FTTB, FTTC, FTTH, FTTK, FTTN, and FTTP all redirect here. For airports with those ICAO codes, see List of airports in Chad.

Fiber to the x (FTTx) is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to replace all or part of the usual metal local loop used for last mile telecommunications. The generic term was initially a generalization for several configurations of fiber deployment (FTTN, FTTC, FTTB, FTTH...), all starting by FTT but differentiated by the last letter, which is substituted by an x in the generalization.

A schematic illustrating how FTTx architectures vary — with regard to the distance between the optical fiber and the end-user. The building on the left is the central office; the building on the right is one of the buildings served by the central office. Dotted rectangles represent separate living or office spaces within the same building.

Definition of terms[link]

The telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are:

• FTTN - Fiber-to-the-node - fiber is terminated in a street cabinet up to several kilometers away from the customer premises, with the final connection being copper. Fiber-to-the-node is often seen as an interim step towards full FTTH and is currently used by telecoms service providers like AT&T, Deutsche Telekom, Telekom Austria, Belgacom and Swisscom to deliver advanced triple-play services.
• FTTC - Fiber-to-the-curb / Fiber to the cabinet - this is very similar to FTTN, but the street cabinet or pole is closer to the user's premises; typically within 300m, within range for high-bandwidth copper technologies such as wired Ethernet and IEEE P1901 powerline networking, and wireless Wi-Fi technology.
• FTTB - Fiber-to-the-building or Fiber-to-the-basement - fiber reaches the boundary of the building, such as the basement in a multi-dwelling unit, with the final connection to the individual living space being made via alternative means, similar to the curb/pole technologies, but also possibly shorter range technology like Thunderbolt.
• FTTH - Fiber-to-the-home - fiber reaches the boundary of the living space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. It is currently used by Telefonica in the Spain's biggest cities, with speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s (megabits per seconds).
• FTTP - Fiber-to-the premises - this term is used in several contexts: as a blanket term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses.
• FTTD - Fiber-to-the-desk - fiber connection is installed from the main computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the user's desk.

To promote consistency, especially when comparing FTTH penetration rates between countries, the three FTTH Councils of Europe, North America and Asia-Pacific agreed upon definitions for FTTH and FTTB in 2006,^[1] with an update in 2009.^[2] The FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN.

To some, fiber to the telecom enclosure (FTTE) is not considered to be part of the FTTx group of technologies, despite the similarity in name. FTTE is a form of structured cabling typically used in the enterprise local area network, where fiber is used to link the main computer equipment room to an enclosure close to the desk or workstation.^[3] Passive optical networks and Point-to-Point Ethernet are architectures that deliver triple-play services over FTTH networks directly from an operator‘s central office.^[4][5]

BT is deploying a FTTC (fiber to the cabinet) system in the UK, as part of its NextGen Access scheme (NGA). Speeds of up to 80 Mbit/s (megabits per second) for downloads to the user, and 20 Mbit/s uploads from the user are possible, according to profile 17a (UK only)

Benefits[link]

The speeds of fiber optic and copper cables are both limited by length, but copper is much more sharply limited in this respect. For example, the common form of Gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6, or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted pair copper cabling but only to 100 meters. However, over the right kind of fiber, Gigabit Ethernet can easily reach tens of kilometers.

Even in the commercial world, most computers have copper communication cables. But these cables are short, typically tens of meters. Most metropolitan network links (e.g., those based on telephone or cable television services) are several kilometers long, in the range where fiber significantly outperforms copper. Replacing at least part of these links with fiber shortens the remaining copper segments and allows them to run much faster.

Fiber configurations that bring fiber right into the building can offer the highest speeds since the remaining segments can use standard Ethernet or coaxial cable. Fiber configurations that transition to copper in a street cabinet are generally too far from the users for standard Ethernet configurations over existing copper cabling. They generally use very high bitrate digital subscriber line (VDSL) at downstream rates of several tens of megabits per second.

Fiber is often said to be 'future proof' because the data rate of the connection is usually limited by the terminal equipment rather than the fiber, permitting at least some speed improvements by equipment upgrades before the fiber itself must be upgraded. Still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e.g. multimode vs single mode, are critical for applicability for future high gigabit connections.

Ethernet Point-to-Point[link]

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet is a common way of delivering triple (and quad) play (voice, video, data and mobile) services over both fiber and hybrid fiber coax [HFC] networks. Active Ethernet Point-to-Point uses dedicated fiber from an operator’s central office all the way to the subscribers’ homes, while hybrid networks (often FTTN) use it to transport data via fiber to a node, to ensure the highest possible throughput speeds over last mile copper connections.

This approach has become increasingly popular in recent years with telecoms service providers in both North America (AT&T, Telus, for example) and Europe's Fastweb, Telecom Italia, Telekom Austria and Deutsche Telecom, for example]. Search specialist Google has also looked into this approach, amongst others, as a way to deliver multiple services over open-access networks in the United States.^[6]

Fiber to the node[link]

Fiber to the node (FTTN), also called fiber to the neighborhood or fiber to the cabinet (FTTCab),^[7] is a telecommunication architecture based on fiber-optic cables run to a cabinet serving a neighborhood. Customers typically connect to this cabinet using traditional coaxial cable or twisted pair wiring. The area served by the cabinet is usually less than 1,500 m in radius and can contain several hundred customers. (If the cabinet serves an area of less than 300 m in radius then the architecture is typically called fiber to the curb.)^[8]

Fiber to the node allows delivery of broadband services such as high speed Internet. High speed communications protocols such as broadband cable access (typically DOCSIS) or some form of digital subscriber line (DSL) are used between the cabinet and the customers. The data rates vary according to the exact protocol used and according to how close the customer is to the cabinet.

Unlike the competing fiber to the premises technology, fiber to the node often uses the existing coaxial or twisted pair infrastructure to provide last mile service. For this reason, fiber to the node is less costly to deploy. In the long-term, however, its bandwidth potential is limited relative to implementations which bring the fiber still closer to the subscriber.

A variant of this technique for cable television providers is used in a hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) system. It is sometimes given the acronym FTTN for Fiber To The Last Amplifier when it replaces analog amplifiers up to the last one before the customer (or neighborhood of customers).

Fiber to the curb[link]

Fiber to the curb (FTTC) is a telecommunications system based on fiber-optic cables run to a platform that serves several customers. Each of these customers has a connection to this platform via coaxial cable or twisted pair. The "curb" is an abstraction and can just as easily mean a pole-mounted device or communications closet or shed. Typically any system terminating fiber within 300m of the customer premises equipment would be described as an FTTC deployment.

Fiber to the curb allows delivery of broadband services such as high speed internet. Usually existing wire is used with communications protocols such as broadband cable access (typically DOCSIS) or some form of DSL connecting the curb/cabinet and the customers. In these protocols, the data rates vary according to the exact protocol used and according to how close the customer is to the cabinet.

Where it is feasible to run new cable, both fiber and copper Ethernet are capable of connecting the "curb" with a full 100 megabit or 1000 megabit connection. Even using relatively cheap outdoor category5 copper over several hundred meters, all Ethernet protocols including Power over Ethernet are supported. Most fixed wireless technologies rely on PoE including Motorola Canopy which has low-power radios capable of running on a 12VDC power supply fed over > 100 meters of cable.

Powerline networking deployments also rely on FTTC: Using the IEEE P1901 protocol (or its predecessor HomePlug AV) existing electric service cables move up to a gigabit of data per second from the curb/pole/cabinet into every AC electrical outlet in the home - coverage equivalent to a robust Wi-Fi implementation, with the added advantage of a single cable for power and data.

FTTC is subtly distinct from FTTN or FTTP (all are versions of Fiber in the Loop). The main difference is the placement of the cabinet. FTTC will be placed near the "curb" which differs from FTTN which is placed far from the customer and FTTP which is placed right at the serving location.

Unlike the competing fiber to the premises (FTTP) technology, fiber to the curb can use the existing coaxial, twisted pair or AC power line infrastructure to provide last mile service. The G.hn and IEEE P1905 efforts were attempts to unify these existing cables under one management protocol.

By avoiding new cable and its cost and liabilities, fiber to the curb costs less to deploy. However, it also has historically had lower bandwidth potential than fiber to the premises. In practice, the relative advantage of fiber depends on the bandwidth available for backhaul, usage-based billing restrictions that prevent full use of last mile capabilities, and customer premises equipment and maintenance restrictions, and the cost of running fiber which can vary widely with geography and building type.

In the United States of America and Canada, the largest deployment of FTTC was carried out by BellSouth Telecommunications. With the acquisition of BellSouth by AT&T, deployment of FTTC will end. Future deployments will be based on either FTTN or FTTP. Existing FTTC plant may be removed and replaced with FTTP.^[9] Verizon, meanwhile, announced in March 2010 they were winding down Verizon FiOS expansion, concentrating on completing their network in areas that already had FiOS franchises but were not deploying to new areas, suggesting that FTTH was uneconomic beyond these areas.

Verizon also announced (at CES 2010) its entry into the smart home and power utility data management arenas, indicating it was considering using P1901-based FTTC or some other existing-wire approach to reach into homes, and access additional revenues from the secure AES-128 bandwidth required for advanced metering infrastructure. However, the largest gigabit deployment in the US, in Chattanooga, TN, despite being conducted by a power utility [1], was FTTH not FTTC, and reached every single subscriber in a 600 square mile area. Pricing, US$350 for 1000 megabits, reflected this generally high cost of deployment [2]

Historically, both telephone and cable companies avoided hybrid networks using several different transports from their point of presence into customer premises. The increased competitive cost pressure, availability of three different existing wire solutions, smart grid deployment requirements (as in Chattanooga), and better hybrid networking tools (with major vendors like Alcatel-Lucent and Qualcomm Atheros, and Wi-Fi solutions for edge networks, IEEE 1905 and IEEE 802.21 protocol efforts and SNMP improvements) all make FTTC deployments more likely in areas uneconomic to serve with FTTP/FTTH. In effect FTTC serves as a halfway measure between fixed wireless and fiber to homes, with special advantages for smart appliances and electric vehicles that rely on PLC use already.

Fiber to the premises[link]

Fiber to the premises is a form of fiber-optic communication delivery in which an optical fiber is run in a distribution network from the central office all the way to the premises occupied by the subscriber. Fiber to the premises is often abbreviated with the acronym FTTP. However, this acronym has become ambiguous and may instead refer to a form of fiber to the curb where the fiber terminates at a utility pole without reaching the premises.

FTTH vs. FTTB[link]

Fiber to the premises can be categorized according to where the optical fiber ends:

• FTTH (fiber to the home) is a form of fiber optic communication delivery that reaches one living or working space. The fiber extends from the central office to the subscriber's living or working space.^[2] Once at the subscriber's living or working space, the signal may be conveyed throughout the space using any means, including twisted pair, coaxial cable, wireless, power line communication, or optical fiber.

• FTTB (fiber to the building, also called fiber to the basement) is a form of fiber optic communication delivery that necessarily applies only to those properties which contain multiple living or working spaces. The optical fiber terminates before actually reaching the subscribers living or working space itself, but does extend to the property containing that living or working space. The signal is conveyed the final distance using any non-optical means, including twisted pair, coaxial cable, wireless, or power line communication.^[2]

An apartment building may provide an example of the distinction between FTTH and FTTB. If a fiber is run to a panel at each subscriber's apartment, this is FTTH. If instead the fiber goes only as far as the apartment building's shared electrical room, then this is FTTB.

Deployments[link]

FTTH[link]

• Fastweb - Italian operator Fastweb launched the first commercial fiber-to-the-home service in 2001. Using an Active Ethernet Point-to-Point architecture, the service delivered voice, video and data services to thousands of subscribers’ homes in Italy over a 10MB symmetrical dedicated fiber connection. Fastweb used one of the first residential gateways for both multiple dwelling units [MDUs] as well as residential homes that provided embedded fiber-termination, designed and built by Advanced Digital Broadcast, to enable consumers to share services with a range of consumer electronics devices around the home.^[10]

• INDIA - Beam Telecom PVT LTD became the first service provider to deliver triple play serives on FTTH in 2010 in three major township of Hyderabad and making developers and builders understand the benefits of FTTH and partnered with developers to execute FTTH More then 20,000 Homes.

The deployment of an FTTH network meant Fastweb was the first telecom operator to deliver true triple-play services to its subscribers. This contributed to its ARPU [Average Revenue Per User] being amongst the highest in the industry for a number of years during the early 2000s. Its FTTH network also puts it at the forefront of advanced connected home services.

• Fiber for Italy - The Fiber For Italy^[11] Initiative has the stated goal of offering 100Mbit/s symmetrical connections to 10 million Italian subscribers across 15 cities by [2018] and up to 1GBps for business customers.^[12] It involves operators Wind, Tele2, Vodafone and Fastweb. An ongoing pilot project in the Italian capital Rome delivers symmetrical speeds of up to 100Mbit/s to small businesses. Italian state operator Telecom Italia is not a participant in the Fiber For Italy program, but has independently committed to provide ultra-high speed broadband up to 100Mbit/s symmetrical connections to 50 percent of the country’s population (138 cities) by 2018.^[13]

Both Fiber for Italy participants and Telecom Italia are working with Advanced Digital Broadcast to provide residential gateway technology with embedded fiber termination.

Since 2006, Television Sierre SA deploys a FTTH network in most municipalities in the district of Sierre in Switzerland. Triple Play services are offered to the public under the brand Vario.

In October 2011, British operator Hyperoptic launched a 1Gbit/sec FTTH service in London.^[14]

In 2011, Mexican operator Telmex launched the FTTH service for its costumers in Mexico City, and in other major cities in Mexico.

FTTN[link]

FTTN, or Fiber-to-the-node, is currently used by a number of multiple-service operators to deliver advanced triple play services to consumers, including AT&T in the United States for its U-Verse service, Deutsche Telekom in Germany, Swisscom and Canadian operators Telus and Bell Canada. It is seen as an interim step towards full FTTH and in many cases services triple play services delivered using this approach has been proven to grow subscriber numbers and ARPU considerably.^[15][16]

Direct fiber[link]

The simplest optical distribution network can be called direct fiber. In this architecture, each fiber leaving the central office goes to exactly one customer. Such networks can provide excellent bandwidth since each customer gets their own dedicated fiber extending all the way to the central office. However, this approach is about 10% more costly due to the amount of fiber and central office machinery required.^[17]

The approach is generally favored by new entrants and competitive operators. A benefit of this approach is that it doesn't exclude any layer 2 networking technologies, be they Passive optical network, Active Optical Network, etc. From a regulatory point of view it leads to least implications as any form of regulatory remedy is still possible using this topology.^[18]

Shared fiber[link]

More commonly each fiber leaving the central office is actually shared by many customers. It is not until such a fiber gets relatively close to the customers that it is split into individual customer-specific fibers. There are two competing optical distribution network architectures which achieve this split: active optical networks (AONs) and passive optical networks (PONs).

Active optical network[link]

Comparison showing how a typical active optical network handles downstream traffic differently than a typical passive optical network. The type of active optical network shown is a star network capable of multicasting. The type of passive optical network shown is a star network having multiple splitters housed in the same cabinet.

Active optical networks rely on some sort of electrically powered equipment in Optical Distribution Network(ODN) to distribute the signal, such as a switch or router. Normally, optical signals need O-E-O transformation in ODN. Each signal leaving the central office is directed only to the customer for which it is intended.

Incoming signals from the customers avoid colliding at the intersection because the powered equipment there provides buffering. As of 2007, the most common type of active optical networks are called active Ethernet, a type of Ethernet in the first mile (EFM). Active Ethernet uses optical Ethernet switches to distribute the signal, thus incorporating the customers' premises and the central office into one giant switched Ethernet network.

Such networks are identical to the Ethernet computer networks used in businesses and academic institutions, except that their purpose is to connect homes and buildings to a central office rather than to connect computers and printers within a campus. Each switching cabinet can handle up to 1,000 customers, although 400-500 is more typical.

This neighborhood equipment performs layer 2/layer 3 switching and routing, offloading full layer 3 routing to the carrier's central office. The IEEE 802.3ah standard enables service providers to deliver up to 100 Mbit/s full-duplex over one single-mode optical fiber to the premises depending on the provider. Speeds of 1Gbit/s are becoming commercially available.

Passive optical network[link]

A passive optical network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint, fiber to the premises network architecture in which unpowered optical splitters are used to enable a single optical fiber to serve multiple premises, typically 32-128. A PON configuration reduces the amount of fiber and central office equipment required compared with point to point architectures.

Downstream signal coming from the central office is broadcast to each customer premises sharing a fiber. Encryption is used to prevent eavesdropping.

Upstream signals are combined using a multiple access protocol, usually time division multiple access (TDMA). The OLTs "range" the ONUs in order to provide time slot assignments for upstream communication.

Electrical portion[link]

Once on private property, the signal typically travels the final distance to the end user's equipment using an electrical format.

A device called an Optical Network Terminal (ONT), also called an Optical Network Unit (ONU), converts the optical signal into an electrical signal. (ONT is an ITU-T term, whereas ONU is an IEEE term, but the two terms mean exactly the same thing.) Optical network terminals require electrical power for their operation, so some providers connect them to back-up batteries in case of power outages. Optical network units use thin film filter technology to convert between optical and electrical signals.

For fiber to the home and for some forms of fiber to the building, it is common for the building's existing phone systems, local area networks, and cable TV systems to connect directly to the ONT.

If all three systems cannot directly reach the ONT, it is possible to combine signals and transport them over a common medium. Once closer to the end-user, equipment such as a router, modem, and/or network interface controller can separate the signals and convert them into the appropriate protocol. For example, one solution for apartment buildings uses VDSL to combine data (and / or video) with voice.

With this approach, the combined signal travels through the building over the existing telephone wiring until it reaches the end-user's living space. Once there, a VDSL modem copies the data and video signals and converts them into Ethernet protocol. These are then sent over the end user's category 5 cable. A network interface module can then separate out the video signal and convert it into an RF signal that is sent over the end-user's coaxial cable.

The voice signal continues to travel over the phone wiring and is sent through DSL filters to remove the video and data signals. An alternative strategy allows data and / or voice to be transmitted over coaxial cable. In yet another strategy, some office buildings dispense with the telephone wiring altogether, instead using voice over Internet Protocol phones that can plug directly into the local area network.

See also[link]

• Fiber to the premises by country
• Next generation access
• Hybrid fiber-coaxial
• Fiber in the loop

General:

• Broadband Internet access
• Fiber-optic communication

Notes and references[link]

1. ^ "FTTH Council - Definition of Terms". FTTH Council. August 11, 2006. http://www.ftthcouncil.org/sites/default/files/FTTH_definitions.pdf. Retrieved September 1, 2011. 
2. ^ ^{a b c} "FTTH Council - Definition of Terms". FTTH Council. January 9, 2009. http://ftthcouncil.eu/documents/Reports/FTTH-Definitions-Revision_January_2009.pdf. Retrieved September 1, 2011. 
3. ^ All multimode fiber is not created equal
4. ^ http://www.telecompaper.com/research/ftth-networking-active-ethernet-versus-passive-optical-networking-and-point-to-point-vs-point-to-multipoint
5. ^ http://nxtcommnews.com/ethernet/news08/active-ethernet-pon/
6. ^ http://www.lightwaveonline.com/fttx/featured-articles/Is-Active-Ethernet-best-FTTH-option-for-Google-85219312.html
7. ^ da Silva, Henrique (March, 2005), Optical Access Networks, Instituto de Telecomunicações, p. 10. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
8. ^ McCullough, Don (August, 2005), "Flexibility is key to successful fiber to the premises deployments", Lightwave 22 (8). Retrieved on 2010-01-27.
9. ^ Analyst: AT&T may replace some FTTC with FTTP
10. ^ http://www.nannimagazine.it/articolo/5353/Pirelli-Broadband-Solutions-e-il-partner-tecnologico-di-Fastweb-per-la-nuova-rete-a-banda-larga
11. ^ http://www.telecomseurope.net/content/italy-gets-fiber-back-track
12. ^ http://www.freevoipcallsolution.com/2010/08/pirelli-broadband-solutions-technology.html
13. ^ http://fibertothewhatever.com/wp/news/telecom-italia-rolls-out-100-mbps-ftth-services-in-catania
14. ^ http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/broadband/370603/1gbit-sec-broadband-lands-in-london
15. ^ http://ar2010.telekomaustria.com/en/facts_and_figures_2010.html
16. ^ http://2010.swisscom-report.ch/en/financial-year-2010 [page 22]
17. ^ The Economics of Next Generation Access
18. ^ Developments In Fibre Technologies And Investment

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fiber to the x

• Portugal Brings Fibre To The Home - E&T Megazine, March 2011, J Baeta & N Mendes
• Fiber to the Home Council: Asia & The Pacific
• Fiber to the Home Council: Europe
• Fiber to the Home Council: Northern America
• Fiber to the Home Conference: Europe
• Fiber Optics LAN Section of the Telecommunications Industry Association
• Telephony Magazine — FTTH One-Stop news, metrics, technology, regulatory information and industry commentary
• Kingfisher International Application Notes Fiber Optic Testing information about FTTH backbone Terminology.
• Can You Say FTTN? Annie Lindstrom, Telephony Online, January 22, 2001
• SBC clarifies FTTN, FTTP plans Ed Gubbins, Telephony Online, November 12, 2004
• Network intelligence — optical networks of new generation August 2008
• FTTx Primer, July 2008
• Developments in Fibre Technologies and Investment, [OECD], 2008
• San Francisco Draft Fiber Study
• UOC University article

The Honourable Malcolm Turnbull MP
31st Leader of the Opposition
In office 16 September 2008 – 1 December 2009
Deputy	Julie Bishop
Preceded by	Brendan Nelson
Succeeded by	Tony Abbott
20th Minister for the Environment and Water Resources
In office 23 January 2007 – 3 December 2007
Prime Minister	John Howard
Preceded by	Ian Campbell
Succeeded by	Peter Garrett & Penny Wong
Shadow Treasurer
In office 3 December 2007 – 16 September 2008
Preceded by	Wayne Swan
Succeeded by	Julie Bishop
Member of the Australian Parliament for Wentworth
Incumbent
Assumed office 9 October 2004
Preceded by	Peter King
Majority	14.86%[1]
Shadow Minister for Communications and Broadband
Incumbent
Assumed office 14 September 2010
Preceded by	Tony Smith
Personal details
Born	Malcolm Bligh Turnbull (1954-10-24) 24 October 1954 (age 57) Sydney
Political party	Liberal Party of Australia
Spouse(s)	Lucy Turnbull née Hughes
Children	2
Alma mater	University of Sydney University of Oxford
Religion	Roman Catholic
Website	MalcolmTurnbull.com.au

Malcolm Bligh Turnbull (born 24 October 1954) is an Australian politician. He has been a member of the Australian House of Representatives since 2004, and was Leader of the Opposition and parliamentary leader of the Liberal Party from 16 September 2008 to 1 December 2009. He currently serves as the Shadow Minister for Communications and Broadband.

Turnbull has represented the Division of Wentworth in Sydney's eastern suburbs since his election in October 2004. He served as the federal Minister for Environment and Water Resources in 2007. Before entering parliamentary politics he practised as a journalist, barrister, company legal counsel, and merchant banker, and was leader of the Australian Republican Movement.

In September 2008, Turnbull was chosen Liberal Party leader and Leader of the Opposition. He served for a little over a year. In November 2009, he ordered the Liberal Party to support the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme proposed by the Labor government. This prompted substantial opposition in the party, and Turnbull was voted out of his leadership post on 1 December.

Early life and education[link]

Turnbull was born on 24 October 1954 to Bruce Bligh Turnbull and Coral Magnolia Lansbury,^[2] who married the following year.^[3] His father was a hotel broker; his mother was a radio actor, writer and academic and a cousin of the British film and television actor Angela Lansbury.^[4] They separated when Malcolm was nine and he was brought up by his father.^[5][6][7] He spent his first three years of school at Vaucluse Public School. He continued his primary education at the private fee paying Sydney Grammar Prep, St Ives. He then went to Sydney Grammar School's senior school at College Street in Sydney. He was senior school co-captain in 1972. In 1987, in memory of his late father, he set up the Bruce Turnbull means-tested scholarship at Sydney Grammar, which offers full remission of fees to a student unable to afford them.

Turnbull graduated from the University of Sydney with a Bachelor of Laws and a Bachelor of Arts. While at university in Sydney he worked as a political journalist for Nation Review, Radio 2SM and Channel 9 covering state politics.^{[citation needed]} He then studied for a Bachelor of Civil Law degree at Brasenose College, a constituent college of the University of Oxford, as a Rhodes Scholar from 1978 to 1980. While at Oxford he worked for The Sunday Times as well as contributing to newspapers and magazines in the United States and Australia.^[8]

Career[link]

After graduating from Oxford, Turnbull returned to Australia and began working as a barrister. He left the bar in 1983 to become General Counsel and Secretary for Australian Consolidated Press Holdings Group, the family company of Kerry Packer, from 1983 to 1985. During this time he defended Packer against the "Goanna" allegations made by the Costigan Commission.

In partnership with Bruce McWilliam he established his own law firm, Turnbull McWilliam, in 1986. In that year Turnbull defended Peter Wright, a former MI5 agent, who authored the book Spycatcher, who successfully blocked the British Government's attempts to suppress the book's publication, and Turnbull later wrote a book on the trial.^[9] In 1987, he established an investment banking firm, Whitlam Turnbull & Co Ltd, in partnership with Neville Wran (former Labor Premier of New South Wales) and the former State Bank of New South Wales chief executive, Nicholas Whitlam (son of Gough Whitlam, former Labor Prime Minister of Australia). Whitlam parted company with the others in 1990, and, from then until 1997, when Turnbull moved to become a managing director and later a partner of Goldman Sachs, the firm operated as Turnbull & Partners Ltd.

Turnbull was also chair of a large Australia Internet Service Provider, OzEmail (1994–99), a director of FTR Holdings Ltd (1995–2004), chair and managing director of Goldman Sachs Australia (1997–2001) and a partner with Goldman Sachs and Co (1998–2001). In the 1990s, Turnbull was chairman of Axiom Forest Resources, which conducted logging in the Solomon Islands under the trading name Silvania Forest Products. The latter's work was described by the Australian International Development Aid Bureau as a "clear-felling operation", and the then Solomon Islands Prime Minister Solomon Mamaloni reportedly threatened to close it down for "constant breaches of logging practices", according to a critical article in the Solomon Times.^[10][11]

In 1999, Turnbull sold OzEmail to the then-telecommunications giant MCI Worldcom. Turnbull's stake was reportedly worth nearly A$60 million. In the same year he used his software and investment company FTR Holdings Ltd to take positions in a number of Internet businesses including Webcentral and Chaos.com.^[12]

In May 2002, Turnbull appeared before the HIH Insurance royal commission and was questioned on Goldman Sachs' involvement on the possible privatisation of one of the acquisitions of the collapsed insurance company. The Royal Commissioner's Report made no adverse findings against him or Goldman Sachs.^[13]

Political career[link]

Australian Republican Movement[link]

From 1993 to 2000, Turnbull was the chairman of the Australian Republican Movement. He was an elected delegate at the Australian Constitutional Convention 1998 in Canberra in February.^[14] At the Convention, Turnbull cautioned against mixing the roles of President and Prime Minister and ultimately supported the Bi-partisan appointment republican model adopted by the Convention.^[15] Turnbull was active in the unsuccessful 1999 referendum campaign to establish an Australian republic. He published a book on the subject, called Fighting for the Republic. In 2000 Turnbull retired as chairman of the Australian Republican Movement. Turnbull left the board of Ausflag in 1994 after being asked for his resignation and in 2004 joined the Australian National Flag Association.^[16]

Early Liberal Party involvement[link]

Turnbull was Federal Treasurer of the Liberal Party and a member of the party's federal and New South Wales executives from 2002 to 2003 and was also a director of the Menzies Research Centre, the Liberal Party's research centre.

Election to Parliament[link]

Turnbull first ran for Liberal Party preselection for the seat of Wentworth in the eastern suburbs of Sydney in the Wentworth 1981 by-election, but was beaten by Peter Coleman.^[5] In 2003, Turnbull announced that he was seeking a seat in Federal Parliament. In early 2004 he won another hotly contested battle for Wentworth, defeating Peter King, the sitting Liberal member. King ran for the seat at the 2004 election as an independent. This turned the traditionally safe Liberal electorate into an electoral wildcard, the contest for the seat becoming a three man race between Turnbull, King and Labor candidate David Patch. During the campaign, Turnbull spent over $600,000 on electoral expenditure.^[17] The Liberal vote fell 10 per cent, but Turnbull still won.

Howard Government minister[link]

Announcing his cabinet reshuffle on 24 January 2006, the Prime Minister John Howard promoted Turnbull from the backbench to Parliamentary Secretary, with special responsibility for water. In this new capacity he reported directly to the Prime Minister. On 26 September 2006, John Howard announced the creation, within the department of the Prime Minister, of the new "Office of Water Resources" to address the problem of drought in Australia. Turnbull was in charge of this office until he was elevated by Prime Minister John Howard to head the Environment and Water Resources portfolio in January 2007.

In his position as Environment Minister, Turnbull approved a proposed $1.7 billion Bell Bay Pulp Mill in Tasmania's north, near Launceston.^[18] His final approval of the Bell Bay Pulp Mill project of Gunns Ltd came on 4 October 2007. Turnbull's approval followed a report by the Government's chief scientist Jim Peacock on the project's potential environmental impact, which requires the project to meet 48 "strict environmental" conditions. Critics have accused him of failing to assess the environmental cost of the mill in terms of forest destruction and greenhouse emissions. According to The Wilderness Society, the Pulp Mill will, amongst a number of other toxic emissions, increase Australia's yearly contribution to greenhouse gas emission by more than 2 per cent. This reportedly amounts to an extra 10 million tonnes of greenhouse gas a year^[19]

In February 2007, Turnbull was criticised for claiming a government allowance of $175 a night and paying it to his wife as rent while living in a townhouse owned by her in Canberra.^[20]

During the 2007 election campaign, Turnbull announced that the then Government would contribute $10 million to the investigation of an untried Russian technology that aims to trigger rainfall from the atmosphere, even when there are no clouds. Literature suggests that the technology is based on bogus science.^{[citation needed]} The Australian Rain Corporation presented research documents written in Russian, explained by a Russian researcher who spoke to local experts in Russian.^[21]

Although Turnbull claimed that Australian Rain Corporation is Australian-based, investigations have shown that it is in fact 75 per cent Swiss-owned. It was also revealed that a prominent stakeholder in the Australian Rain Corporation, Matt Handbury, is a nephew of Rupert Murdoch. Turnbull has refused to answer questions regarding Matt Handbury's contribution to the Wentworth Forum, the main fund-raising organisation for Turnbull's 2007 election campaign.^[21]

In 2007, Turnbull promised that his government, if elected, would grant same-sex couples death benefits in Commonwealth superannuation schemes, a similar promise to which was made three years prior during the 2004 Federal election campaign.^[22]

Opposition[link]

Turnbull retained his seat at the 2007 election gaining a two-party 1.3 per cent swing in Wentworth,^[23] despite a 5.6 per cent swing away from the coalition in the state, and a 5.4 per cent swing nationwide.^[24]

Prime Minister Howard had lost his own seat of Bennelong, and on 25 November 2007, Liberal deputy leader Peter Costello announced he would not seek the party leadership. Turnbull declared his candidacy later the same day, and was considered a favourite by many.^[25] He lost to Brendan Nelson, in a 45 to 42 vote.

Nelson in turn appointed him Shadow Treasurer.^[26]

Shortly afterwards, fellow Opposition front bencher Nick Minchin suggested that Turnbull's failure to consult with party colleagues before declaring his opinion to the media on such issues as an apology to the Stolen Generations cost him the leadership.^[27] This led to a disagreement between the two and culminated in Minchin privately telling Turnbull that he was "too f***ing sensitive".^[28]

In May 2008, Turnbull attacked the 2008 Australian federal budget, concerned by increased taxes on luxury cars and certain alcoholic drinks, citing possible increased inflation.^[29]

Leader of the Opposition[link]

On 16 September 2008, Turnbull was elected party leader by 45 votes to 41.

In January 2009, Turnbull appointed former Alexander Downer staffer and Advertiser journalist Chris Kenny as his chief of staff.^[30]

In May 2009, Turnbull attacked the 2009 Australian federal budget, in particular the means testing of the private health insurance rebate.^[31]

Turnbull (centre) with Helen Coonan (left) and Julie Bishop (right) in July 2009.

On 19 June 2009 Treasury official Godwin Grech alleged that a car dealer with links to the Labor Party had received preferential treatment under the Ozcar program, sparking the so-called 'OzCar affair'. That day Turnbull stated that Prime Minister Rudd and Treasurer Wayne Swan had "used their offices and taxpayers' resources to seek advantage for one of their mates and then lied about it to the Parliament" and that they needed to explain their actions or resign.^[32] On 22 June the e-mail Grech had provided to the Liberal Party to support this allegation was found to have been faked by Grech, something he later admitted,^[33] and an Australian National Audit Office inquiry cleared both Rudd and Swan of any wrongdoing on 4 August.^[34] Turnbull's handing of the OzCar affair led to a large decline in his and the Liberal Party's approval ratings in opinion polls.^[35]

On 24 November 2009 a party room meeting was held to discuss the Rudd government's proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS). Turnbull instructed the party to support CPRS despite significant disagreement among his colleagues.^[36]

There was even a suggestion that some Liberal Senators should vote to "guillotine" debate and force an immediate Senate vote on the CPRS bill. (If the Senate rejected the bill, this would give the government a double dissolution trigger.)

In response the next day, MPs Wilson Tuckey and Dennis Jensen made a "spill motion" (for a party leadership vote), but it was defeated by 48 votes to 35.^[37] The rebellion continued, though — many front bench Liberals resigned from the shadow cabinet, including Tony Abbott.^[38]

On 1 December 2009, a spill motion was carried. Turnbull lost the subsequent leadership ballot to Abbott by 42 votes to 41 on the second ballot.^[39]

Post-leadership[link]

After the leadership vote, Turnbull said he would serve out his full term as member for Wentworth.^[40] On 6 April 2010, he announced he would not seek re-election.^[41] However, on 1 May 2010 he reversed his decision.^[42]

At the 2010 federal election, Turnbull was re-elected with a swing of over 11%^[43] and was subsequently brought back to the front bench as shadow communications minister.^[44]

Writing[link]

Turnbull has written several books in relation to his contributions to the republican debate, as well as his experiences during the Spycatcher trial. Notable examples of his writings include: The Spycatcher Trial (1988); The Reluctant Republic (1993; foreword by Robert Hughes, his wife's uncle); and Fighting for the Republic: the Ultimate Insider's Account (1999).

Personal life[link]

Turnbull is married to prominent businesswoman and former mayor Lucy Turnbull. They married in 1980 at Cumnor, near Oxford, while Malcolm was attending Oxford University. They and their two children, Alex and Daisy, live in Sydney.^[45]

Although Turnbull is a convert to Roman Catholicism, he has found himself at odds with the church's teaching on abortion and stem cell research.^{[citation needed]} Turnbull supported legislation relaxing restrictions on abortion pill RU486 and he also voted for the legalisation of Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (therapeutic cloning).^{[citation needed]} He did so despite the vocal public opposition to both proposals by Cardinal George Pell, Archbishop of Sydney.

The use of Bligh as a male middle name is a tradition in the Turnbull family. It is Turnbull's middle name as well as that of his son, Alex. One of Turnbull's ancestors was colonist John Turnbull, who named his youngest son William Bligh Turnbull in honour of deposed Governor William Bligh at the time of the Rum Rebellion.^[46]

Turnbull is a supporter of the Sydney Roosters rugby league team in the Australian National Rugby League, and the Sydney Swans in the Australian Football League.^[47]

In 1994 a portrait of Turnbull by artist Bill Leak won the People's Choice award at the Archibald Prize.

Personal wealth[link]

In 2005 Turnbull's net worth was estimated at $133 million,^[48] making him Australia's richest parliamentarian.^[49] The 2009 annual BRW list of the richest Australians put Turnbull at 182 of 200, with an estimated net worth of $178 million. He is the only MP in Australia to make the list.^[50] Malcolm Turnbull made the BRW Rich 200 list for the second year running in 2010, and although he slipped from 182 to 197, his estimated net worth increased to $186 million, continuing to be the only sitting politician to make the list.^[51]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Malcolm Turnbull

• Official website
• Parliamentary profile