Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American baseball player who became the first black Major League Baseball (MLB) player of the modern era.[1] Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. As the first black man to play in the major leagues since the 1880s, he was instrumental in bringing an end to racial segregation in professional baseball, which had relegated black players to the Negro leagues for six decades.[2] The example of his character and unquestionable talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation, which then marked many other aspects of American life, and contributed significantly to the Civil Rights Movement.[3][4]
In addition to his cultural impact, Robinson had an exceptional baseball career. Over ten seasons, he played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Championship. He was selected for six consecutive All-Star Games from 1949 to 1954,[5] was the recipient of the inaugural MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, and won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first black player so honored.[6] Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. In 1997, Major League Baseball retired his uniform number, 42, across all major league teams.
Robinson was also known for his pursuits outside the baseball diamond. He was the first black television analyst in Major League Baseball, and the first black vice-president of a major American corporation. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. In recognition of his achievements on and off the field, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal.
Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia, during a Spanish flu and smallpox epidemic. He was the youngest of five children, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae.[7][8] His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died twenty-five days before Robinson was born.[9][10] After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.[11][12][13] The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.[14] Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.[15] As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.[15][16][17]
In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School (Muir Tech).[18] Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers Mack (himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics)[17] and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.[19][20] At Muir Tech, Robinson played several sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball.[13] He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.[21]
In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon.[22] In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis."[23]
After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.[24] On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke school broad jump records held by his brother Mack.[13] As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.[22] While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.[25][26] Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.[27] In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.[20][28] That year, Robinson was one of ten students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition."[29]
An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.[30] Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.[31] Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.[20][32]
Robinson in his UCLA track uniform
After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,[33] Robinson transferred to UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.[34][35] He was one of four black players on the 1939 UCLA Bruins football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.[36] At a time when only a handful of black players existed in mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's most integrated team.[37][38] In track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in the Long Jump, jumping 24'10.5".[39] Belying his future career, baseball was Robinson's "worst sport" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.[40]
While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum, a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC.[41] In the spring semester of 1941, despite his mother's and Isum's reservations, Robinson left college just shy of graduation.[42] He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.[43][44][45]
After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in fall 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears.[43][45] After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League.[46] By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, drawing the United States into World War II and ending Robinson's nascent football career.[43]
Robinson in his Army uniform, ca. 1943, during a visit to his home in Pasadena, California, receiving a military salute from his nephew Frank
In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit in Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, practically speaking few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.[47] As a result, the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.[48] After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War),[49] the men were accepted into OCS.[43][48][50] This common military experience spawned a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.[51][52] Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943.[35] Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.[48]
After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, 2LT Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston-Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.[30][53]
An event on July 6, 1944 derailed Robinson's military career.[54] While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.[55][56][57] Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody.[55][58] When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.[55][59] After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness—even though Robinson did not drink.[55][60]
By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.[55] Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.[55] Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, thus he never saw combat action.[61]
After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944.[62] While there, Robinson met an ex-player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.[63] Robinson took the ex-player's advice and wrote Monarchs' co-owner Thomas Baird.[64]
After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.[46] Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Sam Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference.[65] The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.[53] As a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.[65][66] Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,[53] and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.[67]
In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.[53][68] Robinson accepted a contract for $400 ($5,164 in 2012 dollars[69]) per month, a boon for him at the time.[43][70] Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.[71][72] The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now only communicate by letter.[73] In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases.[74] He also appeared in the 1945 Negro League All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats.[75]
During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interest. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16.[76] The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore Muchnick.[77] Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.[78] Robinson left the tryout humiliated,[76] and more than fourteen years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the last major league team to integrate its roster.[79]
Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players, and interviewed Robinson for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals.[80] Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.[4][81] In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.[43] Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?"[81][82] Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back."[81][82] After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $7,746 today.[83][84]
Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.[85] On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.[43][84][86] On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.[87] In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment",[43][88] Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.[89] Robinson was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,[90] and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first.[91]
Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides behind, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League.[92] Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.[93] On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, Rev. Karl Downs.[43][94][95]
In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League (the designation of "AAA" for the highest level of minor league baseball was first used in the 1946 season). Robinson's presence was controversial in racially charged Florida. As he was not allowed to stay with his teammates at the team hotel, he lodged instead at the home of a local black politician.[96][97] Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility (the Dodger-controlled spring training compound in Vero Beach known as "Dodgertown" did not open until spring 1948),[98] scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.[99][100] In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.[101][102] In DeLand, a scheduled day game was called off, ostensibly because of faulty electrical lighting.[103][104]
Robinson (30) playing in Montreal, exact date unknown
After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.[105][106] Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus simultaneously became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team and against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.[2] Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.[60] Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson. In his five trips to the plate, Robinson had four hits, including a three-run home run. He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.[107] Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage,[19] and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.[108] Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example),[60] the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.[109][110] Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an amazing figure by International League standards.[111] In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.[112][113]
The following year, six days before the start of the 1947 season, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman.[81] On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons.[114] Although he failed to get a base hit, the Dodgers won 5–3.[114] Robinson became the first player since 1880 to openly break the major league baseball color line.[115] Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.[91]
Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.[111][116] However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.[117] Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."[118]
Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. Some, notably the St. Louis Cardinals, threatened to strike if Robinson played. After the threat, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended.[119][120][121] Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg.[122] On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields".[123][124] Rickey later recalled that Phillies manager Ben Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."[125]
Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them."[126] In 1948, Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati.[127] A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, commemorates this event by representing Reese with his arm around Robinson.[128] Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with racial epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. After colliding with Robinson at first base on one occasion, Greenberg whispered a few words into Robinson's ear, which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement."[129] Greenberg had advised him that the best way to combat the slurs from the opposing players was to beat them on the field.[129]
Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an on-base percentage of .383, and a .427 slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.[130] His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).[131]
Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky).[132] Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.[133] In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle—a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game.[134] The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.[135]
Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 as a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson.[132] In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $120,914 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions, and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.[136]
In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field.[137] Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball.[137] Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second".[137] The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.[137] In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored.[81] For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player award for the National League.[81] Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game—the first All-Star Game to include black players.[138][139]
That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version.[140] Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.[132]
Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.[141]
Lobby card for
The Jackie Robinson Story, 1950, with Minor Watson (left, playing Dodgers president Branch Rickey) and Robinson
In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133.[134] His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000[142] ($338,091 in 2012 dollars[69]). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.[133] The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself,[143] and actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae" (Isum) Robinson.[144] The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.[145] The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."[146]
Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's prima donna".[147] In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.[148] Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."[149][150]
Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.[151][152]
During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.[134] He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game, and then won the game with a home run in the 14th. This forced a playoff against the New York Giants, which the Dodgers lost.[153]
Cover of a Jackie Robinson comic book, issue #5, 1951
Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World, on October 3, 1951. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was."[154] He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.[133]
Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.[155] He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases.[133] He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436.[133] The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.[156] Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness."[157] The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties.[133] Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.[158]
In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals,[133] leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.[159] He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis.[160][161] Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.[122][162]
In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.[133][134] The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.[163] Robinson, then 37 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.[154] Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.[164]
In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.[133] By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes, and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.[158] After the season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $299,192 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company.[165] Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously,[165] his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.[166]
Robinson and his son David (then age 11) are interviewed during the
March on Washington, August 28, 1963.
Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line.[115] After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military in 1948.[167] Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Martin Luther King, Jr. said that he was "a legend and a symbol in his own time", and that he "challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration."[168] According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities."[169]
Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of twenty-eight, he played only ten seasons, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.[170] During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.[5] In 1999, he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.[171]
Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–"long ball" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.[172] Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291).[133][170][173] Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other).[174] He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total,[133] including 19 steals of home. None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).[175] Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base-stealing."[176]
"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being."
—Robinson, on his legacy
[126]
Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.[177] After playing his rookie season at first base,[81] Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.[178] He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.[179][180] Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.[177]
Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being."[126] Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. This guy didn't just come to play. He come to beat ya. He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass."[181]
Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story.[182] Other portrayals include:
Robinson as ABC sports announcer in 1965
Robinson retired from baseball on January 5, 1957.[188] Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, his doctors diagnosed Robinson with diabetes, a disease that also affected his brothers.[189] Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease.[190]
In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962,[61] Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.[191] He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.[19]
In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first black person to do so.[192] In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League.[193][194] In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.[195]
On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, alongside those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32).[196] From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.[19][197] Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry.[198] Robinson also chaired the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People's (NAACP) million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.[197] In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.[197] He also served as the bank's first Chairman of the Board.[199] In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.[197][200]
Color movie still featuring Robinson in the 1960s
Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent[201][202] although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote Martin Luther King, Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy).[203] After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.[204] Robinson was angered by conservative Republican opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the 1964 presidential election.[197] After the party nominated Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had "a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany".[205] He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966.[197] Switching his allegiance to the Democrats, he subsequently supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in 1968.[166]
Protesting the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, Robinson turned down an invitation to appear in an old-timers' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969.[206] He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball."[207] This wish was fulfilled only after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.[208][209]
After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife, Rachel Robinson, pursued a career in academic nursing—she became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.[210] She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.[211] She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (born November 18, 1946), Sharon Robinson (born January 13, 1950), and David Robinson (born May 14, 1952).[212]
Robinson's family gravesite in
Cypress Hills Cemetery. Robinson is buried alongside his mother-in-law Zellee Isum and his son Jackie Robinson, Jr.
Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.[213] He enrolled in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.[214] After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.[215] On June 17, 1971, at the age of 24, he was killed in an automobile accident.[216][217] The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson, Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.[218]
The footstone of Jackie Robinson
Robinson did not long outlive his son. Complications of heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, he died of a heart attack at home in Stamford, Connecticut, aged fifty-three.[81][216] Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at New York City's Riverside Church attracted 2,500 admirers.[219] Many of his former teammates and other famous black baseball players served as pallbearers, and the Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy.[219] Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where he is buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.[219] Jackie Robinson Parkway also runs through the cemetery.[220]
After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, of which she remains an officer as of 2009.[81][221] On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation will be opening a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.[222] Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.[223] His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.[224][225]
According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby.[226] In 1999, he was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.[227] Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on the Sporting News list of Baseball's 100 Greatest Players[228] and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote-getter among second basemen.[229][230] Baseball writer Bill James, in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.[231] Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA’s Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984.[40] In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[232] Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.[233]
Memorial in the Jackie Robinson Rotunda inside
Citi Field, dedicated April 15, 2009
The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson in several ways. Brookside Park, situated next to the Rose Bowl, features a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field.[234] The city's Human Services Department operates the Jackie Robinson Center, a community outreach center that provides early diabetes detection and other services.[235] In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $470,522 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.[236][237]
Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).[238][239] On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues.[240]
As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB has recently begun honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.[241] After receiving her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.[242] Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates.[243] The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42.[244][245] On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.[191] In 2009, all uniformed personnel (players, managers, coaches, and umpires) wore number 42 on April 15.[246]
At the November 2006 groundbreaking for a new ballpark for the New York Mets, Citi Field, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.[247] It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that, in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation, the Mets will create a Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square in lower Manhattan. The main purpose of the museum will be to fund scholarships for "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals."[248][249][250]
Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the "Jackie Robinson Award".[251]
Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.[197] President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984,[252] and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente.[253] On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.[254]
Rachel Robinson (third from left) accepts the posthumous Congressional Gold Medal for her husband from President George W. Bush in a March 2, 2005 ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda. Also pictured are
Nancy Pelosi (left) and
Dennis Hastert (right).
A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium,[255] which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.[256] City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida—the baseball field that became the Dodgers' de facto spring training site in 1947—was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1989.[257] A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.[258] The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,[259] and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.[260] In 1976, his home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark.[261] Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson.[262] In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five dollar gold coin.[263] That same year, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor.
In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.[264] The home is located at 8232 avenue de Gaspe south of rue de Guizot Est and near Jarry Park and close to Delorimier Stadium, where Robinson played for the Montreal Royals during 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: "I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man."[265]
- ^ Lamb, p. 6.
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- ^ Glasser, Ira (2003). "Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson: precursors of the civil rights movement". World & I 18 (3): 257–273. http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/march/mtpub.asp. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
- ^ a b Hill, Justice B. (April 15, 2008). "One meeting, two men, a changed world". MLB.com. http://mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080415&content_id=2529821. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
- ^ a b "Jackie Robinson statistics and history". Baseball-Reference.com. http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/r/robinja02.shtml. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
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- ^ Violett, B.J. (1997). "Teammates Recall Jackie Robinson's Legacy". UCLA Today. http://www.today.ucla.edu/portal/ut/970425TeammatesRecall.aspx. Retrieved October 12, 2008.
- ^ "Kenny Washington". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-9389095. Retrieved October 12, 2008.
- ^ Demas, Lane (2007). "Beyond Jackie Robinson: racial integration in American college football and new directions in sport history". History Compass 5 (2): 675–690. DOI:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00412.x.
- ^ http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/stats/track_outdoor_champs_records/2006/MD1.pdf
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- ^ Sources point to various reasons for Robinson's departure from UCLA. Family sources cite financial concerns. "Biography". Official Site of Jackie Robinson. http://www.jackierobinson.com/about/bio.html. Retrieved April 9, 2009. In addition, Robinson himself cited his growing disillusionment about the value of a college degree for a black man of his era. Robinson, Jackie, p. 11. Other sources suggest that Robinson was uninterested in academics, and behind on class work at the time he left UCLA. Falkner, p. 45; Eig, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Black History Biographies Jackie Robinson". Gale Cengage Learning. http://www.gale.cengage.com/free_resources/bhm/bio/robinson_j.htm. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
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- ^ a b Gill, Bob (1987). "Jackie Robinson: Pro Football Prelude" (PDF). The Coffin Corner (Professional Football Researchers Association) 9 (3): 1–2. http://www.profootballresearchers.org/Coffin_Corner/09-03-295.pdf. Retrieved May 27, 2009.
- ^ MacGregor, Morris J. (1981). "Chapter 2: World War II: The Army". Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-65. Washington, D.C.: G.P.O.. ISBN 1-153-75539-4. n. 94. http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-02.htm.
- ^ a b c Robinson, Jackie, p. 13.
- ^ Library of Congress: Truman K. Gibson Papers. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 9, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090509002931/http://www.loc.gov/rr//mss/text/gibson.html. Retrieved May 22, 2009.
- ^ Goldstein, Richard (January 2, 2006). "Truman K. Gibson, who fought Army segregation, is dead at 93". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/national/02gibson.html. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
- ^ Rampersad, p. 91.
- ^ Editors of Time for Kids; with Patrick, Denise Lewis (2005). Jackie Robinson: Strong Inside and Out. New York: HarperCollins. p. 11. ISBN 0-06-057601-4.
- ^ a b c d Enders, Eric (April 15, 1997). "Jackie Robinson, College Basketball Coach". Austin American-Statesman. http://www.ericenders.com/jackieaustin.htm. Retrieved April 8, 2009.
- ^ Vernon, John (2008). "Jim Crow, meet Lieutenant Robinson". Prologue Magazine (National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)) 40 (1). http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2008/spring/robinson.html.
- ^ a b c d e f Tygiel, Jules (August/September 1984). "The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson". American Heritage. Archived from the original on November 19, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081119151636/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1984/5/1984_5_34.shtml. Retrieved November 25, 2008. (also published at Tygiel (2002), pp. 14–23).
- ^ Linge, p. 37.
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- ^ a b c "Jackie Makes Good". Time. August 26, 1946. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,933586,00.html. Retrieved October 12, 2008.
- ^ a b Featured Baseball Personalities – Jackie Robinson – Historic Baseball Resources. Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/topics/baseball/featured/jackierobinson.html. Retrieved October 6, 2008.
- ^ McElderry, Michael (2002). "Jackie Robinson A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on November 12, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081112125650/http://www.loc.gov/rr/mss/text/robinsnj.html. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
- ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 23.
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- ^ a b Rampersad, p. 114.
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- ^ Tramel, Jimmie (June 25, 2008). "Globetrotting tales". Tulsa World. http://www.tulsaworld.com/site/printerfriendlystory.aspx?articleID=20080625_226_B1_pncase451210. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Eig, p. 17.
- ^ a b Staff. Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2012. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
- ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 24.
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- ^ Lester, Larry; Sammy J. Miller (2000). Black Baseball in Kansas City. Arcadia Publishing. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7385-0842-9.
- ^ Lester, Larry (2002). Black Baseball's National Showcase: The East-West All-Star Game, 1933-1953. University of Nebraska Press. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-8032-8000-7.
- ^ a b Bryant, p. 31.
- ^ Simon, pp. 46–47.
- ^ "The Boston Red Sox and Racism with New Owners, Team Confronts Legacy of Intolerance". National Public Radio. 2002. http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/oct/redsox/. Retrieved April 10, 2008.
- ^ O'Connell, Jack (April 13, 2007). "Robinson's many peers follow his lead". MLB.com. http://mlbnetwork.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070412&content_id=1895202&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
- ^ Povich, Shirley (March 28, 1997). "The Ball Stayed White, but the Game Did Not". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/longterm/general/povich/launch/jackier.htm. Retrieved October 12, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Schwartz, Larry (2007). "Jackie changed face of sports". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016431.html. Retrieved September 25, 2009.
- ^ a b Robinson, Jackie, p. 33.
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- ^ a b Robinson, Jackie, p. 34.
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- ^ Tygiel, p. 79.
- ^ Pennington, Bill (July 27, 2006). "Breaking a barrier 60 years before Robinson". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/27/sports/27hall.html. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
- ^ Ribowsky, Mark (2000). Don't look back: Satchel Paige in the shadows of baseball. Da Capo Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-0-306-80963-7.
- ^ a b Paige, Satchel; David Lipman (1993). Maybe I'll pitch forever: a great baseball player tells the hilarious story behind the legend. U of Nebraska Press. pp. xi, xii. ISBN 978-0-8032-8732-7.
- ^ Tygiel (2002), p. 28.
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- ^ "Royals' Game Off at Jacksonville". New York Times. March 23, 1946. http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F10C11FB395D177A93C1AB1788D85F428485F9. Retrieved September 24, 2009.
- ^ Lamb, pp. 135–136.
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- ^ "Jackie Robinson Ballpark". BallparkDigest.com. http://www.ballparkdigest.com/visits/index.html?article_id=614. Retrieved April 21, 2009.
- ^ Lamb, p. 104.
- ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 45.
- ^ Tygiel (1983), pp. 3, 7
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- ^ "US to honor Robinson's Montreal home". FOXSports.com. Associated Press. February 27, 2011. http://msn.foxsports.com/mlb/story/United-States-to-honor-Jackie-Robinsons-Montreal-apartment-022711. Retrieved 2011-02-27. "... the apartment the couple called home in the summer of 1946."
- ^ a b Swaine, Rick. "SABR Biography of Jackie Robinson". Society for American Baseball Research. http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=l&bid=2379&pid=12074. Retrieved May 27, 2009.
- ^ Tygiel, pp. 163–164.
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- ^ a b McNeil, p. 357.
- ^ a b Kirsch, George B., Othello Harris, and Claire Elaine Nolte, eds. (2000). "The Right to Travel". Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood. pp. 12, 336. ISBN 0-313-29911-0.
- ^ For a general survey of the media reaction to Robinson at various phases of his career, see www.umass.edu and subpages. Retrieved on July 8, 2009.
- ^ "Jackie Robinson breaks major league color barrier". History Channel. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jackie-robinson-breaks-color-barrier. Retrieved October 21, 20011.
- ^ Kirwin, p. 198.
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- ^ a b Wormser, Richard (2002). "Jackie Robinson integrates Baseball". Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_jackie.html. Retrieved September 14, 2009.
- ^ Williams, p. 9.
- ^ Burns, Ken (writer and director) (1994). Baseball, Part 6 (Television production). Public Broadcasting Service. Event occurs at minute 120.
- ^ Burns, Ken (writer and director) (1994). Baseball, Part 6 (Television production). Public Broadcasting Service. Event occurs at minute 122.
- ^ a b c Newman, Mark (April 13, 2007). "1947: A time for change". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070412&content_id=1895445&vkey=perspectives&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Barra, Allen (April 24, 2007). "Debunkers Strike Out". The Village Voice. http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-04-24/news/debunkers-strike-out/. Retrieved October 11, 2008.
- ^ Sandomir, Richard (June 1, 2008). "From Clay to Bronze to the Hall". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/01/sports/baseball/01oneil.html. Retrieved July 12, 2009.
- ^ a b Mathews, Jack (January 12, 2000). "'Greenberg' A Home Run". New York Daily News. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/entertainment/2000/01/12/2000-01-12__greenberg__a_home_run.html. Retrieved October 12, 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Eig, p. 224.
- ^ "Rookies of the Year". MLB.com. http://www.mlb.com/mlb/awards/mlb_awards_content.jsp?content=roy_history. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
- ^ a b c McNeil, p. 94.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Historical Player Stats". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/stats/historical/individual_stats_player.jsp?c_id=mlb&playerID=121314. Retrieved October 11, 2008.
- ^ a b c d Lester, Larry (2007). "My Hero — Jackie Robinson". LarryLester42.com. http://larrylester42.com/my-hero/. Retrieved October 30, 2008.
- ^ Lowenfish, Lee (2007). "A Year of Disappointment, Odd Choices, and an Adieu to Leo". Branch Rickey: Baseball's Ferocious Gentleman. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 461. ISBN 0-8032-1103-1.
- ^ Linge, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b c d Huhn, Rick (2004). "Full circle". The Sizzler: George Sisler, Baseball's Forgotten Great. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. p. 260. ISBN 0-8262-1555-6.
- ^ In addition to Robinson, the 1949 All-Star game featured Larry Doby, Roy Campanella, and Don Newcombe. See Johnson, Chuck (July 13, 1999). "An All-Star Game for all". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/99asg/99asgf17.htm. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
- ^ Paul Humphrey, ed. (2003) [1995]. America in the 20th Century: 1940-1949. 5 (2nd ed.). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. p. 709. ISBN 978-0-7614-7369-5.
- ^ "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?". Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/music.html. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
- ^ Duberman, Martin (1989). "The Right to Travel". Paul Robeson. New York: Knopf. pp. 361–362. ISBN 978-0-394-52780-2.
- ^ Santella, Andrew (1996). Jackie Robinson Breaks the Color Line. Children's Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-516-06637-4.
- ^ "Jackie Robinson Star Ballplayer Stars in a Movie". Life Magazine. May 8, 1950. http://www.life.com/image/74168523/in-gallery/23148/jackie-robinson-american-pioneer
- ^ Bogle, Donald (2001). "Black Odds and Ends". Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (4th ed.). New York: Continuum. pp. 184–185. ISBN 0-8264-1267-X.
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- ^ Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers. Smith, Claire (April 16, 1997). "A Grand Tribute to Robinson and His Moment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 1, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071201170117/http://www.nytimes.com/specials/baseball/robinson-0416-smith.html. Retrieved October 11, 2008. This affected players such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn. The Yankees' Mariano Rivera is the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Bloom, Barry M. (April 13, 2009). "MLB ready to celebrate Jackie Robinson Day". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090413&content_id=4246882&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved September 26, 2009. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, has been retired league-wide. "League retires Gretzky's No. 99". Associated Press. USA Today. February 6, 2000. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/star00/full37.htm. Retrieved December 28, 2010. There have also been calls for MLB to retire number 21 league-wide in honor of Roberto Clemente, a sentiment opposed by the Robinson family. "Sharon Robinson: honor Clemente some other way". Associated Press. ESPN. January 24, 2006. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=2304057&type=story. Retrieved 2009-08-17. "The daughter of Jackie Robinson thinks Major League Baseball should not retire Roberto Clemente's No. 21, the New York Daily News reported Tuesday. The Hispanics Across America advocacy group wants Clemente's number set aside the way the late Robinson's No. 42 was nine years ago. But Sharon Robinson said that honor should remain for her father only" .
- ^ Stone, Larry (April 15, 2009). "Ken Griffey Jr. on Jackie Robinson and the decline of African-Americans in baseball". Seattle Times. http://blog.seattletimes.nwsource.com/stone/2009/04/15/griffey_on_jackie_robinson_day.html. Retrieved May 27, 2009.
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- ^ Pennington, Bill (April 13, 2007). "A measure of respect for Jackie Robinson turns into a movement". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/sports/baseball/13jackie.html. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
- ^ "Robinson's legacy celebrated at Shea". MLB.com. April 16, 2008. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080415&content_id=2531842&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
- ^ "Baseball remembers Jackie Robinson". International Herald Tribune. April 16, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/16/sports/16iht-JACKIE.1.12034776.html. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
- ^ "Jackie's impact will be felt today". MLB.com. April 15, 2009. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090414&content_id=4268616&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved April 15, 2009.
- ^ "Jackie Robinson Rotunda dedicated at Citi Field". Associated Press. April 16, 2009. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=4072441. Retrieved May 27, 2009.
- ^ "Mets honor Robinson at new home". New York Daily News. November 14, 2006. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2006/11/14/2006-11-14_mets_honor_robinson_at_new_h.html. Retrieved June 30, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Plans Unveiled for Robinson Museum". MLB.com. March 4, 2008. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080304&content_id=2403980&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
- ^ Fordin, Spencer (April 13, 2011). "Museum in NY to tell Jackie's story". MLB.com (MLB Advanced Media, L.P.). http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20110413&content_id=17745294&vkey=news_mlb&c_id=mlb. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
- ^ "The 2010 Aflac National High School Player of The Year Nominees Announced". Satellite Television. August 9, 2010. http://www.satellitetv-news.com/the-2010-aflac-national-high-school-player-of-the-year-nominees-announced/. Retrieved 2011-11-10. "Named in honor of the late Hall of Famer and first man to break Major League Baseball’s color barrier, the Jackie Robinson Award recognizes the nation’s top high school player entering his senior year that demonstrates outstanding character, exhibits leadership and embodies the values of being a student athlete in both his schoolwork and community affairs." See also: Baseball awards#U.S. high-school baseball.
- ^ "Announcement of the recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom". Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. February 21, 1984. http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1984/22184b.htm. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
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- ^ "Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver Announce the 2007 California Hall of Fame Inductees". Office of the Governor of California. August 20, 2007. http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/7189/. Retrieved October 7, 2008. [dead link]
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- ^ "Robinson Stadium". www.pasadena.edu. Pasadena City College Foundation. http://www.pasadena.edu/foundation/FundedProjects/stadium.cfm. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
- ^ Anderson, Dave (April 1, 1997). "Robinson 'stood up for what he believed'". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/01/sports/robinson-stood-up-for-what-he-believed.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
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- ^ "The Jackie Robinson Commemorative Coin Set". United States Mint. http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/commemoratives/jackie/index.cfm?action=jr_about. Retrieved March 2, 2010.
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- Bigelow, Barbara Carlisle, ed. (1994). Contemporary Black Biography: Profiles from the International Black Community. 6. Detroit: Gale Research. ISBN 0-8103-8558-9.
- Bryant, Howard (2002). Shut Out: A Story of Race and Baseball in Boston. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92779-X. (2002 CASEY Award winner).
- Dorinson, Joseph; Warmund, Joram, eds. (1999). Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0317-9.
- Eig, Jonathan (2007). Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson's First Season. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-9460-2. (2007 CASEY Award nominee).
- Falkner, David (1995). Great Time Coming: The Life of Jackie Robinson, from Baseball to Birmingham. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-79336-5.
- Gutman, Dan (1999). Jackie & Me: A Baseball Card Adventure. New York: Avon. ISBN 0-380-80084-5.
- Kirwin, Bill (2005). Out of the Shadows: African American Baseball from the Cuban Giants to Jackie Robinson. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7825-X.
- Lamb, Chris (2006). Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson's First Spring Training. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-8047-5.
- Linge, Mary Kay (2007). Jackie Robinson: A Biography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33828-0.
- Long, Michael G., ed. (2007). First Class Citizenship: the Civil Rights Letters of Jackie Robinson. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-8710-9.
- McNeil, William F. (2000). The Dodgers Encyclopedia. Sports Publishing. ISBN 1-58261-316-8.
- Nemec, David; Flatow, Scott (2008). Great Baseball Feats, Facts & Firsts (expanded & updated ed.). New York: Signet. ISBN 0-451-22363-2.
- Rampersad, Arnold (1997). Jackie Robinson: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-44495-5. (1997 CASEY Award nominee).
- Robinson, Jackie; as told to Duckett, Alfred (1995) [1972]. I Never Had It Made. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-055597-1.
- Robinson, Rachel; with Daniels, Lee (1996). Jackie Robinson: An Intimate Portrait. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-3792-1. (1996 CASEY Award nominee).
- Robinson, Sharon (2001). Jackie's Nine: Jackie Robinson's Values to Live By. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 0-439-23764-5.
- Robinson, Sharon (2004). Promises To Keep: How Jackie Robinson Changed America. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 0-439-42592-1.
- Simon, Scott (2002). Jackie Robinson and the Integration of Baseball. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-26153-X.
- Stout, Glenn; Richard A. Johnson (phot. ed.) (2004). The Dodgers: 120 Years of Dodgers Baseball. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-21355-9.
- Tygiel, Jules (1983). Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503300-0. (1983 CASEY Award nominee).
- Tygiel, Jules (2002). Extra Bases: Reflections on Jackie Robinson, Race, and Baseball History. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-9447-9.
- Williams, Pat; with Sielski, Mike (2005). How to Be Like Jackie Robinson: Life Lessons from Baseball's Greatest Hero. Deerfield Beach, FL: HCI. ISBN 0-7573-0173-8.
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| Persondata |
| Name |
Robinson, Jackie |
| Alternative names |
Robinson, Jack Roosevelt (full name) |
| Short description |
American baseball player |
| Date of birth |
(1919-01-31)January 31, 1919 |
| Place of birth |
Cairo, Georgia |
| Date of death |
October 24, 1972(1972-10-24) |
| Place of death |
Stamford, Connecticut |
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