The Duchy of Vasconia (sometimes Wasconia), later known as Gascony, was a Merovingian creation: a frontier duchy on the Garonne, in the border with the rebel Basque tribes. During the collapse of Frankish authority in the region in the year 660, it gained de facto and possibly de jure independence, in personal union with the Duchy of Aquitaine (north and east of the Garonne).

After Muslim invasions and Carolingian restoration of the Frankish Kingdom, the Duchy, separated from Aquitaine, suffered some fragmentation, specially in the south, where the Kingdom of Pamplona and the County of Vasconia arose as separate states in the 9th century, when it came to be known as Duchy of Gascony,^[1] as Gascon Romance was already replacing Basque in most of the region.

After a period of obscurity, it reemerged in the early eleventh century as a close ally (possible even vassal) of the Kingdom of Navarre. In 1032, it was inherited by the heir of Aquitaine and became personally united to that duchy thereafter. It thus became a part of the Angevin Empire. The ducal title was reemployed by Edward Longshanks and it formed a base of support for the English during the Hundred Years' War. It has been called England's first foreign colony.

List of dukes and counts[link]

^[2]

Dukes of Vasconia (Frankish vassals)[link]

• Genial (602-606)
• Aeghyna (626-638)
• Amandus (636-660)

Dukes of Vasconia and Aquitaine[link]

• Felix (660-670)
• Lupus I (670-676 or until 710 in Vasconia only^[1])
• Odo the Great (or Eudes) (688-735 - his reign commenced perhaps as late as 692, 700, 710 or 715, unclear parentage.
• Hunald I (735-748), son of previous, abdicated to monastery, may have returned later (see below).
• Waifer (or Gaifier) (748-767), son of previous.
• Hunald II (767-769), either Hunald I returning or a different Hunald, fled to Lupus II of Gascony and was handed over to Charlemagne.

Independent Dukes of Vasconia[link]

• Lop II (768 or 770-778 or 801)
• Sans I (778 or 801-812)
• Seguin I (812-816)
• Gassia I (816-818)
• Lop III Centullo Wasco (818-819 or 819-823^[1])

Dukes of Vasconia and Counts of Bordeaux (Frankish vassals)[link]

• Seguin II (??-846), the beginning of his rule is uncertain
• William I (846-848 or 852^[1])

Counts of Vasconia[link]

Temporarily segregated from the Duchy. See: Northern Basque Country

• Aznar Sans (820-836)
• Sans II (836-855 or 864), fought against the Franks since 848 and eventually became Duke of Vasconia.

Late Independents Dukes of Vasconia[link]

• Sans II (848 or 852-855 or 864)
• Arnold (855-864^[1] or only 864)

Independent Dukes of Gascony[link]

• Sans III (864-893)
• Gassia II (893-930)
• Sans IV (930-c.950)
• Sans V (c.950-c.961)
• Guilhem II (c.961-996)
• Bernat I (996-1009)
• Sans VI (1009–1032)
• Berengar (1032–1036)
• Eudes (1036–1039)
• Bernat II (1039–1052)
• Guy Geoffrey (1052–1086)

United to Duchy of Aquitaine in 1058.

The unity of Gascony had disappeared already in the 10th century, and so those wishing to learn more about the history of Gascony should look at the particular histories of Béarn, Armagnac, Bigorre, Comminges, Nébouzan, Labourd and so on.

Sources[link]

• Auñamendi Encyclopedia: Ducado de Vasconia.
• Sedycias, João. História da Língua Espanhola.
• Medieval Lands Project: Gascony.
• Monlezun, Jean Justin. Histoire de la Gascogne. 1846.
• Charles Oman, The Dark Ages 476-918. Rivingtons: London, 1914.
• Collins, Roger. The Basques. Blackwell Publishing: London, 1990.
• Higounet, Charles. Bordeaux pendant le haut moyen age. Bordeaux, 1963.
• Lewis, Archibald R. The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050. University of Texas Press: Austin, 1965.
• Pertz, G, ed. Chronici Fontanellensis fragmentum in Mon. Ger. Hist. Scriptores, Vol. II.
• Pertz, G, ed. Chronicum Aquitanicum in Mon. Ger. Hist. Scriptores, Vol. II.
• Waitz, E, ed. Annales Bertiniani. Hanover: 1883.

Notes[link]

A map of Gascony, showing a wide definition of the region. Other maps may define a smaller area as Gascony.

Flag of Gascony (based on the coat of arms)

Gascony ( /ˈɡæskəni/; French: Gascogne [ɡaskɔɲ]; Gascon: Gasconha [ɡasˈkuɲɔ]) is an area of southwest France that was part of the "Province of Guyenne and Gascony" prior to the French Revolution. The region is vaguely defined and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear; sometimes they are considered to overlap, and sometimes Gascony is considered a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux.

It is currently divided between the Aquitaine région (départements of Landes, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, south and west of Gironde, and south of Lot-et-Garonne) and the Midi-Pyrénées région (départements of Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, southwest of Tarn-et-Garonne, and west of Haute-Garonne).

Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque. The name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque (see Wasconia below). From medieval times until the nineteenth century, the Gascon language was spoken, which is a regional variant of the Occitan Language. It is also the land of d'Artagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumas's character in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to the hero of the play Cyrano de Bergerac (though this character has little in common with the real Cyrano de Bergerac, who was a Parisian) and to Henry III of Navarre who later became king of France as Henry IV.

Gascony is also famed for its douceur de vivre ("sweetness of life"): its food (it is home to foie gras and Armagnac brandy), its medieval towns and villages locally called bastides nested amidst green rolling hills, its sunny weather, the beauty of its landscape, with the occasional distant views of the Pyrenees mountain range, all contribute to the popularity of Gascony as a tourist destination.

History[link]

Typical view of the hilly countryside of Gascony, with the Pyrenees mountains in the far distance

Aquitania[link]

In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians (Latin: Aquitani), who spoke a language related to modern Basque.

The Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The Romans called this territory Aquitania, either from the Latin word aqua (meaning "water"), in reference to the many rivers flowing from the Pyrenees through the area, or from the name of the Aquitanian Ausci tribe (whose name seems related to the Basque root eusk- meaning "Basque"), in which case Aquitania would mean "land of the Ausci".

In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar and became part of the Roman Empire.

Later, in 27 BC, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the province of Gallia Aquitania was created. Gallia Aquitania was far larger than the original Aquitania, as it extended north of the Garonne River, in fact all the way north to the Loire River, thus including the Celtic Gauls that inhabited the regions between the Garonne and the Loire rivers.

Novempopulana[link]

In 297, as Emperor Diocletian reformed the administrative structures of the Roman Empire, Aquitania was split into three provinces. The territory south of the Garonne River, corresponding to the original Aquitania, was made a province called Novempopulania (that is, "land of the nine tribes"), while the part of Gallia Aquitania north of the Garonne became the province of Aquitanica I and the province of Aquitanica II. The territory of Novempopulania corresponded quite well to what we call now Gascony.

The Aquitania Novempopulana or Novempopulania suffered like the rest of the Western Roman Empire from the invasions of Germanic tribes, most notably the Vandals in 407–409. In 416–418, Novempopulania was delivered to the Visigoths as their federate settlement lands and became part of the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, while other than the region of the Garonne river their actual grip on the area may have been rather loose.

The Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, and fled into Spain and Septimania, as well as Albania Novempopulania then became part of the Frankish Kingdom like the rest of southern France. However, Novempopulania was far away from the home base of the Franks in northern France, and was only very loosely controlled by the Franks. During all the troubled and historically obscure period, starting from early 5th century accounts, the bagaudae are often cited, social uprisings against tax exaction and feudalization, largely associated to Vasconic unrest.

Wasconia[link]

Old historical literature sometimes claims the Basques took control of the whole of Novempopulania in the Early Middle Ages, founding its claims on the testimony of Gregory of Tours, on the etymological link between the words "Basque" and "Gascon" – both derived from "Vascones" or "Wasconia", the latter being used to name the whole of Novempopulania.

Modern historians reject this hypothesis, which is sustained by no archeological evidence. For Juan José Larrea, and Pierre Bonnassie, "a Vascon expansionism in Aquitany is not proved and is not necessary to understand the historical evolution of this region".^[1] This Basque related culture and race is, whatever the origin, attested in (mainly Carolingian) Medieval documents, while their exact boundaries remain unclear ("Wascones, qui trans Garonnam et circa Pirineum montem habitant", as stated in the Royal Frankish Annals, for one).^[2]

The word Vasconia evolved into Wasconia, and then into Gasconia (w- often evolved into g- under the influence of Romance languages, cf. warranty and guarantee, William and Guillaume). The gradual abandonment of the Basque-related Aquitanian language in favor of a local vulgar Latin, was not reversed. The replacing local vulgar Latin evolved into Gascon. It was heavily influenced by the original Aquitanian language (for example, Latin f- became h-, cf. Latin fortia, French force, Spanish fuerza, Occitan fòrça, but Gascon hòrça). Quite paradoxically (or logically) the Basques from the French side of the Basque Country traditionally call anyone who does not speak Basque a Gascon.

Meanwhile, Viking raiders conquered several Gascon towns, among them Bayonne in 842–844. Their attacks in Gascony may have helped the political disintegration of the Duchy until their defeat against William II Sánchez of Gascony in 982. In turn, the weakened ethnic polity known as Duchy of Wasconia/Wascones, unable to get round the general spread of feudalization, gave way to a myriad of counties founded by Gascon lords.

Angevin Empire[link]

His 1152 marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine allowed the future Henry II to gain control of his new wife's possessions of Aquitaine and Gascony. This addition to his already plentiful holdings made Henry the most powerful vassal in France.^[3]

Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated)

In 1248, Simon de Montfort was appointed Governor in the unsettled Duchy of Gascony. Bitter complaints were excited by de Montfort's rigour in suppressing the excesses of both the seigneurs of the nobility and the contending factions in the great communes. Henry III yielded to the outcry and instituted a formal inquiry into Simon's administration. Simon was formally acquitted of the charges but, in August 1252, he was dismissed in any case. Henry then himself went to Gascony, pursuing a policy of conciliation; he arranged the marriage between Edward, his 14 year old son, and Eleanor of Castile, daughter of Alfonso X. Alfonso renounced all claims to Gascony and assisted the Plantagenets against rebels such as Gaston de Bearn, who had taken control of the Pyrenees.^[4]

In December 1259, Louis IX of France ceded to Henry land north and east of Gascony.^[5] In return, Henry renounced his claim to many of the territories that had been lost by King John.

In May 1286, King Edward I paid homage before the new king, Philip IV of France, for the lands in Gascony. However, in May 1295, Philip 'confiscated' the lands. Between 1295 and 1298, Edward sent three expeditionary forces to recover Gascony, but Philip was able to retain most of the territory until the Treaty of Paris in 1303.^[6]

In 1325, the land was confiscated by Charles IV when Edward II of England, in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine, failed to pay homage after a dispute. Edward sent his wife and then his heir, to whom he had transferred the title, to sort out the matter, which led directly to his downfall. They hated his favourites, the Despensers, and returned only when they had raised a force of mercenaries to depose him.

Geography[link]

The most important towns are:

• Auch, the historical capital
• Bayonne, with both Basque and Gascon identity
• Bordeaux
• Dax
• Lourdes
• Luchon
• Mont-de-Marsan
• Pau
• Tarbes

Economy[link]

The main industries are:

• fishing
• stock raising
• wine making
• brandy distilling
• tourism

See also[link]

• Gascony Show – English-language radio in Gascony

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gascogne

• Old flag. Given to the Gascons by Pope Clement III during the Third Crusade.
• This article incorporates some information taken from http://www.hostkingdom.net/ with permission
• A modern experience of life in Gascony http://www.asummeringascony.com/

v t e Historical Provinces of France Alsace Angoumois Anjou Artois Aunis Auvergne Basse-Navarre Béarn Beaujolais Berry Bourbonnais Brittany Burgundy Champagne Corsica Dauphiné Flanders and Hainaut Foix Forez Franche-Comté Gascony Guyenne Île-de-France Languedoc Limousin Lorraine Lyonnais Maine Marche Montbéliard Mulhouse Nice Nivernais Normandy Orléanais Perche Picardy Poitou Provence Roussillon Saintonge Savoy Touraine Trois-Évêchés Venaissin

Coordinates: 43°58′37″N 0°10′34″W / 43.977°N 0.176°W / 43.977; -0.176

Jacob Abbott
Born	(1803-11-14)November 14, 1803 Hallowell, Maine, United States
Died	October 31, 1879(1879-10-31) (aged 75) Farmington, Maine, United States
Occupation	Children's author

Jacob Abbott (November 14, 1803 – October 31, 1879) was an American writer of children's books.^[1]

Biography[link]

Abbott was born at Hallowell, Maine to Jacob and Betsey Abbott. He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1820; studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Amherst College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for Young Ladies in Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848 of the Mount Vernon School for Boys, in New York City.

He was a prolific author, writing juvenile fiction, brief histories, biographies, religious books for the general reader, and a few works in popular science. He died in Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time after 1839, and where his brother, Samuel Phillips Abbott, founded the Abbott School.

His Rollo Books, such as Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play, Rollo in Europe, etc., are the best known of his writings, having as their chief characters a representative boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two generations of young American readers a service not unlike that performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of Evenings at Home, The History of Sandford and Merton, and the The Parent's Assistant.

Fewacres in 1906, Abbott's residence at Farmington, Maine

His brothers, John Stevens Cabot Abbott and Gorham Dummer Abbott, were also authors. His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Austin Abbott, both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott, and Edward Abbott, a clergyman, were also well-known authors.

See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the Author by Edward Abbott with a bibliography of his works.

Other works of note: Lucy Books, Jonas Books, Harper's Story Books, Marco Paul, Gay Family, and Juno Books.

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Abbott, Jacob". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links[link]

Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Abbott, Jacob.

• Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos. Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889
• Works by or about Jacob Abbott at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
• Works by Jacob Abbott at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML)
• Works by Jacob Abbott at Online Books
• Works by Jacob Abbott at LibriVox (audiobooks)