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Dante, Homer and Virgil in Raphael's Parnassus fresco (1511), in which the Western canon is visualised

The term Western canon denotes a criteria of books and, more broadly, music and art that have been the most important and influential in shaping Western culture. As such, it includes the "greatest works of artistic merit." Such a canon is important to the theory of educational perennialism and the development of "high culture". The idea of a Canon has been used to address the question What is Art?; according to this approach, a work is art by comparison to the works in the canon, or conversely, any aesthetic law to be valid should not rule out any of the works included in the canon.^[1]

In practice, debates and attempts to define the canon in lists are essentially restricted to literature, including poetry, fiction and drama; biographical and autobiographical writings; philosophy; and history. A few accessible books on the sciences and mathematics are also included.

Origins[link]

The process of listmaking—defining the boundaries of the canon—is endless. The philosopher John Searle has said: "In my experience there never was, in fact, a fixed 'canon'; there was rather a certain set of tentative judgments about what had importance and quality. Such judgments are always subject to revision, and in fact they were constantly being revised."^[2]

One of the notable attempts at compiling an authoritative canon in the English-speaking world was the Great Books of the Western World program. This program, developed in the middle third of the 20th century, grew out of the curriculum at the University of Chicago. University president Robert Hutchins and his collaborator Mortimer Adler developed a program that offered reading lists, books, and organizational strategies for reading clubs to the general public.

An earlier attempt, the Harvard Classics (1909), was promulgated by Harvard University president Charles W. Eliot, whose thesis was the same as Carlyle's:

... The greatest university of all is a collection of books.

—Thomas Carlyle

Debate[link]

There has been an ongoing, intensely political debate over the nature and status of the canon since at least the 1960s, much of which is rooted in critical theory, feminism, critical race theory, and Marxist attacks against capitalism and classical liberal principles.^[3] In the United States, in particular, the canon has been attacked as a compendium of books written mainly by "dead European men", that does not represent the viewpoints of many in contemporary societies around the world. Allan Bloom in his 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind, has disagreed strongly.^{[page needed][Need quotation to verify]} Yale University Professor of Humanities Harold Bloom (no relation to Allan) has also argued strongly in favor of the canon,^[4] and in general the canon remains as a represented idea in many institutions,^[2] though its implications continue to be debated.

Defenders maintain that those who undermine the canon do so out of primarily political interests, and that such criticisms are misguided and/or disingenuous. As John Searle has written:

There is a certain irony in this [i.e., politicized objections to the canon] in that earlier student generations, my own for example, found the critical tradition that runs from Socrates through the Federalist Papers, through the writings of Mill and Marx, down to the twentieth century, to be liberating from the stuffy conventions of traditional American politics and pieties. Precisely by inculcating a critical attitude, the "canon" served to demythologize the conventional pieties of the American bourgeoisie and provided the student with a perspective from which to critically analyze American culture and institutions. Ironically, the same tradition is now regarded as oppressive. The texts once served an unmasking function; now we are told that it is the texts which must be unmasked.^[2]

One of the main objections to a canon of literature is the question of authority—who should have the power to determine what works are worth reading and teaching? Searle's rebuttal suggests that "one obvious difficulty with it [i.e., arguments against hierarchical ranking of books] is that if it were valid, it would argue against any set of required readings whatever; indeed, any list you care to make about anything automatically creates two categories, those that are on the list and those that are not."^[2]

Works[link]

Works which are commonly included in the canon include works of fiction such as some epic poems, poetry, music, drama, novels, and other assorted forms of literature from the many diverse Western (and more recently non-Western) cultures. Many non-fiction works are also listed, primarily from the areas of religion, mythology, science, philosophy, psychology, economics, politics, and history.

Works which directly address the canon (both for and against):

• Debating the Canon: A Reader from Addison to Nafisi by Lee Morrissey (ISBN 978-1403968203)
• The History of Western Literature by Otto Maria Carpeaux (eight volumes, only available in Portuguese)
• The Oldest Dead White European Males and Other Reflections on the Classics by Bernard Knox (ISBN 9780393312331.
• Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human by Harold Bloom (ISBN 978-1573227513)
• The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages by Harold Bloom (ISBN 978-1573225144)

Examples[link]

This section requires expansion with: more non-U.S. programs, both from Britain and from outside the Anglophone world..

Examples of shorter canonical lists of most important works include the following:

The Great Books of the Western World is an attempt to present the western canon in a single package of 60 volumes

• Bibliothèque de la Pléiade
• Directed Studies at Yale University curriculum
• Great Books
• Great Books of the Western World
• The Harvard Classics
• Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century – books of the 20th century
• Modern Library 100 Best Novels – English-language novels of the 20th century
• ZEIT-Bibliothek der 100 Bücher German Die Zeit list of 100 books

University reading lists reflect the Western canon:

• Brigham Young University's Honors Program's Great Works List
• Colgate University's required Western Traditions class
• University of Chicago Core Curriculum
• Columbia College Core Curriculum
• Dartmouth College's Dialogues With the Classics program
• New York University's mandatory Conversations of the West course
• Princeton University's Interdisciplinary Approaches to Western Culture
• St. John's College Great Books reading list (established by Scott Buchanan and Stringfellow Barr)
• Saint Mary's College of California Collegiate Seminar
• Stanford University's Program in Structured Liberal Education curriculum
• University of Notre Dame's Program of Liberal Studies curriculum
• Boston College's Perspectives Program

Longer, more comprehensive, lists include the following:

• Everyman's Library (Modern works)
• The Modern Library
• Penguin Classics

Chronological brackets

• Philosopher John Searle^[2] suggests that the Western canon can be roughly defined as "a certain Western intellectual tradition that goes from, say, Socrates to Wittgenstein in philosophy, and from Homer to James Joyce in literature..."

See also[link]

• Canons of Elizabethan poetry
• Easton Press – Books That Changed the World series
• Franklin Library – Great Books of the Western World and Oxford Library of the World's Great Books series
• Great Conversation
• Monateri, Pier Giuseppe for a deep reflection on the concept of "Western Canon" in the field of law
• Banned Books
• Classic book

Notes and references[link]

External links[link]

• "The English Literary Canon – a work in progress"
• "Great Books Lists: Lists of Classics, Eastern and Western"
• "World Canonical Texts"
• "Harold Bloom's canon"
• Harold Bloom's Western Canon, with links to online texts
• "Great Ideas" Website
• A "Great Books" Website
• Western Canon Great Books University
• Columbia College Core Curriculum
• The World's Greatest Books page at Project Gutenberg of Australia

Harold Bloom (born July 11, 1930) is an American literary critic and is Sterling Professor of Humanities at Yale University.^[1] Since the publication of his first book in 1959, Bloom has written more than 20 books of literary criticism, several books discussing religion, and one novel. He has edited hundreds of anthologies.^[2][3]

Bloom teaches two classes at Yale: one on the plays of William Shakespeare; the other on poetry from Geoffrey Chaucer to Hart Crane. Some of his writing had reflected this teaching, from Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human (1998) to The Anatomy of Influence (2011), which he has called the summa of his career.

Bloom's career began with decades of studying the Romantic poets, in particular Percy Bysshe Shelley, W. B. Yeats and Wallace Stevens. From this study, combined with the influence of Freud, Emerson and many others, Bloom developed theories of poetic influence, marked by the publication of The Anxiety of Influence (1973). These theories dominated his writing for a decade, after which he began to focus on what he named "religious criticism", in books such as The Book of J (1990) and The American Religion (1992). Another shift in his career began with an impassioned defense of the non-politicised teaching of canonical literature in The Western Canon (1994). He has continued his religious criticism in books such as Jesus and Yahweh (2005) and The Shadow of a Great Rock: A Literary Appreciation of The King James Bible (2011).

Frank Kermode called Bloom "probably the most celebrated literary critic in the United States";^[4] James Wood called him "America's best-known man of letters"^[5] and John Banville punned on his title at Yale, calling him "a sterling professor, indeed".^[6] He has occasionally been referred to as the "greatest living critic",^{[7][8][9][10]} especially since the death of Kermode. His books have been translated into over 40 languages.

Early life and education[link]

Harold Bloom, son of William and Paula Bloom, was born in New York City and lived in the South Bronx at 1410 Grand Concourse.^[11] He was raised as an Orthodox Jew and became a Bar Mitzvah at the age of thirteen.^[12] His father was born in Odessa and his mother near Brest Litovsk.^[12] He described his mother as "fiercely devout".^[12] He had three older sisters and an older brother of whom he is the sole survivor.^[12] He grew up in a Yiddish-speaking household and learned Yiddish and literary Hebrew before teaching himself English at the age of six.^[13]

Bloom has frequently recounted that his attachment to poetry began when, at the age of ten, he discovered Hart Crane's book White Buildings at the Fordham Library in the Bronx.^[14] "Together with William Blake (an influence upon him)," Bloom would write, "Hart Crane was my first love among the great poets, and like Blake he gave me a lifelong addiction to high poetry."^[15] He also found and read the Poems and Prophecies of William Blake. "I saw the Oxford English Dictionary there for the first time," he said many years later. "I remember being so touched by the enormous availability of large and complex dictionaries and concordances. I remember ransacking them."^[16] Bloom says he knew "by age eleven or twelve that all I really liked to do was read poetry and discuss it."

Bloom entered Cornell University in 1947 on scholarship (as one of 65 people in the Bronx that year to win a scholarship from the State Department of Education). At Cornell he found a mentor in M. H. Abrams, a leading scholar of Romanticism and the founding and general editor of The Norton Anthology of English Literature. He earned his B.A. in 1952. He then spent a year at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1954-5 as a Fulbright scholar, where he met and "regularly talked with" C S Lewis.^[17] He then went to Yale University, to finish his Ph.D.

Teaching career and personal life[link]

Bloom received his Ph.D. in 1955 and won the John Addison Porter Prize the following year. He has worked as a member of the Yale faculty ever since. For some years, he has taught two classes at Yale: one on the plays of William Shakespeare; the other on poetry from Geoffrey Chaucer to Hart Crane.^{[citation needed]}

In 1959, Bloom married Jeanne Gould and they enjoyed their honeymoon in Spain.^[18] They have two sons, Daniel Jacob and David Moses.^{[citation needed]}

In 1985, Bloom was a recipient of the MacArthur Fellowship. From 1988 to 2004, Bloom served as Berg Professor of English at New York University while maintaining his Sterling Professorship at Yale and continuing to teach there. In 2010 he became a founding patron of Ralston College, a new institution in Savannah, Georgia that focuses on primary texts.^[19][20]

Bloom claims to have been able to read 400 pages an hour in his prime.^[21]

Writing career[link]

Defense of Romanticism[link]

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Bloom began his career by defending the reputations of the High Romantics through a series of highly regarded monographs, beginning with his Doctoral Dissertation on Percy Bysshe Shelley, (Shelley's Myth-making, Yale University Press), W. B. Yeats, (Yeats, Oxford University Press), and Wallace Stevens, (Wallace Stevens: The Poems of Our Climate, Cornell University Press) against neo-Christian critics influenced by such writers as T. S. Eliot, who became a recurring intellectual foil. He had a contentious approach: his first book, Shelley's Myth-making, charged many contemporary critics with sheer carelessness in their reading of Shelley.

Thinking about Influence[link]

After a personal crisis in the late sixties, Bloom became deeply interested in Emerson, Sigmund Freud, and the ancient mystic traditions of Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and Hermeticism. He would later come to describe himself to interviewer D. Leybman in the Paris Review^{[citation needed]} as a "Jewish gnostic," explaining "I am using Gnostic in a very broad way. I am nothing if not Jewish... I really am a product of Yiddish culture. But I can't understand a Yahweh, or a God, who could be all-powerful and all knowing and would allow the Nazi death camps and schizophrenia." Influenced by his reading, he began a series of books that focused on the way in which poets struggled to create their own individual poetic visions without being overcome by the influence of the previous poets who inspired them to write.

The first of these books, Yeats, a magisterial examination of the poet, challenged the conventional critical view of his poetic career. In the introduction to this volume, Bloom set out the basic principles of his new approach to criticism: "Poetic influence, as I conceive it, is a variety of melancholy or the anxiety-principle." A new poet becomes inspired to write because he has read and admired the poetry of previous poets; but this admiration turns into resentment when the new poet discovers that these poets whom he idolized have already said everything he wishes to say. The poet becomes disappointed because he "cannot be Adam early in the morning. There have been too many Adams, and they have named everything."

In order to evade this psychological obstacle, the new poet must convince himself that previous poets have gone wrong somewhere and failed in their vision, thus leaving open the possibility that he may have something to add to the tradition after all. The new poet's love for his heroes turns into antagonism towards them: "Initial love for the precursor's poetry is transformed rapidly enough into revisionary strife, without which individuation is not possible."^[22] The book that followed Yeats, The Anxiety of Influence, which Bloom had started writing in 1967, drew upon the example of Walter Jackson Bate's The Burden of the Past and The English Poet and recast Bate's historicized account of the despair felt by seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets about their ability to match the achievements of their predecessors in systematic psychoanalytic form. Bloom attempted to trace the psychological process by which a poet broke free from his precursors to achieve his own poetic vision. He drew a sharp distinction between "strong poets" who perform "strong misreadings" of their precursors, and "weak poets" who simply repeat the ideas of their precursors as though following a kind of doctrine. He described this process in terms of a sequence of "revisionary ratios," through which each strong poet passes in the course of his career. A Map of Misreading picked up where The Anxiety of Influence left off, making several adjustments to Bloom's system of revisionary ratios. Kabbalah and Criticism attempted to invoke the esoteric interpretive system of the Lurianic Kabbalah, as explicated by scholar Gershom Scholem, as an alternate system of mapping the path of poetic influence. Figures of Capable Imagination collected odd pieces Bloom had written in the process of composing his 'influence' books. He capped off this period of intense creativity with another monograph, a full-length study of Wallace Stevens, with whom he identified more than any other poet at this stage of his career, as he told an interviewer in the early 1980s.^[who?]

Bloom continued to write about influence theory throughout the seventies and eighties, and he has written little since that does not invoke his ideas about influence.

Novel experiment[link]

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Bloom's fascination with the fantasy novel A Voyage to Arcturus by David Lindsay led him to take a brief break from criticism in order to compose a sequel to Lindsay's novel. This novel, The Flight to Lucifer, remains Bloom's only work of fiction. Though reviews were very positive,^{[citation needed]} he soon disowned this book. He believed his self-consciousness weighed it down too heavily. He has said that he would remove every copy of the book from every library if he could.

Chelsea House[link]

In the mid 1980s Bloom began working with the publishing outfit Chelsea House to produce many anthologies on major Western literary works and authors. By 2005, he had edited over 600 volumes.^[23] Bloom organized what he called "the factory" in New Haven, employed 16 full-time staffers at one stage, as well as scores of freelance graduate students, and at his peak knocked out 15 books a month and three introductions a week.^[24]

Religious criticism[link]

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Bloom then entered a phase of what he called "religious criticism", beginning in 1989 with Ruin the Sacred Truths: Poetry and Belief from the Bible to the Present.

In The Book of J, he and David Rosenberg (who translated the Biblical texts) portrayed one of the posited ancient documents that formed the basis of the first five books of the bible (see documentary hypothesis) as the work of a great literary artist who had no intention of composing a dogmatically religious work. They further envisaged this anonymous writer as a woman attached to the court of the successors of the Israelite kings David and Solomon — a piece of speculation which drew much attention. Later, Bloom said that the speculations didn't go far enough, and perhaps he should have identified J with the Biblical Bathsheba.^{[citation needed]}

In The American Religion, Bloom surveyed the major varieties of Protestant and post-Protestant religious faiths that originated in the United States and argued that, in terms of their psychological hold on their adherents, most shared more in common with gnosticism than with historical Christianity. The exception was the Jehovah's Witnesses, whom Bloom regards as non-Gnostic. He elsewhere predicted that the Mormon and Pentecostal strains of American Christianity would overtake mainstream Protestant divisions in popularity in the next few decades. In Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine (2004), he revisits some of the territory he covered in The Book of J in discussing the significance of Yahweh and Jesus of Nazareth as literary characters, while casting a critical eye on historical approaches and asserting the fundamental incompatibility of Christianity and Judaism.

The Western Canon[link]

Acknowledging that his early output often tends toward the abstruse, Bloom turned to more accessible criticism aimed at a general readership.

In 1994, Bloom published The Western Canon, a survey of the major literary works of Europe and the Americas since the 14th century, focusing on 26 works he considered sublime and representative of their nations^[25] and of the Western canon.^[26] Besides analyses of the canon's various representative works, the major concern of the volume is reclaiming literature from those he refers to as the "School of resentment", the mostly academic critics who espouse a social purpose in reading. Bloom believes that the goals of reading must be solitary aesthetic pleasure and self-insight rather than the "forces of resentments'" goal of improvement of one's society, which he casts as an absurd aim, writing: "The idea that you benefit the insulted and injured by reading someone of their own origins rather than reading Shakespeare is one of the oddest illusions ever promoted by or in our schools." His position is that politics have no place in literary criticism: a feminist or Marxist reading of Hamlet would tell us something about feminism and Marxism, he says, but probably nothing about Hamlet itself.

In addition to the amount of influence one writer has had on later writers, Bloom introduces the concept of "canonical strangeness" as a benchmark of a literary work's merit. The Western Canon also included a list — which aroused more widespread interest than anything else in the volume — of all the Western works from antiquity to the present that Bloom considered either permanent members of the canon of literary classics, or (among more recent works) candidates for that status. Bloom has said that he made the list off the top of his head at his editor's request, and that he does not stand by it.^[27] The notoriety surrounding The Western Canon turned Bloom into something of a celebrity.^{[citation needed]}

Work on Shakespeare[link]

Bloom has a deep appreciation for Shakespeare^[28] and considers him to be the supreme center of the Western Canon.^[29] The first edition of The Anxiety of Influence almost completely avoided Shakespeare, whom Bloom considered, at the time, barely touched by the psychological drama of anxiety. The second edition, published in 1997, adds a long preface that mostly expounds on Shakespeare's debt to Ovid and Chaucer, and his agon with his contemporary Christopher Marlowe, who set the stage for him by breaking free of ecclesiastical and moralizing overtones.

In his 1998 survey, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human, Bloom provides an analysis of each of Shakespeare's 38 plays, "twenty-four of which are masterpieces." Written as a companion to the general reader and theatergoer, Bloom declares that bardolatry "ought to be even more a secular religion than it already is."^[30] He also contends in the work (as in the title) that Shakespeare "invented" humanity, in that he prescribed the now-common practice of "overhearing" ourselves, which drives our changes. The two paragons of his theory are Sir John Falstaff of Henry IV and Hamlet, whom Bloom sees as representing self-satisfaction and self-loathing, respectively. Throughout Shakespeare, characters from disparate plays are imagined alongside and interacting with each other; this has been decried by numerous contemporary academics and critics as hearkening back to the out of fashion character criticism of A.C. Bradley and others, who happen to gather explicit praise in the book. As in The Western Canon, Bloom cheerfully attacks what he calls the "School of Resentment" for its failure to live up to the challenge of Shakespeare's universality and instead balkanizing the study of literature through various multicultural and historicist departments. Asserting Shakespeare's singular popularity throughout the world, Bloom proclaims him as the only multicultural author, and rather than the "social energies" historicists ascribe Shakespeare's authorship to, Bloom pronounces his modern academic foes — and indeed, all of society — to be "a parody of Shakespearian energies."

Bloom began a book under the working title of Living Labyrinth, centering on Shakespeare and Whitman, which was published in 2011 as Anatomy of Influence: Literature as a Way of Life.

Current projects[link]

In July 2011, after the publication of Anatomy of Influence and after finishing work on The Shadow of a Great Rock, Bloom was working on three projects: Achievement in the Evening Land from Emerson to Faulkner (a history of American literature), The Hum of Thoughts Evaded in the Mind: A Literary Memoir, and a play with the working title Walt Whitman: A Musical Pageant.^[31] By November 2011, Bloom had changed the title of the play to To You Whoever You Are: A Pageant Celebrating Walt Whitman.^[32]

Influence[link]

Bloom credits Northrop Frye as his nearest precursor. He told Imre Salusinszky in 1986: "In terms of my own theorizations... the precursor proper has to be Northrop Frye. I purchased and read Fearful Symmetry a week or two after it had come out and reached the bookstore in Ithaca, New York. It ravished my heart away. I have tried to find an alternative father in Mr. Kenneth Burke, who is a charming fellow and a very powerful critic, but I don't come from Burke, I come out of Frye."^[33] However, he also admits an indebtedness, especially in his later period, to earlier critics such as William Hazlitt, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walter Pater, A. C. Bradley, and Samuel Johnson, whom he acknowledges in The Western Canon as "unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after him".

Bloom's theory of poetic influence regards the development of Western literature as a process of borrowing and misreading. Writers find their creative inspiration in previous writers and begin by imitating those writers; in order to develop a poetic voice of their own, however, they must make their own work different from that of their precursors. As a result, Bloom argues, authors of real power must inevitably "misread" their precursors' works in order to make room for fresh imaginings.

Observers often identified Bloom with deconstruction in the past, but he himself never admitted to sharing more than a few ideas with the deconstructionists. He told Robert Moynihan in 1983, "What I think I have in common with the school of deconstruction is the mode of negative thinking or negative awareness, in the technical, philosophical sense of the negative, but which comes to me through negative theology.... There is no escape, there is simply the given, and there is nothing that we can do."^{[citation needed]}

Bloom's association with the Western canon has provoked a substantial interest in his opinion concerning the relative importance of contemporary writers. In the late 1980s, Bloom told an interviewer: "Probably the most powerful living Western writer is Samuel Beckett. He's certainly the most authentic."^[34]

After Beckett's death in 1989, Bloom has pointed towards other authors as the new main figures of the Western literary canon.

Concerning British writers: "Geoffrey Hill is the strongest British poet now active", and "no other contemporary British novelist seems to me to be of Iris Murdoch's eminence". Since Murdoch's death, Bloom has expressed admiration for novelists such as Peter Ackroyd, Will Self, John Banville, and A. S. Byatt.^[35]

In his 2003 book, Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds, he named the late Portuguese writer and Nobel Prize winner José Saramago as "the most gifted novelist alive in the world today", and as "one of the last titans of an expiring literary genre".

Of American novelists, he declared in 2003 that "there are five living American novelists I know of who are still at work and who deserve our praise". He claimed that "they write the Style of our Age, each has composed canonical works," and he identified them as Thomas Pynchon, Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, Don DeLillo, and John Crowley. He named their strongest works as, respectively, Gravity's Rainbow and Mason & Dixon; American Pastoral and Sabbath's Theater; Blood Meridian; Underworld; and Little, Big.

In Kabbalah and Criticism (1975), Bloom identified Robert Penn Warren, James Merrill, John Ashbery, and Elizabeth Bishop as the most important living American poets. By the 1990s, he regularly named A.R. Ammons along with Ashbery and Merrill, and he has lately come to identify Henri Cole as the crucial American poet of the generation following those three. He has expressed great admiration for the Canadian poet Anne Carson, particularly her verse novel Autobiography of Red. Bloom also lists Jay Wright as one of only a handful of major living poets.

Bloom's introduction to Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Pynchon (1987) features his canon of the "twentieth-century American Sublime", the greatest works of American art produced in the 20th century. Playwright Tony Kushner sees Bloom as an important influence on his work.

Criticism and controversy[link]

James Wood has described Bloom as "Vatic, repetitious, imprecisely reverential, though never without a peculiar charm of his own -- a kind of campiness, in fact -- Bloom as a literary critic in the last few years has been largely unimportant."^[5] Bloom responded to questions about Wood in an interview by saying "There are period pieces in criticism as there are period pieces in the novel and in poetry. The wind blows and they will go away ... There’s nothing to the man .. I don't want to talk about him".^[36]

In the early 21st century, Bloom has often found himself at the center of literary controversy after criticizing popular writers such as Adrienne Rich, Maya Angelou,^[37] Stephen King,^[38] and J. K. Rowling.^[38] In the pages of the Paris Review, he criticized the populist-leaning poetry slam, saying, "It is the death of art."^[39] When Doris Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, he bemoaned the "pure political correctness" of the award to an author of "fourth-rate science fiction."^[40]

In a February 2004 article in New York magazine, "The Silent Treatment," Naomi Wolf accused Bloom, her former professor, of having "sexually encroached" on her when she was a Yale undergraduate, by touching her thigh. Although she acknowledged that what she alleged Bloom did was not harassment, either legally or emotionally, she claimed to have harbored this secret for 21 years.^[41] Bloom denied the accusations.^[42]

MormonVoices, a group associated with Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research, included Bloom on its Top Ten Anti-Mormon Statements of 2011 list for stating "The current head of the Mormon Church, Thomas S. Monson, known to his followers as 'prophet, seer and revelator,' is indistinguishable from the secular plutocratic oligarchs who exercise power in our supposed democracy".^[43]

Selected bibliography[link]

Books[link]

Articles[link]

See also[link]

• List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction
• School of resentment

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (1994) Harcourt Brace & Company.

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Harold Bloom

• Official website at Yale University
• Harold Bloom on Charlie Rose
• Appearances on C-SPAN
  • Booknotes interview with Bloom on How to Read and Why, September 3, 2000.
  • In Depth interview with Bloom, May 4, 2003
• Works by or about Harold Bloom in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Harold Bloom collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Harold Bloom at Stanford Presidential Lectures
• Antonio Weiss (Spring 1991). "Harold Bloom, The Art of Criticism No. 1". Paris Review. http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/2225/the-art-of-criticism-no-1-harold-bloom. 
• "Engl 300: Introduction To Theory Of Literature". Lecture 14 - Influence. Open Yale lectures on the influence of Bloom and Eliot.

The Books were an American duo, formed in New York City in 1999, consisting of guitarist and vocalist Nick Zammuto and cellist Paul de Jong. Their releases typically incorporate samples of obscure sounds and speech.^[1][2] They have released three critically acclaimed albums on the German label Tomlab, and released their fourth studio album, The Way Out, on Temporary Residence Limited in July 2010.

History[link]

[edit] 1999–2002: Thought for Food

Zammuto and de Jong first met in New York City in 1999 as they shared the same apartment building.^[3] De Jong invited Zammuto to dinner at his apartment, where he played him some of his collection of audio and video samples, including a Shooby Taylor record.^[4] Zammuto said of their meeting that "we both kind of knew at that moment that we listened (to music) in interesting ways and had similar approaches to music."^[5] Soon after, they began playing what they considered to be pop music, in comparison to their own works, under the name The Books.^[5]

In 2000, The Books started work on what would become their début album Thought for Food.^[6] Zammuto and de Jong moved locations constantly during this time,^[6] recording in New York, Los Angeles, Boston, and finally in the basement of a hostel in North Carolina where Zammuto worked for a while after hiking the Appalachian Trail.^[5][7]

Thought for Food was released on October 22nd, 2002.^[8] Praised by critics for its distinctive sound,^[9] it featured extensive sampling from obscure sources coupled with mostly acoustic instrumentation.

[edit] 2002–2003: The Lemon of Pink

Shortly after the release of Thought for Food, the band relocated to North Adams, Massachusetts, near where Zammuto had graduated from Williams College in 1999, studying chemistry and visual arts.^[10] Zammuto and de Jong began the recording of The Lemon of Pink around this time. Anne Doerner, a guest vocalist on the album, said the process was much more arduous than the recording of Thought for Food, with Zammuto working on the album for five straight months.^[5]

The Lemon of Pink was released to critical acclaim^[11] on October 7th, 2003.^[12] It is similar in style to Thought for Food, but oriented more around vocals performed mostly by Anne Doerner.

[edit] 2003–2006: Lost and Safe, Music for a French Elevator, Prefuse 73 Reads The Books

In 2004, the French Ministry of Culture asked The Books to compose music for a new elevator in their building. The Books released a Mini CD of this work in 2006, under the name Music for a French Elevator and Other Short Format Oddities by the Books.^[13]

On April 5, 2005, The Books released their third studio album, Lost and Safe. Zammuto has a greater vocal presence in this album, and the album was criticized for this change of sound.^[14] Aside from this, Lost and Safe was well received by critics.^[15] Throughout early 2005, The Books collobarated with the electronica artist Prefuse 73. The Books appear on his album Surrounded by Silence ("Pagina Dos"), and the E.P. Prefuse 73 Reads the Books E.P. collects remixes of material sourced from The Books' albums.

Before starting a three-month^[16] tour of North America in April 2006, The Books had played only one concert,^[7] in October 2003 at a festival in Chicago, Illinois.^[17] Zammuto has expressed apprehensiveness towards touring, but says it is necessary to make a living, given his belief that people downloading The Books' music via file-sharing^[18] has put him under financial strain.

[edit] 2006–2012: Hiatus, The Way Out and break-up

Following the release of Music for a French Elevator, the band took a break from recording to tend to their new families, tour in support of their albums, and pursue some of their own projects, which included Zammuto scoring a feature documentary about the Biosphere 2.^[10]

In 2007, The Books released Play All, a DVD of thirteen music videos and three previously unreleased tracks.^[19] The Play All videos are composed of found footage transformed into a collage that matches their music. The Books often screen these videos during their live performances.^[20]

The Books toured heavily between 2005 and 2007, including two tours in Europe and two Canadian shows.^[6] In early 2009 The Books covered the Nick Drake song "Cello Song" in collaboration with José González for the Red Hot Organization's Dark Was the Night fund-raising album.^[21]

The Books began working on The Way Out in late 2008.^[22] Zammuto spoke of the album's New Age themes in an interview in April 2009, saying they took samples from self-help and hypnotherapy cassettes. When asked to describe the album, Zammuto said "You're getting verrry sleepy."^[3] On April 5, 2010, the duo announced that The Way Out would be released through Temporary Residence Limited in July.^[22] On April 27 Pitchfork Media began streaming the track "Beautiful People",^[23] which Zammuto described as "a three part christian harmony mixed with a sort of euro-disco-trash beat, an orchestra’s worth of sampled brass and lyrics about the twelfth root of two (my favorite irrational number), trigonometry and tangrams".^[24] The album was released on July 20.

The Books played the ATP New York 2010 music festival in Monticello, New York, in September 2010 and are currently touring North American tour with the Black Heart Procession. The band have been chosen by Portishead & ATP to perform at the ATP I'll Be Your Mirror festival that they will curate in July 2011 at London's Alexandra Palace.^[25]

In January of 2012, Nick Zammuto announced in an interview via Pitchfork Media that The Books were splitting up to focus on other projects.^[26]

On April 3rd 2012, Nick Zammuto released Zammuto, under the moniker Zammuto.

Musical style[link]

The Books are commonly cited by critics to be of a genre of their own,.^[27] Zammuto has described it as collage music.^[18] Paul de Jong described it as "the new folk music...[w]e make our own instruments, use our own libraries of sound bites while trying to create something universally human."^[28] Although they have said that their influences include Nirvana, David Bowie, Roxy Music as well as new wave and classical music, these do not show prominently in their music,^[29] though Zammuto was directly influenced by electronic musicians Squarepusher, Aphex Twin and Boards of Canada.^[30][31] The Books' music usually consists of acoustic instrumentation of folk melodies usually played on guitar, cello, banjo and more, combined with a diverse range of samples obtained from cassettes found in thrift stores,^[18] which are digitally processed and edited.^[5] They also rarely use a drum kit in recordings and performances, instead favouring inanimate objects like children's toys and filing cabinets, which are sampled and looped.^[29] Some observers contend that their music is aleatoric,^[32] but Zammuto has disagreed, saying the music is very tightly controlled.^[18]

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

• Thought for Food (2002)
• The Lemon of Pink (2003)
• Lost and Safe (2005)
• The Way Out (2010)

EP[link]

• Music for a French Elevator and Other Short Format Oddities by the Books (2006)

DVDs[link]

• Play All (2007)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• The Books on Myspace
• The Books discography at Discogs
• [1] Interview with The Books
• [2] Interview with Nick Zammuto about his new band and the break-up of The Books