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Berossus (^{[pronunciation?]}; also Berossos or Berosus; Akkadian: Bēl-rē'ušu, "Bel is his shepherd"; Greek: Βήρωσσος^[1]) was a Hellenistic-era Babylonian writer, a priest of Bel Marduk^[2] and astronomer writing in Greek, who was active at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Versions of two excerpts of his writings survive, at several removes.

Life and work[link]

Using ancient Babylonian records and texts that are lost to us, Berossus published the Babyloniaca (hereafter, History of Babylonia) in three books some time around 290-278 BC, under the patronage^[3] of the Macedonian/Seleucid king, Antiochus I Soter.^[4] Certain astrological fragments recorded in Pliny the Elder, Censorinus, Flavius Josephus, and Marcus Vitruvius Pollio are also attributed to Berossus, but are of unknown provenance, or indeed are uncertain as to where they might fit into his History. Vitruvius credits him with the invention of the semi-circular sundial hollowed out of a cubical block.^[5] A statue of him was erected in Athens, perhaps attesting to his fame and scholarship as historian and astronomer-astrologer.

A separate work, Procreatio, is attributed to him in the Latin commentaries on Aratus, Commentariorium in Aratum Reliquiae, but there is no proof of this connection. However, a direct citation (name and title) is rare in antiquity, and it may have referred to Book 1 of his History.

He was born during or before Alexander the Great's reign over Babylon (330-323 BC), with the earliest date suggested as 340 BC. According to Vitruvius' de Architectura, he eventually moved to the island of Kos off the coast of Asia Minor and set up a school of astrology there,^[6] under the patronage of the king of Egypt. However, scholars have questioned whether it would have been possible to work under the Seleucids and then move on to a region under Ptolemaic control late in life. It is not known when he died.

History of Babylonia[link]

Reflections at several removes of the remains of Berossos' lost Babyloniaca can be glimpsed through two later Greek epitomes that were used by the Christian Eusebius of Caesarea, whose own original is lost but can be followed through a surviving Armenian translation.^[7] The reasons why Berossus wrote the History have not survived, though contemporaneous Greek historians generally did give reasons for the publication of their own histories. It is suggested that it was commissioned by Antiochus I, perhaps desiring a history of one of his newly-acquired lands, or by the Great Temple priests, seeking justification for the worship of Marduk in Seleucid lands. Pure history writing per se was not a Babylonian concern, and Josephus testifies to Berossus' reputation as an astrologer.^[8] The excerpts quoted relate mythology and history that relates to Old Testament concerns. As historian and archaeologist W.G. Lambert observes: "Of course Berossus may have written other works which are not quoted by Josephus and Eusebius because they lacked any Biblical interest".^[8] Lambert finds some statements in the Latin writers so clearly erroneous that it puts in doubt whether the writers had first-hand knowledge of Berossus' text.

Transmission and reception[link]

Berossus' work was not popular in the Hellenistic period. The usual account of Mesopotamian history came from Ctesias of Cnidus's Persica, while most of the value of Berossos was seen to be his astrological writings. Most pagan writers probably never read the History directly, and appear to be dependent on Posidonius of Apamea (135-50 BC), who cited Berossos in his works. While Poseidonius's accounts have not survived, the writings of these tertiary sources do: Vitruvius Pollio (a contemporary of Caesar Augustus), Pliny the Elder (d. 79 AD), and Seneca the Younger (d. 65 AD). Seven later pagan writers probably transmitted Berossus via Poseidonius through an additional intermediary. They were Aetius (1st or 2nd century AD), Cleomedes (second half of 2nd century AD.), Pausanias (c. 150 AD), Athenaeus (c. 200 AD), Censorinus (3rd century AD), and an anonymous Latin commentator on the Greek poem Phaenomena by Aratus of Soloi (ca. 315-240/39 BC).

Jewish and Christian references to Berossus probably had a different source, either Alexander Polyhistor (c. 65 BC.) or Juba II of Mauretania (c. 50 BC-20 AD) Polyhistor's numerous works included a history of Assyria and Babylonia, while Juba wrote On the Assyrians, both using Berossos as their primary sources. Josephus' records of Berossus include some of the only extant narrative material, but he is likely dependent on Alexander Polyhistor^{[citation needed]}, even if he did give the impression that he had direct access to Berossus. The fragments of Berossus found in three Christian writers' works are probably dependent on Alexander or Juba (or both). They are Tatianus of Syria (2nd century AD), Theophilus Bishop of Antioch (180 AD), and Titus Flavius Clemens (ca. 200 AD).

Like Poseidonius, neither Alexander's or Juba's works have survived. However, their material on Berossus was recorded by Abydenus (second or 3rd century AD) and Sextus Julius Africanus (early 3rd century AD). Their work is also lost, possibly considered too long, but Eusebius Bishop of Caesaria (ca. 260-340 AD), in his Chronicle preserved some of their accounts. The Greek text of the Chronicle is also now lost to us but there is an ancient Armenian translation^[9] (500-800 AD) of it, and portions are quoted in Georgius Syncellus' Ecloga Chronographica (ca. 800-810 AD). Nothing of Berossus survives in Jerome's Latin translation of Eusebius. Eusebius' other mentions of Berossus in Praeparatio Evangelica are derived from Josephus, Tatianus, and another inconsequential source (the last cite contains only, "Berossus the Babylonian recorded Naboukhodonosoros in his history.").

Christian writers after Eusebius are probably reliant on him, but include Pseudo-Justinus (3rd–5th century), Hesychius of Alexandria (5th century), Agathias (536–582), Moses of Chorene (8th century), an unknown geographer of unknown date, and the Suda (Byzantine dictionary from the 10th century). Thus, what little of Berossus remains is very fragmentary and indirect. The most direct source of material on Berossus is Josephus, received from Alexander Polyhistor. Most of the names in his king-lists and most of the potential narrative content have disappeared or been completely mangled as a result. Only Eusebius and Josephus preserve narrative material, and both had agendas. Eusebius was looking to construct a consistent chronology across different cultures,^[9] while Josephus was attempting to refute the charges that there were people older than the Jews^{[citation needed]}. However, the ten ante-diluvian kings were preserved by Christian apologists interested in the long lifespans of the kings were similar to the long lifespans of the ante-diluvian ancestors in Genesis.

Sources and content[link]

The Armenian translation of Eusebius and Syncellus' transmission (Chronicon and Ecloga Chronographica respectively) both record Berossus' use of "public records" and it is possible that Berossus catalogued his sources. This did not make him reliable, only that he took some care with the sources and his access to priestly and sacred records allowed him to do what other Babylonians could not. What we have of ancient Mesopotamian myth is somewhat comparable with Berossus, though the exact integrity with which he transmitted his sources is unknown because much of the literature of Mesopotamia has not survived. What is clear is that the form of writing he pursued was dissimilar to actual Babylonian literature, writing as he did in Greek.

Book 1 fragments are preserved in Eusebius and Syncellus above, and describe the Babylonian creation account and establishment of order, including the defeat of Thalatth (Tiamat) by Bel (Marduk). According to him, all knowledge was revealed to humans by the sea monster Oannes after the Creation, and so Verbrugghe and Wickersham (2000:17) have suggested that this is where the astrological fragments discussed above would fit, if at all.

Book 2 describes the history of the Babylonian kings from creation till Nabonassaros (747-734 BC). Eusebius reports that Apollodorus reports that Berossus recounts 432,000 years from the first king, Aloros, to Xisouthros and the Babylonian Flood. From Berossus' genealogy, it is clear he had access to king-lists in compiling this section of History, particularly in the kings before the Flood (legendary though they are), and from the 7th century BC with Senakheirimos (Sennacherib, who ruled both Assyria and Babylon). His account of the Flood (preserved in Syncellus) is extremely similar to versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh that we have today. However, in Gilgamesh, the main protagonist is Utnapishtim, while here, Xisouthros is likely a Greek transliteration of Ziusudra, the protagonist of the Sumerian version of the Flood.

Perhaps what Berossus omits to mention is also noteworthy. Much information on Sargon (ca. 2300 BC) would have been available during his time (e.g., a birth legend preserved at El-Amarna and in an Assyrian fragment from 8th century BC, and two Neo-Babylonian fragments), but these went unmentioned. Similarly, the great Babylonian king Hammurabi (ca. 1750 BC) merits only passing mention. He did, however, take the time to point out that the queen Semiramis (probably Sammuramat, wife of Samshi-Adad V, 824-811 BC) was Assyrian. Perhaps it was in response to Greek writers mythologising her to the point where she was described as the founder of Babylon, daughter of the Syrian goddess Derketo, and married to Ninus (the legendary founder of Nineveh, in Greek eyes).

Book 3 relates the history of Babylon from Nabonassaros to Antiochus I (presumably). Again, it is likely that he followed king-lists, though it is not clear which ones he used. The Mesopotamian documents known as King-List A (one copy from the 6th or 5th centuries BCE) and Chronicle 1 (3 copies with one solidly dated to 500 BCE) are usually suggested as the ones he used, due to the synchronicity between those and his History (though there are some differences). A large part of his history around the time of Naboukhodonosoros (Nebuchadrezzar II, 604-562 BC) and Nabonnedos (Nabonidus, 556-539 BC) survives. Here we see his interpretation of history for the first time, moralising about the success and failure of kings based on their moral conduct. This is similar to another Babylonian history, Chronicle of Nabonidus, and differs from the rationalistic accounts of other Greek historians like Thucydides.

[edit] The achievements of History of Babylonia

Berossus's achievement may be seen in terms of how he combined the Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Like Herodotus and Thucydides, he probably autographed his work for the benefit of later writers. Certainly he furnished details of his own life within his histories, which broke with the Mesopotamian tradition of anonymous scribes. Elsewhere, he included a geographical description of Babylonia, similar to that found in Herodotus (on Egypt), and used Greek classifications. There is some evidence that he resisted adding information to his research, especially the earlier periods of which he was not familiar with. Only in Book 3 do we see his opinions begin to enter the picture.

Secondly, he constructed a narrative from Creation to his present day, again similar to Herodotus or the Hebrew Bible. Within this construction, the sacred myths blended seamlessly with history. Whether he followed Hellenistic skepticism about the existence of the gods and their tales is unclear, though it is likely he believed them more than the satirist Ovid, for example. The naturalistic attitude found in Syncellus' transmission is probably more reflective of the later Greek authors who transmitted the work than Berossos himself.

During his own time and later, however, the History of Babylonia was not distributed widely. Verbrugghe and Wickersham argue that the lack of relation between the material in History and the Hellenistic world was not relevant, since Diodorus' equally bizarre book on Egyptian mythology was preserved. Instead, the reduced connection between Mesopotamia and the Greco-Roman world under Parthian rule was partially responsible. Secondly, his material did not contain as much narrative, especially of periods he was not familiar with, even when potential sources for stories were available. They suggest:

"Perhaps Berossos was a prisoner of his own methodology and purpose. He used ancient records that he refused to flesh out, and his account of more recent history, to judge by what remains, contained nothing more than a bare narrative. If Berossos believed in the continuity of history with patterns that repeated themselves (i.e., cycles of events as there were cycles of the stars and planets), a bare narrative would suffice. Indeed, this was more than one would suspect a Babylonian would or could do. Those already steeped in Babylonian historical lore would recognize the pattern and understand the interpretation of history Berossos was making. If this, indeed, is what Berossos presumed, he made a mistake that would cost him interested Greek readers who were accustomed to a much more varied and lively historical narrative where there could be no doubt who was an evil ruler and who was not." (2000:32)

What is left of Berossus's writings is useless for the reconstruction of Mesopotamian history. Of greater interest to scholars is his approach to historiography, tied as it was to both Greek and Mesopotamian methods. The affinities between it and Hesiod, Herodotus, Manetho, and the Hebrew Bible (specifically, the Torah and Deuteronomistic History) as histories of the classical world give us an idea about how ancient people viewed their worlds. Each begins with a fantastic creation story, followed by a mythical ancestral period, and then finally accounts of recent kings who appear to be historical, with no demarcations in between. Blenkinsopp notes:

"In composing his history, Berossus drew on the mythic-historiographical tradition of Mesopotamia, and specifically on such well known texts as the creation myth Enuma Elish, Atrahasis, and the king lists, which provided the point of departure and conceptual framework for a universal history. But the mythic and archaic element was combined with the chronicles of rulers which can lay claim to being in some degree genuinely historical." (1992:41)

This early approach to historiography, though preceded by Hesiod, Herodotus, and the Hebrew Bible, demonstrates its own unique approach. Though one must be careful about how much can be described of the original work, his apparent resistance to adding to his sources is noteworthy, as is the lack of moralising he introduces to those materials he is not familiar with.

"Pseudo-Berossus"[link]

In 1498, an official of Pope Alexander VI named Annius of Viterbo claimed to have discovered lost books of Berossus. These were in fact an elaborate forgery. However, they gained great influence over Renaissance ways of thinking about population and migration, because Annius provided a list of kings from Japhet onwards, filling a historical gap following the Biblical account of the Flood. Annius also introduced figures from classical sources into the biblical framework, publishing his account as Commentaria super opera diversorum auctorum de antiquitatibus. One consequence was to lead to sophisticated theories about Celtic races with Druid priests in Western Europe.^[10]

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

• Blenkinsopp, J. 1992. The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible. New York: Anchor Doubleday.
• Verbrugghe, G.P. & Wickersham, J.M. 2000. Berossos and Manetho Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
• K. Müller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum (FHG) 2. Paris: Didot, 1841‑1870, frr. 1‑25.

External links[link]

• Fragments of Chaldæan History, by Berossus
• An Historical Treatise of the Travels of Noah Into Europe, Translated by Richard Lynche in 1601

Jehan Alain in 1938

Jehan Ariste Alain (3 February 1911 – 20 June 1940) was a French organist and composer.

Biography[link]

Alain was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye in the western suburbs of Paris, into a family of musicians. His father, Albert Alain (1880–1971) was an enthusiastic organist, composer and organ-builder who had studied with Alexandre Guilmant and Louis Vierne. His younger brother was the composer, organist and pianist Olivier Alain (1918–1994), his youngest sister the organist Marie-Claire Alain (b. 1926). Jehan received his initial training in the piano from Augustin Pierson, the organist of Saint-Louis at Versailles, and in the organ from his father, who had built a four-manual instrument in the family sitting room. By the age of 11, Jehan was substituting at St. Germain-en-Laye.

Between 1927 and 1939, he attended the Paris Conservatoire and achieved First Prize in Harmony under André Bloch and First Prize in Fugue with Georges Caussade. He studied the organ with Marcel Dupré, under whose direction he took first prize for Organ and Improvisation in 1939. His studies in composition with Paul Dukas and Jean Roger-Ducasse won him the Prix des amis de l'orgue in 1936 for his Suite for Organ Op. 48, Introduction, Variations, Scherzo and Choral. He was appointed organist of Saint-Nicholas de Maisons Lafitte in Paris in 1935, and remained there for four years. He also played regularly at the Rue Notre-Dame-de-Nazareth synagogue, where the only known recording of his playing—a six-minute improvisation—was made in 1938.

His short career as a composer began in 1929, when Alain was 18, and lasted until the outbreak of the Second World War 10 years later. His output was influenced not only by the musical language of the earlier Claude Debussy and his contemporary Olivier Messiaen (seen in Le jardin suspendu, 1934), but also by an interest in the music, dance and philosophies of the far east (acquired at the Exposition coloniale internationale of 1931 and seen in Deux danses à Agni Yavishta, 1932, and Deuxième fantaisie, 1936), a renaissance of baroque music (seen in Variations sur un thème de Clément Janequin, 1937), and in jazz (seen in Trois danses of 1939).

He wrote choral music, including a Requiem mass, chamber music, songs and three volumes of piano music. But it is for his organ music for which he is best known. His most famous work, Litanies, is prefaced with the text: "When, in its distress, the christian soul can find no more words to implore the mercy of God, it repeats, times without end, the same fierce-faithed prayer. Reason reaches its limits and only belief can chase its flight". Deuils ('mourning'), the second of the Trois danses, is dedicated to Odile as a Funeral Dance to an Heroic Memory.

Always interested in mechanics, Alain was a skilled motorcyclist and became a dispatch rider in the Eighth Motorised Armour Division of the French Army. On 20 June 1940, he was assigned to reconnoitre the German advance on the eastern side of Saumur, and encountered a group of German soldiers at Le Petit-Puy. Coming around a curve, and hearing the approaching tread of the Germans, he abandoned his motorcycle and engaged the enemy troops with his carbine, killing 16 of them before being killed himself. He was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre for his bravery,^[1] and according to Nicolas Slonimsky was buried, by the Germans, with full military honours.^[2]

He left behind his wife, Madeleine Payan whom he had married in 1935, their three children, and a musical output viewed by many to have been amongst the most original of the 20th century.

Henri Dutilleux's Les citations contains a quotation from Jehan Alain's music. Maurice Duruflé wrote a musical tribute to Jehan Alain with his Prélude et fugue sur le nom d'A.L.A.I.N op. 7 for organ.

Chronological catalog[link]

JA stands for Jehan Alain. Ordered chronogically by Jehan Stefan

• 1929 – 18 years old – 4 opus

JA 021 – Togo, pour piano [June 1929]

JA 007 bis – Berceuse sur deux notes qui cornent, pour orgue [August 1929]

JA 003 – Etude sur un thème de quatre notes, pour piano [November 1929]

JA 008 – Chanson triste, pour piano [1929]

• 1930 – 19 years old – 14 opus

JA 009 – Ballade en mode phrygien, pour orgue ou piano [January 1930]

JA 002 – Thème et cinq variations, pour piano [February 1930]

JA 014 – Lamento, pour orgue [February 1930]

JA 001 – Quarante variations, pour piano [April 1930]

JA 017 – Des nuages gris, pour deux pianos [June 1930]

JA 004 – Ecce ancilla Domini, pour piano [August 1930]

JA 029 – Postlude pour l'Office de Complies, pour orgue [August 1930]

JA 130 – Adagio, pour piano [12 August 1930]

JA 005 – Seigneur, donne-nous la paix éternelle (Choral), pour piano [October 1930]

JA 007 – Etude de sonorité sur une double pédale, pour piano [October 1930]

JA 010 – Etude sur les doubles notes, pour piano [October 1930]

JA 020 – Pour le défrichage, pour piano [December 1930]

JA 131 – Variations sur un thème donné de Rimsky-Korsakov, pour quatre voix [December 1930]

JA 131A – Variations sur un chant donné de Rimsky-Korsakov, pour orgue [December 1930]

JA 131B – Variations sur un thème donné de Rimsky-Korsakov, pour quatuor à cordes [December 1930]

JA 129 – Lettre à son amie Lola pour la consoler d'avoir attrapé la grippe, pour piano [1930]

• 1931 – 20 years old – 12 opus

JA 012 – Petite rhapsodie, pour piano [February 1931]

JA 016 – Mélodie-sandwich, pour piano [23 February 1931]

JA 006 – Verset-Choral, pour orgue ou piano [March 1931]

JA 011 – Lumière qui tombe d'un vasistas, pour piano [April 1931]

JA 015 – Histoire sur un tapis, entre des murs blancs, pour piano [May 1931]

JA 018 – Canons à sept, pour deux pianos [May 1931]

JA 013 – Heureusement, la bonne fée sa marraine..., pour piano [10 August 1931]

JA 019 – Nocturne, soir du 22 août 31, pour piano [22 August 1931]

JA 022 – En dévissant mes chaussettes, pour piano [September 1931]

JA 023 – 26 septembre 1931, pour piano [26 September 1931]

JA 024 – Dans le rêve laissé par la Ballade des pendus de François Villon, pour piano [4 October 1931]

JA 143 – Pièces d'après François Campion, pour orgue [1931]

• 1932 – 21 years old – 14 opus

JA 025 – Choral et variations – Mythologies japonaises, pour piano [1932]

JA 027 – Variations sur Lucis Creator, pour orgue [January 1932]

JA 028 – Fugue en mode de fa, pour orgue ou piano [1932]

JA 035 – O quam suavis est, pour baryton [1932]

JA 036 – Le rosier de Mme Husson, pour piano [March 1932]

JA 037 – Chant donné, pour orgue ou piano [1932]

JA 061 – Canon, pour piano et harmonium [1932]

JA 079 – Climat, pour orgue [March 1932]

JA 030 – Trois minutes : Un cercle d'argent, pour piano ou orgue [1932]

JA 031 – Trois minutes : Romance, pour piano ou orgue [1932]

JA 032 – Trois minutes : Grave, pour piano ou orgue [August 1932]

JA 034 – Cantique en mode phrygien, pour quatre voix mixtes [septembre 1932]

JA 077 – Première danse à Agni Yavishta, pour orgue [13 October 1932]

JA 078 – Deuxième danse à Agni Yavishta, pour orgue [13 October 1932]

JA 033 – Petite pièce, pour orgue [December 1932]

JA 038 – Complainte à la mode ancienne, pour orgue [1932]

JA 132 – Chant nuptial, pour baryton et orgue [1932]

JA 132A – Chant nuptial, pour baryton, basse, violoncelle et orgue [1932]

• 1933 – 22 years old – 6 opus

JA 026 – Variations chorales sur Sacris solemniis, pour cinq voix mixtes et orgue [January 1933]

JA 064 – Premier Prélude profane (Wieder an), pour orgue ou piano [February 1933]

JA 064A – Adagio en quintette, pour quintette à cordes [1933]

JA 065 – Deuxième Prélude profane (Und jetzt), pour orgue ou piano [6 March 1933]

JA 039 – Chanson à bouche fermée, pour quatre voix mixtes [1933]

JA 133 – Fugue sur un sujet de Henri Rabaud, pour quatre voix [1933]

JA 133A – Fugue sur un sujet de Henri Rabaud, pour orgue [1933]

JA 133B – Fugue sur un sujet de Henri Rabaud, pour quatuor à cordes [1933]

JA 072 – Première Fantaisie, pour orgue [1933]

JA 80A – Prélude, pour quintette à cordes [1933]

• 1934 – 23 years old – 5 opus

JA 134 – Choral cistercien pour une Élévation, pour orgue [April 1934]

JA 066 – Intermezzo, pour deux pianos et basson [June 1934]

JA 066 bis – Intermezzo, pour orgue [March 1935]

JA 074 – Trois mouvements : Allegretto con grazia, pour flûte et piano [August 1934]

JA 074A – Intermède, pour violoncelle et piano [August 1934]

JA 074B – Trois mouvements, pour flûte et piano ou violon et piano [1934]

JA 073 – Trois mouvements : Andante, pour flûte et piano [January 1935]

JA 073A – Trois mouvements : Allegro vivace, pour flûte et piano [1935]

JA 074C – Trois mouvements, pour flûte et orgue [1975]

JA 071 – Le jardin suspendu, pour orgue [October 1934]

JA 069 – Suite pour orgue : Introduction et variations, pour orgue [1935]

JA 069A – Andante con variazioni, pour quintette à cordes [1934]

JA 070 – Suite pour orgue : Scherzo, pour orgue [1935]

JA 070A – Scherzo, pour quintette à cordes [1934]

JA 082 – Suite pour orgue : Choral, pour orgue [1935]

• 1935 – 24 years old – 13 opus

JA 081 – Andante, pour piano [January 1935]

JA 081 bis – Largo assai, ma molto rubato, pour violoncelle et piano [1935]

JA 047 – Fantaisie pour chour à bouche fermée, pour trois voix mixtes [9 August 1935]

JA 057 – Fugue, pour orgue [1935]

JA 057A – Fugue, pour piano [1935]

JA 058 – Laisse les nuages blancs, pour soprano ou ténor [1935]

JA 060 – Foire, pour une voix et piano [1935]

JA 062 – De Jules Lemaître, pour orgue ou piano [1935]

JA 063 – Fantasmagorie, pour orgue ou piano [1935]

JA 067 – Choral dorien, pour orgue [1935]

JA 068 – Choral phrygien, pour orgue [1935]

JA 075 – Prélude, pour orgue [1935]

JA 076 – Nocturne, pour piano [1935]

JA 080 – Suite monodique : Animato, pour piano [1935]

JA 089 – Suite monodique : Adagio, molto rubato, pour piano [1935]

JA 89 bis – Andante, pour orgue [1935]

JA 116 – Suite monodique : Vivace, pour piano [1935]

JA 116A – Vivace, pour harpe

JA 087 – Prélude, pour piano [1935]

JA 087A – Prélude et fugue, pour piano [1935]

• 1936 – 25 years old – 4 opus

JA 086 – Berceuse, pour piano [17 avril 1936]

JA 088 – Chanson tirée du "chat-qui-s'en-va-tout-seul", pour soprano [1936]

JA 091 – Tarass Boulba, pour piano [October 1936]

JA 117 – Deuxième Fantaisie, pour orgue [1936]

• 1937 – 26 years old – 13 opus

JA 119 – Litanies, pour orgue [August 1937]

JA 119A – Litanies, pour deux pianos, transcribed by Olivier Alain

JA 084 – Quand Marion..., pour piano [1937]

JA 085 – Nous n'irons plus au bois..., pour piano [1937]

JA 090 – Complainte de Jean Renaud, pour quatre voix mixtes [1937]

JA 092 – Final pour une sonatine facile, pour piano [1937]

JA 093 – Suite facile : Barcarolle, pour piano [1937]

JA 094 – Invention à trois voix, pour flûte, hautbois et clarinette [1937]

JA 094A – Invention à trois voix, pour flûte et orgue [1937]

JA 095 – Vocalise dorienne, pour soprano et orgue [March 1937]

JA 095A – Vocalise dorienne – Ave Maria, pour soprano et orgue [1937]

JA 098 – O salutaris, a cappella, pour deux voix égales [1937]

JA 099 – Idée pour improviser sur le Christe eleison, pour piano [1937]

JA 100 – Idée pour improviser sur le deuxième Amen, pour piano [1937]

JA 118 – Variations sur un thème de Clément Janequin, pour orgue [1937]

JA 120 – Trois danses : Joies, Deuils, Luttes, pour orchestre [1937]

JA 120D – Sarabande, pour orgue, quintette à cordes et timbales [1938]

JA 120 bis – Danse funèbre pour honorer une mémoire héroïque, pour orgue [1938]

JA 120A – Trois danses : Joies, Deuils, Luttes, pour orgue [1940]

JA 120C – Trois danses : Joies, Deuils, Luttes, pour deux pianos [1944]

JA 120B – Trois danses : Joies, Deuils, Luttes, pour orchestre [1945]

• 1938 – 27 years old – 21 opus

JA 122 – Tantum ergo, pour deux voix inégales (sic) et orgue [18 January 1938]

JA 136 – Messe modale en septuor, pour soprano, alto, flûte et quatuor à cordes ou orgue [6 August 1938]

JA 135 – Monodie, pour orgue ou piano [8 September 1938]

JA 135A – Monodie, pour flûte [1938]

JA 138 – Aria, pour orgue [November 1938]

JA 138A – Aria, pour flûte et orgue [1938]

JA 083 – O salutaris, dit de Dugay, pour quatre voix mixtes [1938]

JA 096 – Faux-Bourdon pour le Laudate du VIème ton, pour trois voix égales [1938]

JA 097 – Le petit Jésus s'en va-t-à l'école, pour piano [1938]

JA 101 – Noël nouvelet, pour trois voix mixtes [1938]

JA 101 A – Noël nouvelet, pour orgue

JA 112 – Que j'aime ce divin Enfant, pour trois voix mixtes [1938]

JA 112A – Que j'aime ce divin Enfant, pour deux voix égales et orgue [1938]

JA 113 – D'où vient qu'en cette nuitée..., pour deux voix égales et orgue [1938]

JA 113A – D'où vient qu'en cette nuitée..., pour quatre voix mixtes [1990]

JA 114 – Le Père Noël passera-t-il ?, pour une voix [1938]

JA 115 – Transcription du Récit de Nazard de Clérambault, pour flûte et orgue [1938]

JA 121 – Marche de Saint Nicolas, pour deux clairons, tambour et orgue [1938]

JA 121A – Marche des Horaces et des Curiaces, pour deux clairons, tambour et orgue [1938]

JA 124 – Messe grégorienne de mariage, pour une voix et quatuor à cordes [1938]

JA 125 – Messe de Requiem, pour quatre voix mixtes [1938]

JA 126 – Fragment de la cantate de J. S. Bach Erschallet, ihr Lieder, pour deux trompettes et orgue [1938]

JA 127 – Allegro du Concerto en sol majeur (sic) de Händel, pour deux trompettes et orgue [1938]

JA 128 – Concerto en si bémol majeur de Händel, pour deux trompettes et orgue [1938]

JA 137 – Prière pour nous autres charnels, pour ténor, basse et orgue [1938]

JA 137 A – Prière pour nous autres charnels, pour orchestre [orchestrated by Henri Dutilleux, 1946]

JA 139 – L'année liturgique israëlite, pour orgue [1938]

JA 140 – Tantum ergo, pour soprano, baryton et orgue [1938]

• 1939 – 28 years old – 3 opus

JA 123 – Tu es Petrus, pour trois voix mixtes [1939]

JA 141 – Salve, virilis pectoris, pour soprano, ténor et orgue [1939]

JA 142 – O salutaris, pour soprano et orgue [1939]

• Undated – 17 opus

JA 040 – Une scie, pour piano

JA 041 – Il pleuvra toute la journée, pour piano

JA 042 – Sur le mode ré, mi, fa..., pour piano

JA 043 – Adagio, pour violoncelle et piano

JA 044 – Amen, pour piano

JA 045 – Un très vieux motif, pour piano

JA 046 – Post-scriptum, pour deux pianos

JA 048 – Théorie, pour piano

JA 049 – Le gai liseron, pour piano

JA 050 – Sonata, pour piano

JA 051 – Mephisto, pour piano

JA 052 – La peste, pour piano

JA 053 – Exposition

JA 054 – Sujet

JA 055 – Comme quoi les projets les plus belliqueux..., pour piano

JA 056 – Le bon Roi Dagobert, pour piano

JA 059 – Histoire d'un homme qui jouait de la trompette dans la forêt vierge, pour piano

References[link]

External links[link]

• JehanAlain.com
• Free scores by Jehan Alain at the International Music Score Library Project
• Free scores by Jehan Alain in the Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)

Cyrus the Great
King of Persia, King of Āryāvarta,[1][2] King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the four corners of the World[3]
Reign	559 BC – 530 BC (30 years)
Born	600 BC or 576 BC
Birthplace	Anshan, Persis, Iran
Died	December, 530 BC
Place of death	Along the Syr Darya
Buried	Pasargadae
Predecessor	Cambyses I
Successor	Cambyses II
Consort	Cassandane of Persia
Offspring	Cambyses II Bardiya Artystone Atossa Unnamed unknown
Royal House	Achaemenid
Father	Cambyses I
Mother	Mandane of Media or Argoste of Persia

Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian: ^[4] Kuruš (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC^[5]), commonly known as Cyrus the Great,^[6] also known as Cyrus the Elder, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[7] Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East,^[7] expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, parts of Europe and the Caucasus. From the Mediterranean sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen.^[8] He also pronounced one of the first historically important declarations of human rights via the Cyrus Cylinder sometime between 539-530 BCE.

The reign of Cyrus the Great lasted between 29 and 31 years. Cyrus built his empire by conquering first the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Either before or after Babylon, he led an expedition into central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception".^[9] Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, as he himself died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.^[10][11] He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to add to the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule.

Cyrus the Great respected the customs and religions of the lands he conquered.^[12] It is said that in universal history, the role of the Achaemenid empire founded by Cyrus lies in its very successful model for centralized administration and establishing a government working to the advantage and profit of its subjects.^[7] In fact, the administration of the empire through satraps and the vital principle of forming a government at Pasargadae were the works of Cyrus.^[13] What is sometimes referred to as the Edict of Restoration (actually two edicts) described in the Bible as being made by Cyrus the Great left a lasting legacy on the Jewish religion where because of his policies in Babylonia, he is referred to by the people of the Jewish faith, as "the anointed of the Lord" or a "Messiah".^[14][15]

Cyrus the Great is also well recognized for his achievements in human rights, politics, and military strategy, as well as his influence on both Eastern and Western civilizations. Having originated from Persis, roughly corresponding to the modern Iranian province of Fars, Cyrus has played a crucial role in defining the national identity of modern Iran.^[16][17][18] Cyrus and, indeed, the Achaemenid influence in the ancient world also extended as far as Athens, where many Athenians adopted aspects of the Achaemenid Persian culture as their own, in a reciprocal cultural exchange.^[19]

Background[link]

Etymology[link]

"I am Cyrus the king, an Achaemenid." in Old Persian, Elamite and Aramaic languages. It is carved in a column in Pasargadae.

The name Cyrus is a Latinized form derived from a Greek form of the Old Persian Kūruš. ^[20] The name and its meaning has been recorded in ancient inscriptions in different languages. The ancient Greek historians Ctesias and Plutarch noted that Cyrus was named from Kuros, the Sun, a concept which has been interpreted as meaning "like the Sun" by noting its relation to the Persian noun for sun, khor, while using -vash as a suffix of likeness.^[21] Karl Hoffmann has suggested a translation based on the meaning of an Indo-European-root "to humiliate" and accordingly "Cyrus" means "humiliator of the enemy in verbal contest."^[20] In the Persian language and specially in Iran, Cyrus's name is spelled as "کوروش بزرگ" or "Kūrošé Bozorg" which translates to Cyrus the Great. In the Bible, he is known as Koresh (Hebrew: כורש‎).^[22]

Dynastic history[link]

The four winged guardian figure representing Cyrus the Great, a bas-relief found at Pasargadae on top of which was once inscribed in three languages the sentence "I am Cyrus the king, an Achaemenian."^[23]

The Persian domination and kingdom in the Iranian plateau started by an extension of the Achaemenid dynasty, who expanded their earlier domination possibly from the 9th century BC onward. The eponymous founder of this dynasty was Achaemenes (from Old Persian Haxāmaniš). Achaemenids are "descendants of Achaemenes" as Darius the Great, the ninth king of the dynasty, traces his genealogy to him and declares "for this reason we are called Achaemenids". Achaemenes built the state Parsumash in the southwest of Iran and was succeeded by Teispes, who took the title "King of Anshan" after seizing Anshan city and enlarging his kingdom further to include Pars proper.^[7] Ancient documents^[24] mention that Teispes had a son called Cyrus I, who also succeeded his father as "king of Anshan". Cyrus I had a full brother whose name is recorded as Ariaramnes.^[7]

In 600 BC, Cyrus I was succeeded by his son Cambyses I who reigned until 559 BC. Cyrus the Great was a son of Cambyses I, who named his son after his father, Cyrus I.^[25] There are several inscriptions of Cyrus the Great and later kings that refer to Cambyses I as the "great king" and "king of Anshan". Among these are some passages in the Cyrus cylinder where Cyrus calls himself "son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan". Another inscription (from CM's) mentions Cambyses I as "mighty king" and "an Achaemenian", which according to bulk^[26] of scholarly opinion was engraved under Darius and considered as a later forgery by Darius.^[27] However Cambyses II's maternal grandfather Pharnaspes is named by Herodotus as "an Achaemenian" too.^[28] Xenophon's account in Cyropædia further names Cambyses's wife as Mandane and mentions Cambyses as king of Iran (ancient Persia). These agree with Cyrus's own inscriptions, as Anshan and Parsa were different names of the same land. These also agree with other non-Iranian accounts, except at one point from Herodotus stating that Cambyses was not a king but a "Persian of good family".^[29] However, in some other passages, Herodotus's account is wrong also on the name of the son of Chishpish, which he mentions as Cambyses but, according to modern scholars, should be Cyrus I.^[30]

The traditional view based on archaeological research and the genealogy given in the Behistun Inscription and by Herodotus^[7] holds that Cyrus the Great was an Achaemenian. However it has been suggested by M. Waters that Cyrus is unrelated to Achaemenes or Darius the Great and that his family was of Teispid and Anshanite origin instead of Achaemenid.^[31]

Early life[link]

The best-known date for the birth of Cyrus the Great is either 600-599 BC or 576-575 BC.^[32] Little is known of his early years, as there are only a few sources known to detail that part of his life, and they have been damaged or lost.

Herodotus's story of Cyrus's early life belongs to a genre of legends in which abandoned children of noble birth, such as Oedipus and Romulus and Remus, return to claim their royal positions. Similar to other culture's heroes and founders of great empires, folk traditions abound regarding his family background. According to Herodotus, he was the grandson of the Median king Astyages and was brought up by humble herding folk. In another version, he was presented as the son of a poor family that worked in the Median court. These folk stories are, however, contradicted by Cyrus's own testimony, according to which he was preceded as king of Persia by his father, grandfather and great-grandfather.^[33]

After the birth of Cyrus the Great, Astyages had a dream that his Magi interpreted as a sign that his grandson would eventually overthrow him. He then ordered his steward Harpagus to kill the infant. Harpagus, morally unable to kill a newborn, summoned the Mardian Mitradates (which the historian Nicolaus of Damascus calls Atradates), a royal bandit herdsman from the mountainous region bordering the Saspires,^[34] and ordered him to leave the baby to die in the mountains. Luckily, the herdsman and his wife (whom Herodotus calls Cyno in Greek, and Spaca-o in Median) took pity and raised the child as their own, passing off their recently stillborn infant as the murdered Cyrus.^[35][36] For the origin of Cyrus the Great's mother, Herodotus identifies Mandane of Media, and Ctesias insists that she is fully Persian but gives no name, while Nicolaus gives the name "Argoste" as Atradates's wife; whether this figure represents Cyno or Cambyses's unnamed Persian queen has yet to be determined. It is also noted that Strabo has said that Cyrus was originally named Agradates by his stepparents; therefore, it is probable that, when reuniting with his original family, following the naming customs, Cyrus's father, Cambyses I, names him Cyrus after his grandfather, who was Cyrus I.

Herodotus claims that when Cyrus the Great was ten years old, it was obvious that Cyrus was not a herdsman's son, stating that his behavior was too noble. Astyages interviewed the boy and noticed that they resembled each other. Astyages ordered Harpagus to explain what he had done with the baby, and, after Harpagus confessed that he had not killed the boy, Astyages tricked him into eating his own broiled and chopped up son.^[37] Astyages was more lenient with Cyrus and allowed him to return to his biological parents, Cambyses and Mandane.^[38] While Herodotus's description may be a legend, it does give insight into the figures surrounding Cyrus the Great's early life.

Cyrus the Great had a wife named Cassandane. She was an Achaemenian and daughter of Pharnaspes. From this marriage, Cyrus had four children: Cambyses II, Bardiya (Smerdis), Atossa, and another daughter whose name is not attested in the ancient sources. Also, Cyrus had a fifth child named Artystone, the sister or half-sister of Atossa, who may not have been the daughter of Cassandane. Cyrus the Great had a specially dear love for Cassandane. Cassandane also loved Cyrus to the point that on her death bed she is noted as having found it more bitter to leave Cyrus, than to depart her life.^[39] According to the Chronicle of Nabonidus, when Cassandane died, all the nations of Cyrus's empire observed "a great mourning", and, particularly in Babylonia, there was probably even a public mourning lasting for six days (identified from 21–26 March 538 BC). Her tomb is suggested to be at Cyrus's capital, Pasargadae.^[40] There are other accounts suggesting that Cyrus the Great also married a daughter of the Median king Astyages, named Amytis. This name may not be the correct one, however. Cyrus probably had married once, after the death of Cassandane, to a Median woman in his royal family.^[41] Cyrus the Great's son Cambyses II would become the king of Persia, and his daughter Atossa would marry Darius the Great and bear him Xerxes I.

Rise and military campaigns[link]

The Standard of Cyrus the Great

The Median Empire, Lydian Empire, and Neo-Babylonian Empire, prior to Cyrus the Great's conquests

Median Empire[link]

Though his father died in 551 BC, Cyrus the Great had already succeeded to the throne in 559 BC; however, Cyrus was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors, Cyrus had to recognize Median overlordship. During Astyages's reign, the Median Empire may have ruled over the majority of the Ancient Near East, from the Lydian frontier in the west to the Parthians and Persians in the east.

In Herodotus's version, Harpagus, seeking vengeance, convinced Cyrus to rally the Persian people to revolt against their feudal lords, the Medes. However, it is likely that both Harpagus and Cyrus rebelled due to their dissatisfaction with Astyages's policies.^[35] From the start of the revolt in summer 553 BC, with his first battles taking place from early 552 BC, Harpagus, with Cyrus, led his armies against the Medes until the capture of Ecbatana in 549 BC, effectively conquering the Median Empire.^[42]

While Cyrus the Great seems to have accepted the crown of Media, by 546 BC, he officially assumed the title "King of Persia" instead. With Astyages out of power, all of his vassals (including many of Cyrus's relatives) were now under his command. His uncle Arsames, who had been the king of the city-state of Parsa under the Medes, therefore would have had to give up his throne. However, this transfer of power within the family seems to have been smooth, and it is likely that Arsames was still the nominal governor of Parsa, under Cyrus's authority—more of a Prince or a Grand Duke than a King.^[43] His son, Hystaspes, who was also Cyrus's second cousin, was then made satrap of Parthia and Phrygia. Cyrus the Great thus united the twin Achamenid kingdoms of Parsa and Anshan into Persia proper. Arsames would live to see his grandson become Darius the Great, Shahanshah of Persia, after the deaths of both of Cyrus's sons.^[44] Cyrus's conquest of Media was merely the start of his wars.^[45]

Lydian Empire and Asia Minor[link]

Croesus on the pyre. Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre (G 197)

The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Cyrus's overthrow of the Median kingdom (550 BC) and his conquest of Babylon (539 BC). It was common in the past to give 547 BC as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position is currently not much held.^[46] The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of Pteria in Cappadocia. Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Cyrus levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The Battle of Pteria was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning.^[47]

While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the winter, before the allies could unite, Cyrus the Great pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, Sardis. Shortly before the final Battle of Thymbra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Cyrus the Great to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Cyrus defeated and captured Croesus. Cyrus occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 BC.^[47] According to Herodotus, Cyrus the Great spared Croesus's life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle (the King who was himself subdued by Cyrus the Great after conquest of Babylonia), which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain.^[48]

Before returning to the capital, a Lydian named Pactyas was entrusted by Cyrus the Great to send Croesus's treasury to Persia. However, soon after Cyrus's departure, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia, Tabalus. With recommendations from Croesus that he should turn the minds of the Lydian people to luxury, Cyrus sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares's arrival, Pactyas fled to Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The end of Pactyas is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to Cyrus and put to death after a succession of tortures.^[49]

Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Cyrus sent Harpagus to complete Mazares's conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Cilicia and Phoenicia, using the technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 BC and returned to Persia.^[35]

Neo-Babylonian Empire[link]

Superimposed on modern borders, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus's rule extended approximately from Turkey, Israel, Georgia and Arabia in the west to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Indus River (Pakistan) and Oman in the east. Persia became the largest empire the world had yet seen.

By the year 540 BC, Cyrus captured Elam (Susiana) and its capital, Susa.^[50] The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC.^[51] Near the beginning of October, Cyrus fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on October 10, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace.^[52] It is probable that Cyrus engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.^[53] Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.^[54]

Two days later, on October 7 (proleptic Gregorian calendar), Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus.^[55] Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh", which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night.^[56] On October 29, Cyrus himself entered the city of Babylon and detained Nabonidus.^[57]

Prior to Cyrus's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia itself, Cyrus probably incorporated its subnational entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence of this fact.^[58]

After taking Babylon, Cyrus the Great proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Cyrus cylinder, an inscription deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Cyrus pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Cyrus had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms.^[59]

Cyrus the Great's dominions comprised the largest empire the world had ever seen.^[8] At the end of Cyrus's rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the northwestern areas of India in the east.^[60]

Death[link]

Queen Tomrys receiving the head of Cyrus

The details of Cyrus's death vary by account. The account of Herodotus from his Histories provides the second-longest detail, in which Cyrus met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a tribe from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory.^[61] The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Cyrus first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, Tomyris, a proposal she rejected. He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force, beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Jaxartes, or Syr Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment in which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway, Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, who was also her son Spargapises, and a third of the Massagetian troops killed the group Cyrus had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves, when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Cyrus's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Cyrus the Great was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Cyrus brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son.^[62][63] However, some scholars question this version, mostly because Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Cyrus's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath.^[64]

Herodotus, also recounts that Cyrus saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe.^[65] Iranologist, Ilya Gershevitch explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Cyrus the Great in the following way:^[65]

"Herodotus, therefore as I surmise, may have known of the close connection, between this type of winged figure, and the image of the Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating, the king's death, before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus."

Ctesias, in his Persica, has the longest account, which says Cyrus met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya.^[66] An alternative account from Xenophon's Cyropaedia contradicts the others, claiming that Cyrus died peaceably at his capital.^[67] The final version of Cyrus's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Cyrus met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya.^[68]

Burial[link]

Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, Iran, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2006)

Cyrus the Great's remains were interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540-530 BCE^[69]) still exists which many believe to be his. Both Strabo and Arrian give nearly equal descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb two times.^[70] Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Cyrus the Great has remained largely intact; and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the years. According to Plutarch, his epitaph said,

Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Cyrus died around December 530 BC,^[11] and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and managed to capture Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Cyrus's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great.

The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; The tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderst man could barely squeeze through.^[72]

Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Cyrus the Great was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb.^[72] Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi", stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage.^[72][73]

Years later, in the ensuing chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Cyrus the Great's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court.^[72] On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Cyrus's tomb.^[74] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior.^[72] Despite his admiration for Cyrus the Great, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander would eventually ransack Persepolis, the opulent city that Cyrus had helped build, and order its burning in 330 B.C.^[75]

The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divides, successive empires, regime changes and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Cyrus's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension.^[76]

After the Iranian revolution, the tomb of Cyrus the Great survived the initial chaos and vandalism propagated by the Islamic revolutionary hardliners who equated Persian imperial historical artifacts with the late Shah of Iran. There are allegations of the tomb being in danger of damage from the construction of the Sivand Dam on river Polvar (located in the province of Pars) and flooding, but there is no official acknowledgement of this claim. This has nonetheless, caused a petition to be drafted to the U.N. demanding protection of this historical entity. United Nations recognizes the tomb of Cyrus the Great and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site.^[69]

Legacy[link]

Cyrus the Great liberated the Hebrew exiles to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.

In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king,
Alexander who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but fail to provide
any stable alternative.

—Charles Freeman in 'The Greek Achievement'^[77]

The achievements of Cyrus the Great throughout antiquity is well reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father", the very title that had been used during the time of Cyrus himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon:^[78]

The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator".^[79] After his conquest of Babylon, followed Cyrus's help for the return of Jews; for this, Cyrus is addressed in the Jewish Tanakh as the "Lord's Messiah". Glorified by Ezra, and by Isaiah, Cyrus is the one to whom "Yahweh, the God of heaven" has given "all the Kingdoms of the earth".^[23]

Cyrus was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. By pursuing a policy of generosity instead of repression, and by favoring local religions, he was able to make his newly conquered subjects into enthusiastic supporters.^[80] Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid empire endured long after his death.

The rise of Persia under Cyrus's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history. Iranian philosophy, literature and religion all played dominant roles in world events for the next millennia. Despite the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century CE by the Islamic Caliphate, Persia continued to exercise enormous influence in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, and was particularly instrumental in the growth and expansion of Islam.

Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Cyrus the Great and have claimed to continue the line begun by Cyrus.^[81][82] However there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty.^[83]

Even today many consider Cyrus greater than Alexander in his accomplishment. In fact Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator.^[84] Alexander respected Cyrus to the point, that during his visit to Pasargadae, he paid significant homage to the memory of Cyrus the Great by ordering Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of his tomb.^[84]

According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye:^[85]

On another account, Professor Patrick Hunt states:^[86]

Religion and philosophy[link]

Although there is no doubt about the influence of Zarathushtra's teachings on Cyrus's acts and policies, so far there has not been a clear evidence indicating that Cyrus practiced a specific religion; however, his liberal and tolerant views towards other religions have made some scholars consider Cyrus a Zoroastrian king.^[87] The religious policies of Cyrus are well documented in Babylonian texts as well as Jewish sources and the historians accounts. Cyrus initiated a general policy that can be described as a policy of permitting religious freedom throughout his vast empire. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries.^[12] Another example of his religion, as evidenced by the Cyrus cylinder (see below),

'û-mi-Ša-am ma- h ar iluBel ù iluNabu Š a a-ra-ku ume-ia li-ta-mu-ú lit-taŠ-ka-ru a-ma-a-ta du-un-ki-ia ù a-na iluMarduk beli-ia li-iq-bu-ú Ša mKu-ra-aŠ Šarri pa-li- hi-ka u mKa-am-bu-zi-ia mari- Šu' (Cylinder,Akkadian language line:35)

'pray daily before Bêl and Nabû for long life for me, and may they speak a gracious word for me and say to Marduk, my lord, "May Cyrus, the king who worships you, and Cambyses, his son,' (Cylinder,English Translation line:35)

His treatment of the Jews during their exile in Babylon after Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Jerusalem is reported in the Bible. The Jewish Bible's Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Cyrus, which returned the exiles to the Promised Land from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the temple.

'Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath Yahweh, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people -- may Yahweh, his God, be with him -- let him go there.' (2 Chronicles 36:23)

This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.

"In the first year of King Cyrus, Cyrus the king issued a decree: ‘Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. ‘Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God.’ (Ezra 6:3-5)

As a result of Cyrus's policies, the Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. He is the only Gentile to be designated as Messiah, a divinely appointed leader, in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1-6). Isaiah 45:13: "I will raise up Cyrus in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says Yahweh Almighty." As the text suggests, Cyrus did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. Traditionally, the entire book of Isaiah is believed to pre-date the rule of Cyrus by about 120 years. These particular passages (Isaiah 40-55, often referred to as Deutero-Isaiah) are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (ca. 536 BC).^[88] Whereas Isaiah 1-39 (referred to as Proto-Isaiah) saw the destruction of Israel as imminent, and the restoration in the future, Deutero-Isaiah speaks of the destruction in the past (Isa 42:24-25), and the restoration as imminent (Isa 42:1-9). Notice, for example, the change in temporal perspective from (Isa 39:6-7), where the Babylonian Captivity is cast far in the future, to (Isa 43:14), where the Israelites are spoken of as already in Babylon.^[89]

Josephus, the first century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Cyrus in Isaiah in his Antiquities of the Jews, book 11, chapter 1:^[90]

Cyrus was praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1-6 and Ezra 1:1-11) for the freeing of slaves, humanitarian equality and costly reparations he made. However, there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Cyrus in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 BC, during the reign of Darius I.^[91][92] According to the Bible it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem. (Ezra 4:7-24)

Some contemporary Muslim scholars have suggested that the Qur'anic figure of Dhul-Qarnayn is Cyrus the Great. This theory was proposed by Sunni scholar Abul Kalam Azad and endorsed by Shi'a scholars Allameh Tabatabaei, in his Tafsir al-Mizan and Makarem Shirazi.

Statue of Cyrus the great at Olympic Park in Sydney

Politics and management[link]

Cyrus founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ekbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government.

During his reign, Cyrus maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps, was continued by Cyrus's successor Darius the Great. Cyrus's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm.^[93]

Through his military savvy, Cyrus created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers.^[94] He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh.^[95]

Cyrus's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sassanids.^[96]

On December 10, 2003, in her acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize, Shirin Ebadi evoked Cyrus, saying:

Cyrus has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargad Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since.^[98]

Cyrus's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland^[99] and colonial America. Many of the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Cyrus the Great through works such as Cyropaedia. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned a copy.^[100]

The English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Cyrus in 1658 in which Cyrus is depicted as an archetypal 'wise ruler' - at a time when the Protectorate of Cromwell occurred in English history.

'Cyrus the elder brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circumscription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof.'

Cyrus cylinder[link]

The Cyrus cylinder, a contemporary cuneiform script proclaiming Cyrus as legitimate king of Babylon.

One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Cyrus's time is the Cyrus cylinder, a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 BC. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London.^[101]

The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Cyrus as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It goes on to describe how Cyrus had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries.^[102] Although not mentioned in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this policy.^[103]

The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Mr. Sithu U Thant.^[104] The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium BC, kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms."^[59] The cylinder emphasizes Cyrus's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor.^[105]

In the 1970s the Shah of Iran adopted it as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his own propaganda celebrating 2500 years of Iranian monarchy."^[106] and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history".^[107] This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious,^[108] as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Cyrus's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder.^[109][110] The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity.^[106]

Family tree[link]

See also[link]

• Achaemenid architecture
• Cyrus the Great in the Qur'an
• Greater Iran
• History of Iran
• Immortals (Persian Empire)

Citations[link]