, Finland. This is called canting arms in heraldic terminology. As a dynastic emblem it has also been very widely used: not only by noble families but also, for example, by the Fuggers, a medieval banking family.
Fleurs-de-lis crossed the Atlantic along with Europeans going to the New World, especially with French settlers. Their presence on North American flags and coats of arms usually recalls the involvement of French settlers in the history of the town or region concerned, and in some cases the persisting presence there of a population descended from such settlers.
The fleur-de-lis appears on the Canadian coat of arms, the flags of Quebec[j] and Nova Scotia in Canada, and south of the border on that of Detroit (originally a French name, though at present pronounced quite differently), New Orleans[k], and elsewhere. The Acadiana[l] region and various cities in southern Louisiana, such as Lafayette, New Orleans and Baton Rouge, also use the fleur-de-lis. On 9 July 2008, Louisiana governor Bobby Jindal signed a bill into law making the fleur-de-lis an official symbol of the state.[30] Following Hurricane Katrina, the fleur-de-lis has been widely used in New Orleans as a symbol of grassroots support for New Orleans' recovery.[31]
It is also used in several places whose name came from one of the French King Louis: amongst them, the flag of Louisville, Kentucky, and the flag of St. Louis, Missouri[m], where the three-petalled symbol also denotes the convergence of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers.
In Saskatchewan the Western Red Lily appears on the provincial flag and is sometimes used as a symbol of the province. Some representations resemble a fleur de lis but the traditional fleur de lis itself is rarely used.
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^ French royal arms before 1376 ( France ancien): Azure semé-de-lis or
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^ French royal arms after 1376 ( France moderne): Azure, three fleurs-de-lis or
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^ The arms of the Kings of England from 1340 to c.1411, quartering France ancien. The French arms are quartered as arms of pretence and in precedence (1st & 4th) to the paternal Plantagenet arms as a statement in recognition of the quasi-feudal superiority of the royal French arms to the arms of Plantagenet
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^ Fleur-de-lis of Florence
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In the Middle Ages the symbols of lily and fleur-de-lis (lis is French for "lily") overlapped considerably in Christian religious art. Michel Pastoureau, the historian, says that until about 1300 they were found in depictions of Jesus, but gradually they took on Marian symbolism and were associated with the Song of Solomon's "lily among thorns" (lilium inter spinas), understood as a reference to Mary. Other scripture and religious literature in which the lily symbolizes purity and chastity also helped establish the flower as an iconographic attribute of the Virgin. It was also believed that the fleur-de-lis also represented the holy trinity.[20]
In medieval England, from the mid-12th century, a noblewoman's seal often showed the lady with a fleur-de-lis, drawing on the Marian connotations of "female virtue and spirituality".[32] Images of Mary holding the flower first appeared in the 11th century on coins issued by cathedrals dedicated to her, and next on the seals of cathedral chapters, starting with Notre Dame de Paris in 1146. A standard portrayal was of Mary carrying the flower in her right hand, just as she is shown in that church's Virgin of Paris statue (with lily), and in the centre of the stained glass rose window (with fleur-de-lis sceptre) above its main entrance. The flowers may be "simple fleurons, sometimes garden lilies, sometimes genuine heraldic fleurs-de-lis".[23] As attributes of the Madonna, they are often seen in pictures of the Annunciation, notably in those of Sandro Botticelli and Filippo Lippi. Lippi also uses both flowers in other related contexts: for instance, in his Madonna in the Forest.
The three petals of the heraldic design reflect a widespread association with the Holy Trinity, with the band on the bottom symbolizing Mary. The tradition says that without Mary you can not understand the Trinity since it was she who bore The Son.[33] a tradition going back to 14th century France,[12] added onto the earlier belief that they also represented faith, wisdom and chivalry.
"Flower of light" symbolism has sometimes been understood from the archaic variant fleur-de-luce (see Latin lux, luc- = "light"), but the Oxford English Dictionary suggests this arose from the spelling, not from the etymology.[34]
In building and architecture, the fleur-de-lis is often placed on top of iron fence posts, as a pointed defence against intruders. It may ornament any tip, point or post with a decorative flourish, for instance, on finials, the arms of a cross, or the point of a gable. The fleur-de-lis can be incorporated in friezes or cornices, although the distinctions between fleur-de-lis, fleuron, and other stylized flowers are not always clear,[35][36] or be used as a motif in an all-over tiled pattern, perhaps on a floor.
It may appear in a building for heraldic reasons, as in some English churches where the design paid a compliment to a local lord who used the flower on his coat of arms. Elsewhere the effect seems purely visual, like the crenellations on the 14th-century Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan. It can also be seen on the doors of 16th-century Padmanabhaswamy Temple.
- Also see North America section above.
Some modern usage of the fleur-de-lis reflects "the continuing presence of heraldry in everyday life", often intentionally, but also when users are not aware that they are "prolonging the life of centuries-old insignia and emblems".[37]
Fleurs-de-lis feature on military badges like those of the Israeli Intelligence Corps, the First World War Canadian Expeditionary Force, the 256th Infantry Brigade Combat Team and the Corps of Cadets at Louisiana State University. They may be chosen for sports teams, especially when it echoes a local flag, as with the former Quebec Nordiques National Hockey League team and the former Montreal Expos Major League Baseball team, the Serie A team Fiorentina, the Major League Soccer team, the Montreal Impact, the New Orleans Saints American football team, the New Orleans Hornets basketball team, and the New Orleans Zephyrs baseball team, and in coats of arms and logos for universities (like the University of Louisiana at Lafayette and Saint Louis University and Washington University in Missouri), schools (in St. Peter, Minnesota) and companies (like the Royal Elastics shoe company). The Lady Knights of the University of Arkansas at Monticello have also adopted the fleur de lis as one of the symbols associated with their coat of arms. The flag of Lincolnshire, adopted in 2005, has a fleur-de-lis for the city of Lincoln. It is one of the symbols of the American woman's fraternity Kappa Kappa Gamma, the American men's fraternities Alpha Epsilon Pi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, and Sigma Alpha Mu as well as the international co-ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega. It is also used by the high school and college fraternity Scouts Royale Brotherhood of the Philippines. Marc-André Fleury, a Canadian ice hockey goaltender, has a fleur-de-lis logo on his mask.
The symbol may be used in less traditional ways. After Hurricane Katrina many New Orleanians of varying ages and backgrounds were tattooed with "one of its cultural emblems" as a "memorial" of the storm, according to a researcher at Tulane University.[38] The US Navy Blue Angels have named a looping flight demonstration manoeuvre after the flower as well, and there are even two surgical procedures called "after the fleur."
The emblem of the Chevrolet Corvette and Chevrolet Caprice also includes the fleur-de-lis.
The current UFC Welterweight Champion, Georges St. Pierre, has a tattoo of the fleur-de-lis on his right calf.
The Campbells soup company uses it on its soup can labels.
New Orleans based metal band Down use the symbol frequently on t shirt designs and it features on their album Nola.
The fleur-de-lis is the main element in the logo of most Scouting organizations, representing a major theme in Scouting: the outdoors and wilderness. The World Scout Emblem of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, has elements of which are used by most national Scout organizations. The symbol was chosen by Sir Robert Baden-Powell as it had been the arm-badge of those soldiers qualified as "Scouts" (reconnaissance specialists) when he served in the British Army. The classical description of this shape in Scouting literature connects the compass rose with the purpose of Scouting's principles—namely that Scouting gives one's life direction. The stars stand for truth and knowledge, the encircling rope for unity, and its reef knot, service.[39]
The symbol has featured in modern fiction on historical and mystical themes, as in the bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code and other books discussing the Priory of Sion. It recurs in French literature, where examples well known in English translation include Fleur-de-Lys de Gondelaurier, a character in The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Victor Hugo, and the mention in Dumas's The Three Musketeers of the old custom of branding a criminal with the sign (fleurdeliser). During the reign of Elizabeth I of England, known as the Elizabethan era, it was a standard name for an iris, a usage which lasted for centuries,[40] but occasionally refers to lilies or other flowers. It also appeared in the novel A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole on a sign composed by the main character.
- The lilly, Ladie of the flowring field,
- The Flowre-deluce, her louely Paramoure
- Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, 1590[41]
In Kate Brian's Private and Privilege novel series, the character Ariana Osgood wears a fleur-de-lis necklace representing her mother and her Georgian roots.
- ^ Pronounced /ˈflɜr də ˈliːs/ or /ˈflɜr də ˈliː/; French: [flœʁ də lis]. The Oxford English Dictionary gives both pronunciations for English. In French, Larousse[1] and Robert[2] have the former: [lis]. The CNRTL[3] has that pronunciation for the plant itself, but, following Barbeau-Rodhe 1930, [li] for the compound fleur-de-lis.
- ^ Dictionnaire de la Langue Francaise, Lexis, Paris, 1993
- ^ Petit Robert 1, Paris, 1990
- ^ http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/lis
- ^ Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: Its Origins and Meaning, Francisca Garvie trans. (Thames and Hudson 1997), ISBN 0-500-30074-7, p. 98.
- ^ Georges Duby, France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc
- ^ "Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1992-1998". Flagspot.net. http://flagspot.net/flags/ba-1992.html#heral. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ "Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1992-1998". Flagspot.net. http://flagspot.net/flags/ba-1992.html. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ http://www.mpr.gov.ba/userfiles/file/Biblioteka/zakoni/hr/ZAKON%20O%20ZASTAVI%20BiH/Zakon%20o%20zastavi%20BiH%20-%2019%20-%2001.pdf
- ^ "Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle - Tome 5, Flore - Wikisource" (in (French)). Fr.wikisource.org. http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_de_l%E2%80%99architecture_fran%C3%A7aise_du_XIe_au_XVIe_si%C3%A8cle_-_Tome_5,_Flore. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Pierre-Augustin Boissier de Sauvages, Dictionnaire Languedocien-François, contenant un Recueil des principales fautes que commettent, dans la diction et dans la prononciation françoises, les habitans des Provinces Méridionales, connues autrefois sous la dénomination générale de la Langue-d'Oc, 1765, p. 253:
- ^ Fleur-de-lis
- ^ a b Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: its origins and meaning p.99
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Lewis, Philippa and Gillian Darley (1986) Dictionary of Ornament
- ^ Lombard-Jourdan, 1991. Fleur-de-lis et oriflamme:signes céleste du royaume de France (Paris: C.N.R.S.); Lombard-Jourdan traces an archaeology of beliefs through material representations.
- ^ Such as Brigitte Bedos-Rezak, reviewing Lombard-Jourdan in Speculum 69.1 (January 1994):205–207).
- ^ Ralph E. Giesey, "Models of Rulership in French Royal Ceremonial" in Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics Since the Middle Ages ed. Wilentz (Princeton 1985) p43
- ^ A Complete Guide to Heraldry - Arthur Charles Fox-Davies - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0543958140&id=tybAuoY18EEC&printsec. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ [2][dead link]
- ^ a b "The Fleur-de-Lys". Heraldica.org. http://www.heraldica.org/topics/fdl.htm. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: its origins and meaning p.99-100
- ^ Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry p274
- ^ a b Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: its origins and meaning p.100
- ^ Nouvelle collection des mémoires pour servir a l'histoire de France: depuis ... - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. 28 February 2010. http://books.google.com/books?vid=049MrH9r-Fb5jsl6kC&id=LvAJAAAAIAAJ&dq. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Fox-Davies
- ^ The Course of French History - Pierre Goubert - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0415066719&id=1VbZMbFw89YC&dq. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Sir Walter Scott (1833) The Complete Works of Sir Michael Scott, Volume 1 of 7, Canto Fourth, VIII, NY: Conner and Cooke
- ^ Hall, James (1974). Dictionary of Subjects & Symbols in Art. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-433316-7. p.124.
- ^ Petru Musat Coins image
- ^ [3][dead link]
- ^ [4][dead link]
- ^ Susan M. Johns, Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-Century Anglo-Norman Realm (Manchester 2003) p130
- ^ Church Symbolism - F. R. Webber, Ralph Adams Cram - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0766140091&id. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ A "fanciful derivation", Oxford English Dictionary (1989)
- ^ Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle - Tome 5, Flore
- ^ fr:wikisource[dead link]
- ^ Michel Pastoureau, Heraldry: its origins and meaning p.93-94
- ^ "New Orleans LA Living & Lifestyle". NOLA.com. 1 November 2011. http://www.nola.com/living/t-p/index.ssf?/base/living-6/1153039975164970.xml&coll=1. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Troop 25. "Origin of the World Scouting Symbol "Fleur-de-lis"". Web. USA: Troop 25, Scouting of America. http://troop25longbeach.com/Fleur-de-Lis.aspx. Retrieved 30 September 2010.
- ^ OED
- ^ http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/queene2.html#Cant.%20VI
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