| United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |
|
|
Anthem:
"God Save the Queen"[nb 1]
|
|
|
Capital
(and largest city) |
London
51°30′N 0°7′W / 51.5°N 0.117°W / 51.5; -0.117 |
| Official language(s) |
English[1][2] |
| Recognised regional languages |
Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Scots and Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish[nb 2] |
Ethnic groups (2001
See: UK ethnic groups list[4]) |
92.1% White
4.0% South Asian
2.0% Black
1.2% Mixed
0.4% Chinese
0.4% Other |
| Demonym |
British or Briton |
| Government |
Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
| - |
Monarch |
Elizabeth II |
| - |
Prime Minister |
David Cameron MP |
| Legislature |
Parliament |
| - |
Upper house |
House of Lords |
| - |
Lower house |
House of Commons |
| Formation |
| - |
Acts of Union 1707 |
1 May 1707 |
| - |
Acts of Union 1800 |
1 January 1801 |
| - |
Anglo-Irish Treaty |
12 April 1922 |
| Area |
| - |
Total |
243,610 km2 (80th)
94,060 sq mi |
| - |
Water (%) |
1.34 |
| Population |
| - |
Mid-2010 estimate |
62,262,000[5] (22nd) |
| - |
2001 census |
58,789,194[6] |
| - |
Density |
255.6/km2 (51st)
661.9/sq mi |
| GDP (PPP) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$2.260 trillion[7] |
| - |
Per capita |
$36,089[7] |
| GDP (nominal) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$2.417 trillion[7] |
| - |
Per capita |
$38,592[7] |
| Gini (2008–09) |
41[8] |
| HDI (2011) |
0.863[9] (very high) (28th) |
| Currency |
Pound sterling (GBP) |
| Time zone |
GMT (UTC+0) |
| - |
Summer (DST) |
BST (UTC+1) |
| Date formats |
dd/mm/yyyy (AD) |
| Drives on the |
left[nb 3] |
| ISO 3166 code |
GB |
| Internet TLD |
.uk[nb 4] |
| Calling code |
44 |
| 1 |
A second coat of arms is used in Scotland |
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[nb 5] (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right[10] and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers,[11][12] based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies.[13] The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories.[14] These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
The UK is a developed country and has the world's seventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and eighth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It was the world's first industrialised country[15] and the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[16] The UK remains a great power with leading economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence.[17] It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth in the world.[18]
The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946. It has been a member of the European Union and its predecessor the European Economic Community since 1973. It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7, the G8, the G20, NATO, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization.
The name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" was introduced in 1927 by the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act to reflect the reality that the de facto independence of the Irish Free State, created by the partitioning of Ireland in 1922, left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland still within the UK.[19] Prior to this, the Acts of Union 1800, that united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801, had given the new state the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain before 1801 is occasionally referred to as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain".[20][21][22][23] However, Section 1 of both of the 1707 Acts of Union declare that England and Scotland are "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".[24][25][nb 6] The term united kingdom is found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the new state but only became official with the union with Ireland in 1801.[26]
Although the United Kingdom, as a sovereign state, is a country, England, Scotland, Wales and (more controversially) Northern Ireland are also referred to as countries, although they are not sovereign states and only Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government.[27][28] The British Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.[10] With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences."[29] Other terms used for Northern Ireland include "region" and "province".[30][31]
The United Kingdom is often referred to as Britain. British government sources frequently use the term as a short form for the United Kingdom, whilst media style guides generally allow its use but point out that the longer term Great Britain refers only to England, Scotland and Wales.[32][33][34] However, some foreign usage, particularly in the United States, uses Great Britain as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom.[35][36] Also, the United Kingdom's Olympic team competes under the name "Great Britain" or "Team GB".[37][38] GB and GBR are the standard country codes for the United Kingdom (see ISO 3166-2 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3) and are consequently commonly used by international organisations to refer to the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
In 2006, a new design of British passport entered into use. Its first page shows the long form name of the state in English, Welsh and Scottish Gaelic.[39] In Welsh, the long form name of the state is "Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon" with "Teyrnas Unedig" being used as a short form name on government websites.[40] In Scottish Gaelic, the long form is "Rìoghachd Aonaichte na Breatainne Mòire is Èireann a Tuath".
The adjective British is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom. Although the term has no definite legal connotation, it is used in legislation to refer to United Kingdom citizenship.[41] However, British people use a number of different terms to describe their national identity. Some may identify themselves as British only, or British and English, Scottish, Welsh, or Northern Irish. Others may identify themselves as only English, Scottish, Welsh or Northern Irish and not British. In Northern Ireland, some describe themselves as only Irish.[42][43][44]
Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.[45] By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brythonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.[46] The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brythonic area mainly to what was to become Wales.[47] The region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.[48] Meanwhile, Gaelic-speakers in north west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)[49][50] united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.[51]
In 1066, the Normans invaded England and after its conquest, seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and settled in Scotland bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture.[52] The Norman elites greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures.[53] Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland. Thereafter, Scotland maintained its independence, albeit in near-constant conflict with England. The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War.[54]
The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country.[55] Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England,[56] and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.[57] In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and land given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.[58] In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political institutions.[59][60] In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.[61][62] Although the monarchy was restored, it ensured (with the Glorious Revolution of 1688) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system.[63] During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power (and the interest in voyages of discovery) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America.[64][65]
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
On 1 May 1707 a new kingdom of Great Britain was created by the political union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland in accordance with the Treaty of Union, negotiated the previous year and ratified by the English and Scottish Parliaments passing Acts of Union.[66][67][68]
In the 18th century, the country played an important role in developing Western ideas of the parliamentary system and in making significant contributions to literature, the arts, and science.[16] The British-led Industrial Revolution transformed the country and fuelled the growing British Empire. During this time Britain, like other great powers, was involved in colonial exploitation, including the Atlantic slave trade, although with the passing of the Slave Trade Act of 1807 the UK took a leading role in battling the trade in slaves.[69] The colonies in North America had been the main focus of British colonial activity. With their loss in the American War of Independence, imperial ambition turned elsewhere, particularly to India.[70]
In 1800, while the wars with France still raged, the Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which came into being on 1 January 1801.[71]
After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the UK emerged as the principal naval and economic power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830)[72] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica.[73][74] It was also a period of rapid economic, colonial, and industrial growth. Britain was described as the "workshop of the world",[75] and the British Empire grew to include India, large parts of Africa, and many other territories. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam.[76][77] Domestically, there was a shift to free trade and laissez-faire policies and a very significant widening of the voting franchise. The country experienced a huge population increase during the century, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.[78] By the end of the century, other states began to challenge Britain's industrial dominance.[79]
The UK, along with Russia, France and (after 1917) the USA, was one of the major powers opposing the German Empire and its allies in World War I (1914–18).[80] The UK armed forces grew to over five million people[81] engaged across much of its empire and several regions of Europe, and increasingly took a major role on the Western front. The nation suffered some two and a half million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.[81] After the war the United Kingdom received the League of Nations mandate over former German and Ottoman colonies, and the British Empire had expanded to its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.[82] The rise of Irish Nationalism and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921,[83] and the Irish Free State became independent with Dominion status in 1922, while Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.[84] The Great Depression (1929–32) occurred when the UK had not recovered from the effects of the war, and led to hardship as well as political and social unrest.[85]
The United Kingdom was one of the Allies of World War II and an original signatory to the Declaration of the United Nations. Following the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, the United Kingdom continued the fight against Germany, notably in the Battle of Britain and the Battle of the Atlantic. After the victory, the UK was one of the Big Three powers that met to plan the postwar world. The war left the country financially damaged. Marshall Aid and loans from both the United States and Canada helped the UK on the road to recovery.[86]
The Labour government in the immediate post-war years initiated a radical programme of changes, with a significant impact on British society in the following decades.[87] Domestically, major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a Welfare State was established, and a comprehensive publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.[88] In response to the rise of local nationalism, the Labour government's own ideological sympathies and Britain's now diminished economic position, a policy of decolonisation was initiated, starting with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947.[89] Over the next three decades, most territories of the Empire gained independence and became sovereign members of the Commonwealth of Nations.[citation needed]
Although the new postwar limits of Britain's political role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956, the UK nevertheless became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test in 1952). The international spread of the English language also ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture, while from the 1960s its popular culture also found influence abroad. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the British Government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries, thereby transforming Britain into a multi-ethnic society in the following decades.[90] In 1973, the UK joined the European Economic Community (EEC), and when the EEC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, it was one of the 12 founding members. From the late 1960s Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK and also the Republic of Ireland) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement of 1998.[91][92][93]
Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative Government of the 1980s initiated a radical policy of deregulation, particularly of the financial sector, flexible labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.[94] Aided, from 1984, by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues, the UK experienced a period of significant economic growth.[95] Around the end of the 20th century there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums,[96] and the statutory incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights. Domestic controversy surrounded some of Britain's overseas military deployments in the 2000s (decade), particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan.[97]
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 243,610 square kilometres (94,060 sq mi). The country occupies the major part of the British Isles[98] archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the south-east coast coming within 35 kilometres (22 mi) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.[99] As of 1993[update] 10% of the UK was forested, 46% used for pastures and 25% used for agriculture.[100] The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London is the defining point of the Prime Meridian.[citation needed]
The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° to 61° N, and longitudes 9° W to 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a 360-kilometre (224 mi) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.[99] The coastline of Great Britain is 17,820 kilometres (11,073 mi) long.[101] It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 50 kilometres (31 mi) (38 kilometres (24 mi) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.[102]
England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometres (50,350 sq mi).[103] Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,[100] with mountainous terrain north-west of the Tees-Exe line; including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines and limestone hills of the Peak District, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike (978 metres (3,209 ft)) in the Lake District. Its principal rivers are the Severn, Thames, Humber, Tees, Tyne, Tweed, Avon, Exe and Mersey.[100]
Scotland accounts for just under a third of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres (30,410 sq mi)[104] and including nearly eight hundred islands,[105] predominantly west and north of the mainland; notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The topography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault—a geological rock fracture—which traverses Scotland from Arran in the west to Stonehaven in the east.[106] The faultline separates two distinctively different regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including Ben Nevis which at 1,343 metres (4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles.[107] Lowland areas, especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt, are flatter and home to most of the population including Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, and Edinburgh, its capital and political centre.[citation needed]
Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometres (8,020 sq mi).[108] Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and the South Wales Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales.[100] The 14, or possibly 15, Welsh mountains over 3,000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Wales has over 1,200 km (750 miles) of coastline. There are several islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the northwest.
Northern Ireland accounts for just 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area.[109] The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at 852 metres (2,795 ft).[100]
The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round.[99] The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below −11 °C (12 °F) or rising above 35 °C (95 °F).[110] The prevailing wind is from the south-west and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,[99] although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind—as the majority of the rain falls over the western regions the eastern parts are therefore the driest.[citation needed] Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters; especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south-east of England, being closest to the European mainland, and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.[111]
Administrative units of the United Kingdom
Each country of the United Kingdom has its own system of administrative and geographic demarcation, which often has origins that pre-date the formation of the United Kingdom itself. Consequently there is "no common stratum of administrative unit encompassing the United Kingdom".[112] Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.[113] Change did not occur in a uniform manner and the devolution of power over local government to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland means that future changes are unlikely to be uniform either.[citation needed]
The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to the local arrangements. Legislation concerning local government in England is decided by the UK parliament and the Government of the United Kingdom, as England does not have a devolved parliament. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine Government office regions or European Union government office regions.[114] One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum.[115] It was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies but the rejection of a proposed assembly in the North East region, by a referendum in 2004, stopped this idea in its tracks.[116] Below the region level England has either county councils and district councils or unitary authorities and London which consists of 32 London boroughs. Councillors are elected by the first-past-the-post system in single-member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.[117]
Local government in Scotland is divided on a basis of 32 council areas, with wide variation in both size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas as is the Highland Council which includes a third of Scotland's area but just over 200,000 people. The power invested in local authorities is administered by elected councillors, of which there are currently 1,222[118] and are each paid a part-time salary. Elections are conducted by single transferable vote in multi-member wards that elect either three or four councillors. Each council elects a Provost, or Convenor, to chair meetings of the council and to act as a figurehead for the area. Councillors are subject to a code of conduct enforced by the Standards Commission for Scotland.[119] The representative association of Scotland's local authorities is the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA).[120]
Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport which are unitary authorities in their own right.[121] Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.[122] The most recent elections were held in May 2008. The Welsh Local Government Association represents the interests of local authorities in Wales.[123]
Local government in Northern Ireland has, since 1973, been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as collecting waste, controlling dogs, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.[124] On 13 March 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.[125] The next local elections were postponed until 2011 to facilitate this.[126]
British Overseas Territories are indicated in red, Crown Dependencies in blue, and the United Kingdom in green.
The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: fourteen British Overseas Territories[127] and three Crown Dependencies.[citation needed]
The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus.[128] British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised.[129] Collectively Britain's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 667,018 square miles (1,727,570 km2) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.[130] They are the remnants of the British Empire and several have specifically voted to remain British territories (Bermuda in 1995 and Gibraltar in 2002).[citation needed]
The Crown Dependencies are British possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the UK.[131] They comprise the Channel Island Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. Being independently administered jurisdictions they do not form part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union, although the UK government manages their foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. The power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown (Privy Council or, in the case of the Isle of Man, in certain circumstances the Lieutenant-Governor).[132] Since 2005 each Crown dependency has had a Chief Minister as its head of government.[citation needed]
The United Kingdom is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state of the UK as well as of fifteen other independent Commonwealth countries. The monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[133] The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution,[134] as do only three other countries in the world.[nb 7] The Constitution of the United Kingdom thus consists mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge-made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law" the UK Parliament can perform "constitutional reform" simply by passing Acts of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.[135]
The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world—a legacy of the British Empire. The parliament of the United Kingdom that meets in the Palace of Westminster has two houses; an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords.[citation needed] Any bill passed requires Royal Assent to become law.
The position of prime minister, the UK's head of government,[136] belongs to the member of parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in the House of Commons, usually the current leader of the largest political party in that chamber. The prime minister and cabinet are formally appointed by the monarch to form Her Majesty's Government, though the prime minister chooses the cabinet and, by convention, the Queen respects the prime minister's choices.[137]
The cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the Prime Minister's party in both legislative houses, and mostly from the House of Commons, to which they are responsible. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, and become Ministers of the Crown. The Rt. Hon. David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, has been Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service since 11 May 2010.[138] For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is currently divided into 650 constituencies[139] with each electing a single member of parliament by simple plurality. General elections are called by the monarch when the prime minister so advises. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 require that a new election must be called within five years of the previous general election.[140]
The UK's three major political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats. During the 2010 general election these three parties won 622 out of 650 seats available in the House of Commons; 621 seats at the 2010 general election[141] and 1 more at the delayed by-election in Thirsk and Malton.[142] Most of the remaining seats were won by minor parties that only contest elections in one part of the UK: the Scottish National Party (Scotland only); Plaid Cymru (Wales only); and the Democratic Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour Party, Ulster Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland only, though Sinn Féin also contests elections in the Republic of Ireland). In accordance with party policy no elected Sinn Féin member of parliament has ever attended the House of Commons to speak on behalf of their constituents – this is because members of parliament are required to take an oath of allegiance to the monarch. The current five Sinn Féin MPs have however, since 2002, made use of the offices and other facilities available at Westminster.[143] For elections to the European Parliament the UK currently has 72 MEPs, elected in 12 multi-member constituencies.[144]
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each have their own government or executive, led by a First Minister (or, in the case of Northern Ireland, a diarchal First Minister and deputy First Minister), and a devolved unicameral legislature. England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, has no devolved executive or legislature and is administered and legislated for directly by the UK government and parliament on all issues. This situation has given rise to the so-called West Lothian question which concerns the fact that MPs from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can vote, sometimes decisively,[145] on matters affecting England that are handled by devolved legislatures for their own constituencies.[146]
The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically 'reserved' to the UK parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local government.[147] Following its victory at the 2007 elections the pro-independence Scottish National Party (SNP) formed a minority government with its leader, Alex Salmond, becoming First Minister of Scotland.[148] The pro-union parties responded to the electoral success of the SNP by creating a Commission on Scottish Devolution[149] which reported in 2009 and recommended that additional powers should be devolved, including control of half the income tax raised in Scotland.[150] At the 2011 elections the SNP won re-election and achieved an overall majority in the Scottish parliament.[151]
The Welsh Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.[152] Following the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006 the assembly was able to legislate in devolved areas through Assembly Measures once permission to legislate on that specific matter had been granted by Westminster through a Legislative Competence Order;[153] but since May 2011 the Assembly has been able to legislate on devolved matters through Acts of the Assembly, which require no prior consent. The current Welsh Government was formed after the 2011 elections, and is a minority Labour administration lead by Carwyn Jones, who had been First Minister of a Labour/Plaid Cymru administration since December 2009.[154]
The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers closer to those already devolved to Scotland. The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly. Currently, Peter Robinson (Democratic Unionist Party) and Martin McGuinness (Sinn Féin) are First Minister and deputy First Minister respectively.[155] Devolution in Northern Ireland is subject to the terms of the Good Friday Agreement and the subsequent British-Irish Agreement between the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Under those agreements, the participation of members of the Northern Ireland Executive in the North/South Ministerial Council, and co-operation between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland on a number of devolved policy areas, are prerequisites of devolution in Northern Ireland. The British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference was also established under the agreements, whereby "the Irish Government may put forward views and proposals" on non-devolved matters with respect to Northern Ireland. However, the United Kingdom government remains sovereign over Northern Ireland unless a majority of the people of Northern Ireland vote to form a united Ireland.[citation needed]
The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Under the doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly or Northern Ireland Assembly.[156][157] Indeed, in 1972, the UK Parliament unilaterally prorogued the Parliament of Northern Ireland, setting a precedent relevant to contemporary devolved institutions.[158] In practice, the circumstances in which the UK Parliament would abolish devolution given the political constraints created by referendum decisions are unclear.[159] The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater than in relation to Scotland and Wales, given that devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.[160]
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system, as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.[161] Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords.[162][163] The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories, and the Crown Dependencies.[citation needed]
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common-law principles.[164] The essence of common law is that, subject to statute, the law is developed by judges in courts, applying statute, precedent and common sense to the facts before them to give explanatory judgements of the relevant legal principles, which are reported and binding in future similar cases (stare decisis).[165] The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the same jurisdiction, often having a persuasive effect in other jurisdictions.[166]
Scots law applies in Scotland, a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,[167] and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases.[168] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.[169] Sheriff courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminal trials with a jury, known as sheriff solemn court, or with a sheriff and no jury, known as sheriff summary Court.[170] The Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty", "not guilty" and "not proven". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal with no possibility of retrial.[171]
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 48% in crime from 1995 to 2007/08,[172] according to crime statistics. The prison population of England and Wales has almost doubled over the same period, to over 80,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.[173] Her Majesty's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. Crime in Scotland fell to its lowest recorded level for 32 years in 2009/10, falling by ten percent.[174] At the same time Scotland's prison population, at over 8,000,[175] is at record levels and well above design capacity.[176] The Scottish Prison Service, which reports to the Cabinet Secretary for Justice, manages Scotland's prisons. In 2006 a report by the Surveillance Studies Network found that the UK had the highest level of mass surveillance among industrialised western nations.[177]
The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, G7, G8, G20, NATO, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, and is a member state of the European Union. The UK has a "Special Relationship" with the United States[178][179] and a close partnership with France – the "Entente cordiale" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries. The UK is also closely allied with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and many Irish citizens serve in the British Army.[180] Other close allies include other European Union and NATO members, Commonwealth nations, and Japan. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and armed forces.[181]
The British Army, Royal Air Force and Royal Navy are collectively known as the British Armed Forces and officially as Her Majesty's Armed Forces. The three forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence.
The British Armed Forces are among the largest and most technologically sophisticated armed forces in the world, and as of as of 2008[update] maintained over 20 military deployments around the globe.[182][183][184] The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, as well as the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya and Qatar.[185]
According to various sources, including the Ministry of Defence, the UK has the third- or fourth-highest military expenditure in the world. Total defence spending currently accounts for around 2.3% – 2.5% of total national GDP.[186]
The Royal Navy is a prominent blue-water navy, currently one of only three world wide, with the French Navy and the United States Navy being the other two.[187] The Royal Navy is also responsible for delivering the UKs Nuclear Deterrent via the UK Trident programme and four Vanguard class submarines.
The United Kingdom Special Forces, such as the Special Air Service and Special Boat Service, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in counter-terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations, often where secrecy or covert tactics are required.
Recent defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.[188] Setting aside the intervention in Sierra Leone, UK military operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq and, most recently, Libya, have followed this approach. The last war in which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War of 1982, in which they were victorious.
The UK has a partially regulated market economy.[189] Based on market exchange rates the UK is today the sixth-largest economy in the world and the third-largest in Europe after Germany and France, having fallen behind France for the first time in over a decade in 2008.[190] HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the British government's public finance policy and economic policy. The Bank of England is the UK's central bank and is responsible for issuing the nation's currency, the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. Pound sterling is the world's third-largest reserve currency (after the U.S. Dollar and the Euro).[191] Since 1997 the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.[192]
In the final quarter of 2008 the UK economy officially entered recession for the first time since 1991.[193] Unemployment increased from 5.2% in May 2008 to 7.6% in May 2009 and by January 2012 the unemployment rate among 18 to 24-year-olds had risen from 11.9% to 22.5%, the highest since current records began in 1992.[194][195] Total UK government debt rose from 44.5% of GDP in December 2007 to 76.1% of GDP in December 2010.[196][197]
The
Airbus A380 has wings and engines manufactured in the UK.
The UK service sector makes up around 73% of GDP.[198] London is one of the three "command centres" of the global economy (alongside New York City and Tokyo),[199] is the world's largest financial centre alongside New York,[200][201][202] and has the largest city GDP in Europe.[203] Edinburgh is also one of the largest financial centres in Europe.[204] Tourism is very important to the British economy and, with over 27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world[205] and London has the most international visitors of any city in the world.[206] The creative industries accounted for 7% GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6% per annum between 1997 and 2005.[207]
The Industrial Revolution started in the UK[208] with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining, and Steelmaking.[209][210] The empire created an overseas market for British products, allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. As other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7% of national output in 2003.[211]
The automotive industry is a significant part of the UK manufacturing sector and employs over 800,000 people, with a turnover of some £52 billion, generating £26.6 billion of exports.[212] The aerospace industry of the UK is the second- or third-largest national aerospace industry depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £20 billion.[213][214][215] The pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the UK economy and the country has the third highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures (after the United States and Japan).[216][217]
The poverty line in the UK is commonly defined as being 60% of the median household income.[nb 8] In 2007–2008 13.5 million people, or 22% of the population, lived below this line. This is a higher level of relative poverty than all but four other EU members.[218] In the same year 4.0 million children, 31% of the total, lived in households below the poverty line after housing costs were taken into account. This is a decrease of 400,000 children since 1998–1999.[219] The UK imports 40% of its food supplies.[220]
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century[221] and the United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century,[208] and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.[222] Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science,[223] from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory, and more recently Stephen Hawking, who has advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.[224] Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish,[225] from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming,[226] and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others.[227] Major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK in the 18th century include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian,[228] from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan,[229] and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell,[230] and in the 20th century the world's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others,[231] the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.[232]
The modern UK plays a leading part in the aerospace industry, with companies including Rolls-Royce playing a leading role in the aero-engine market; BAE Systems acting as Britain's largest and the Pentagon's sixth largest defence supplier, and large companies including GKN acting as major suppliers to the Airbus project.[233] Two British-based companies, GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca, ranked in the top five pharmaceutical companies in the world by sales in 2009,[234] and UK companies have discovered and developed more leading medicines than any other country apart from the US.[235] The UK remains a leading centre of automotive design and production, particularly of engines, and has around 2,600 component manufacturers.[236] Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[237] Between 2004 and 2008 the UK produced 7% of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8% share of scientific citations, the third and second highest in the world (after the United States and China, and the United States, respectively).[238] Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.[239]
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads.[99] In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.[242] The National Rail network of 10,072 route miles (16,116 km) in Great Britain and 189 route miles (303 route km) in Northern Ireland carries over 18,000 passenger and 1,000 freight trains daily.[99] Plans are now being considered to build new high-speed railway lines by 2025.[243]
In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.[244] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport (18.9 million passengers).[244] London Heathrow Airport, located 24 kilometres (15 mi) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world[240][241] and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as BMI and Virgin Atlantic.[245]
An oil platform in the North Sea
In 2006 the UK was the world's ninth-largest consumer of energy and the 15th largest producer.[246] In 2007 the UK had a total energy output of 9.5 quadrillion Btus, of which the composition was oil (38%), natural gas (36%), coal (13%), nuclear (11%) and other renewables (2%).[247] In 2009 the UK produced 1.5 million barrels per day (bbl/d) of oil and consumed 1.7 million bbl/d.[248] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.[248] As of 2010[update] the UK has around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.[248]
In 2009 the UK was the 13th largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU.[249] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.[249] In 2009 the UK produced 19.7 million tons of coal and consumed 60.2 million tons.[247] In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons.[247] It has been estimated that identified onshore areas have the potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification (UCG).[250] Based on current UK coal consumption, these volumes represent reserves that could last the UK between 200 and 400 years.[251] The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors" – BP and Royal Dutch Shell – and BG Group.[252][253]
A Census occurs simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years.[254] The Office for National Statistics is responsible for collecting data for England and Wales, the General Register Office for Scotland and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency each being responsible for censuses in their respective countries.[255] In the 2001 census the total population of the United Kingdom was 58,789,194, the third largest in the European Union, the fifth largest in the Commonwealth and the twenty-first largest in the world. By mid-2010 this was estimated to have grown to 62,262,000.[256] 2010 was the third successive year in which natural change contributed more to population growth than net long-term international migration.[256] Between 2001 and 2010 the population increased by an average annual rate of 0.6 per cent. This compares to 0.3 per cent per year in the period 1991 to 2001 and 0.2 per cent in the decade 1981 to 1991.[256] The mid-2007 population estimates revealed that, for the first time, the UK was home to more people of pensionable age than children under the age of 16.[257] It has been estimated that the number of people aged 100 or over will rise steeply to reach over 626,000 by 2080.[258]
England's population in mid-2010 was estimated to be 52.23 million.[256] It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 383 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2003,[259] with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.[260] The mid-2010 estimates put Scotland's population at 5.22 million, Wales at 3.01 million and Northern Ireland at 1.80 million,[256] with much lower population densities than England. Compared to England's 383 inhabitants per square kilometre (990 /sq mi), the corresponding figures were 142 /km2 (370 /sq mi) for Wales, 125 /km2 (320 /sq mi) for Northern Ireland and 65 /km2 (170 /sq mi) for Scotland in mid-2003.[259] In percentage terms Northern Ireland has had the fastest growing population of any country of the UK in each of the four years to mid-2008.[256]
In 2009 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.94 children per woman.[261] While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the 'baby boom' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,[262] below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.[261] In 2010, Scotland had the lowest TFR at only 1.75, followed by Wales at 1.98, England at 2.00, and Northern Ireland at 2.06.[263]
Largest urban areas of the United Kingdom
2001 Census[264][265][266] |
|
Rank |
Urban area |
Pop. |
Principal settlement |
Rank |
Urban area |
Pop. |
Principal settlement |
|
Greater London Urban Area
West Midlands Urban Area
|
1 |
Greater London Urban Area |
8,278,251 |
London |
11 |
Bristol Urban Area |
551,066 |
Bristol |
Greater Manchester Urban Area
West Yorkshire Urban Area
|
| 2 |
West Midlands Urban Area |
2,284,093 |
Birmingham |
12 |
Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton |
461,181 |
Brighton |
| 3 |
Greater Manchester Urban Area |
2,240,230 |
Manchester |
13 |
Portsmouth Urban Area |
442,252 |
Portsmouth |
| 4 |
West Yorkshire Urban Area |
1,499,465 |
Leeds |
14 |
Leicester Urban Area |
441,213 |
Leicester |
| 5 |
Greater Glasgow |
1,199,629 |
Glasgow |
15 |
Edinburgh |
420,893 |
Edinburgh |
| 6 |
Tyneside |
879,996 |
Newcastle |
16 |
South East Dorset conurbation |
383,713 |
Bournemouth |
| 7 |
Liverpool Urban Area |
816,216 |
Liverpool |
17 |
Reading/Wokingham Urban Area |
369,804 |
Reading |
| 8 |
Nottingham Urban Area |
666,358 |
Nottingham |
18 |
Teesside |
365,323 |
Middlesbrough |
| 9 |
Sheffield Urban Area |
640,720 |
Sheffield |
19 |
The Potteries Urban Area |
362,403 |
Stoke-on-Trent |
| 10 |
Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area |
579,554 |
Belfast |
20 |
Coventry/Bedworth Urban Area |
336,452 |
Coventry |
| Ethnic group |
Population |
% of total* |
| White British |
50,366,497 |
85.67% |
| White (other) |
3,096,169 |
5.27% |
| Indian |
1,053,411 |
1.8% |
| Pakistani |
977,285 |
1.6% |
| White Irish |
691,232 |
1.2% |
| Mixed race |
677,117 |
1.2% |
| Black Caribbean |
&10000000000565876000000565,876 |
1.0% |
| Black African |
485,277 |
0.8% |
| Bangladeshi |
283,063 |
0.5% |
| Other Asian (non-Chinese) |
247,644 |
0.4% |
| Chinese |
247,403 |
0.4% |
| Other |
230,615 |
0.4% |
| Black (others) |
97,585 |
0.2% |
| * Percentage of total UK population, according to the 2001 Census |
Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 11th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Recent genetic studies have shown that more than 50 percent of England's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes,[267] though other recent genetic analysis indicates that "about 75 per cent of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago, at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age", and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people.[268][269][270]
The UK has a history of small-scale non-white immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s,[271] and the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.[272] In 1950 there were probably fewer than 20,000 non-white residents in Britain, almost all born overseas.[273]
Since 1945 substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire. Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups but, as of 2008[update], the trend is reversing and many of these migrants are returning home, leaving the size of these groups unknown.[274] As of 2001[update], 92.1% of the population identified themselves as White, leaving 7.9%[275] of the UK population identifying themselves as mixed race or of an ethnic minority.
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4% of London's population[276] and 37.4% of Leicester's[277] was estimated to be non-white as of June 2005[update], whereas less than 5% of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities according to the 2001 census.[278] As of 2011[update], 26.5% of primary and 22.2% of secondary pupils at state schools in England are members of an ethnic minority.[279]
The UK's de facto official language is English (British English),[1][2] a West Germanic language descended from Old English which features a large number of borrowings from Old Norse, Norman French, Greek and Latin. The English language has spread across the world, initially because of the British Empire and subsequently due to the dominance of the United States, and has become the main international language of business as well as the most widely taught second language.[282]
There are four Celtic languages in use in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish. The first three are recognised as regional or minority languages subject to specific measures of protection and promotion under relevant European law, while Cornish is recognised but not specifically protected. In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21%) of the population of Wales said they could speak Welsh,[283] an increase from the 1991 Census (18%).[284] In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.[285] In the same census in Northern Ireland 167,487 people (10.4%) stated that they had "some knowledge of Irish" (see Irish language in Northern Ireland), almost exclusively in the nationalist (mainly Catholic) population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2% of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72% of those living in the Outer Hebrides.[286] The number of schoolchildren being taught through Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish is increasing.[287] Among emigrant-descended populations some Scottish Gaelic is still spoken in Canada (principally Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island),[288] and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.[289]
Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, has limited recognition alongside its regional variant, Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.[290]
It is compulsory for pupils to study a second language up to the age of 14 in England,[291] and up to age 16 in Scotland. French and German are the two most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. In Wales, all pupils up to age 16 are taught Welsh as a second language, or taught in Welsh.[292]
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for over 1,400 years.[293] Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,[294] while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam.[295] This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith,[296] secularised,[297] or post-Christian society.[298] In the 2001 census 71.6% of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths (by number of adherents) being Islam (2.8%), Hinduism (1.0%), Sikhism (0.6%), Judaism (0.5%), Buddhism (0.3%) and all other religions (0.3%).[299] 15% of respondents stated that they had no religion, with a further 7% not stating a religious preference.[300] A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly.[301]
The (Anglican) Church of England is the established church in England.[302] It retains a representation in the UK Parliament and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor.[303] In Scotland the Presbyterian Church of Scotland is recognised as the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government" upon his or her accession.[304][305] The (Anglican) Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, as the (Anglican) Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland.[306] Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, Ceri Peach has estimated that 62% of Christians are Anglican, 13.5% Roman Catholic, 6% Presbyterian, 3.4% Methodist with small numbers of other Protestant denominations and the Orthodox church.[307]
Estimated foreign-born population by country of birth, April 2007 – March 2008
The United Kingdom has experienced successive waves of migration. The Great Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants.[308] Over 120,000 Polish veterans settled in Britain after World War II, unable to return home.[309] In the 20th century there was significant immigration from the colonies and newly independent former colonies, driven largely by post-World War II labour shortages. Many of these migrants came from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent.[310]
In 2010, there were 7.0 million foreign-born residents in the UK, corresponding to 11.3% of the total population. Of these, 4.76 million (7.7%) were born outside the EU and 2.24 million (3.6%) were born in another EU Member State.[311] The proportion of foreign-born people in the UK remains slightly below that of many other European countries,[312] although immigration is now contributing to a rising population,[313] with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Analysis of Office for National Statistics data shows that a net total of 2.3 million migrants moved to the UK in the 15 years from 1991 to 2006.[314][315] In 2008 it was predicted that migration would add 7 million to the UK population by 2031,[316] though these figures are disputed.[317] The Office for National Statistics (ONS) reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 percent to 239,000.[318] In 2011 the net increase was 251,000: immigration was 589,000, while the number of people emigrating (for more than 12 months) was 338,000.[319][320]
195,046 foreign nationals became British citizens in 2010,[321] compared to 54,902 in 1999.[321][322] A record 241,192 people were granted permanent settlement rights in 2010, of whom 51 per cent were from Asia and 27 per cent from Africa.[323] 25.1 per cent of babies born in England and Wales in 2010 were born to mothers born outside the UK, according to official statistics released in 2011.[324]
Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country, 2006
At least 5.5 million British-born people are living abroad,[325][326][327] the top four destinations being Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.[325][328] Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930 around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.[329]
Citizens of the European Union, including those of the UK, have the right to live and work in any member state.[330] The UK applied temporary restrictions to citizens of Romania and Bulgaria which joined the EU in January 2007.[331] Research conducted by the Migration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, two-thirds of them Polish, but that many subsequently returned home, resulting in a net increase in the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK of some 700,000 over that period.[332][333] The late-2000s recession in the UK reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK,[334] with the migration becoming temporary and circular.[335] In 2009, for the first time since enlargement, more nationals of the eight central and eastern European states that had joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived.[336] In 2011, citizens of the new EU member states made up 13% of the immigrants entering the country.[319]
The UK government has introduced a points-based immigration system for immigration from outside the European Economic Area to replace former schemes, including the Scottish Government's Fresh Talent Initiative.[337] In June 2010 the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government introduced a temporary limit of 24,000 on immigration from outside the EU, aiming to discourage applications before a permanent cap was imposed in April 2011.[338] The cap has caused tension within the coalition: business secretary Vince Cable has argued that it is harming British businesses.[339]
King's College, part of the University of Cambridge which was founded in 1209
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system.
Education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education, though the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local authorities.[340] Universally free of charge state education was introduced piecemeal between 1870 and 1944, with education becoming compulsory for all 5 to 14 year-olds in 1921.[341][342] Education is now mandatory from ages five to sixteen (15 if born in late July or August). The majority of children are educated in state-sector schools, only a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. State schools which are allowed to select pupils according to intelligence and academic ability can achieve comparable results to the most selective private schools: out of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 two were state-run grammar schools. Despite a fall in actual numbers the proportion of children in England attending private schools has risen to over 7%.[343] Over half of students at the leading universities of Cambridge and Oxford had attended state schools.[344] The universities of England include some of the top universities in the world; the University of Cambridge, University College London, the University of Oxford and Imperial College London are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 QS World University Rankings, with Cambridge ranked first.[345] Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated pupils in England 7th in the world for maths and 6th for science. The results put England's pupils ahead of other European countries, including Germany and the Scandinavian countries.[346]
Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, with day-to-day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education: the Scottish Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of further education and other centres;[348] and Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources and staff development to the education community to promote curriculum development and create a culture of innovation, ambition and excellence.[349] Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in 1496.[350] The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4%, although it has been rising slowly in recent years.[351] Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges, as fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.[352]
Education in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Minister of Education and the Minister for Employment and Learning, although responsibility at a local level is administered by five education and library boards covering different geographical areas. The Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA) is the body responsible for advising the government on what should be taught in Northern Ireland's schools, monitoring standards and awarding qualifications.[353] The Welsh Government has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are compulsory for all until the age of 16.[354] There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh-medium schools as part of the policy of creating a fully bilingual Wales.
Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and each country has its own system of private and publicly funded health care, together with alternative, holistic and complementary treatments. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.[355][356]
Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and non-governmental-based, such as the Royal Colleges. However, political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national executives; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Assembly Government. Each National Health Service has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.[357][358]
Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly to bring it closer to the European Union average.[359] The UK spends around 8.4 per cent of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.[360]
The culture of the United Kingdom has been influenced by many factors including: the nation's island status; its history as a western liberal democracy and a major power; as well as being a political union of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the British Empire, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies; including Australia, Canada, India, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States. The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led it to be described as a "cultural superpower."[361][362]
'British literature' refers to literature associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Most British literature is in the English language. In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was the largest publisher of books in the world.[363]
The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time,[364][365][366] and his contemporaries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson have also been held in continuous high esteem. More recently the playwrights Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Michael Frayn, Tom Stoppard and David Edgar have combined elements of surrealism, realism and radicalism.
Notable pre-modern and early-modern English writers include Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century), Thomas Malory (15th century), Sir Thomas More (16th century), and John Milton (17th century). In the 18th century Daniel Defoe (author of Robinson Crusoe) and Samuel Richardson were pioneers of the modern novel. In the 19th century there followed further innovation by Jane Austen, the gothic novelist Mary Shelley, children's writer Lewis Carroll, the Brontë sisters, the social campaigner Charles Dickens, the naturalist Thomas Hardy, the realist George Eliot, the visionary poet William Blake and romantic poet William Wordsworth. 20th century English writers include: science-fiction novelist H. G. Wells; the writers of children's classics Rudyard Kipling, A. A. Milne (the creator of Winnie-the-Pooh), Roald Dahl and Enid Blyton; the controversial D. H. Lawrence; modernist Virginia Woolf; the satirist Evelyn Waugh; the prophetic novelist George Orwell; the popular novelists W. Somerset Maugham and Graham Greene; the crime writer Agatha Christie (the best-selling novelist of all time);[367] Ian Fleming (the creator of James Bond); the poets T. S. Eliot, Philip Larkin and Ted Hughes; and the fantasy writers J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis and J. K. Rowling.
Scotland's contributions include the detective writer Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes), romantic literature by Sir Walter Scott, children's writer J.M. Barrie, the epic adventures of Robert Louis Stevenson and the celebrated poet Robert Burns. More recently the modernist and nationalist Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance. A more grim outlook is found in Ian Rankin's stories and the psychological horror-comedy of Iain Banks. Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO's first worldwide City of Literature.[368]
Britain's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, was composed in Yr Hen Ogledd (The Old North), most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur.[369] From around the seventh century, the connection between Wales and the Old North was lost, and the focus of Welsh-language culture shifted to Wales, where Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth.[370] Wales's most celebrated medieval poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl 1320–1370), composed poetry on themes including nature, religion and especially love. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.[371] Until the late 19th century the majority of Welsh literature was in Welsh and much of the prose was religious in character. Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best-known of the Anglo-Welsh poets are both Thomases. Dylan Thomas became famous on both sides of the Atlantic in the mid-20th century. The Swansea writer is remembered for his poetry – his "Do not go gentle into that good night; Rage, rage against the dying of the light." is one of the most quoted couplets of English language verse – and for his 'play for voices', Under Milk Wood. Influential Church in Wales 'poet-priest' and Welsh nationalist, R. S. Thomas, was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.[372][373]
Authors of other nationalities, particularly from Commonwealth countries, the Republic of Ireland and the United States, have lived and worked in the UK. Significant examples through the centuries include Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wilde, Bram Stoker, George Bernard Shaw, Joseph Conrad, T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and more recently British authors born abroad such as Kazuo Ishiguro and Sir Salman Rushdie.[374][375]
Various styles of music are popular in the UK from the indigenous folk music of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland to heavy metal. Notable composers of classical music from the United Kingdom and the countries that preceded it include William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Sir Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with librettist Sir W.S. Gilbert), Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten, pioneer of modern British opera. Sir Peter Maxwell Davies is one of the foremost living composers and current Master of the Queen's Music. The UK is also home to world-renowned symphonic orchestras and choruses such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus. Notable conductors include Sir Simon Rattle, John Barbirolli and Sir Malcolm Sargent. Some of the notable film score composers include John Barry, Clint Mansell, Mike Oldfield, John Powell, Craig Armstrong, David Arnold, John Murphy, Monty Norman and Harry Gregson-Williams. George Frideric Handel, although born German, was a naturalised British citizen[379] and some of his best works, such as Messiah, were written in the English language.[380] Andrew Lloyd Webber has achieved enormous worldwide commercial success and is a prolific composer of musical theatre, works which have dominated London's West End for a number of years and have travelled to Broadway in New York.[381]
The Beatles have international sales of over one billion units and are the biggest-selling and most influential band in the history of popular music.[376][377][378][382] Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include; The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Queen, the Bee Gees, and Elton John, all of whom have world wide record sales of 200 million or more.[383][384][385][386][387][388] The Brit Awards are the BPI's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include; The Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart and The Police.[389] More recent UK music acts that have had international success include Coldplay, Radiohead, Oasis, Muse, Spice Girls, Amy Winehouse and Adele.[390]
A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had more UK chart number one hit singles per capita (54) than any other city worldwide.[391] Glasgow's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO City of Music, one of only three cities in the world to have this honour.[392]
The history of British visual art forms part of western art history. Major British artists include: the Romantics William Blake, John Constable, Samuel Palmer and J.M.W. Turner; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L. S. Lowry; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement William Morris; the figurative painter Francis Bacon; the Pop artists Peter Blake, Richard Hamilton and David Hockney; the collaborative duo Gilbert and George; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin; and the sculptors Antony Gormley, Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore. During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "Young British Artists": Damien Hirst, Chris Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor-Wood and the Chapman Brothers are among the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Glasgow School of Art; the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).[393]
The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock and David Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all-time,[394] with other important directors including Charlie Chaplin, Michael Powell, Carol Reed and Ridley Scott.[395][396][397][398] Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, Michael Caine, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Vivien Leigh, David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Peter Sellers and Kate Winslet.[399][400][401][402][403][404][405][406][407][408] Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including the two highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[409] Ealing Studios has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.[410]
Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of American and European influence. Many British films are co-productions with American producers, often using both British and American actors, and British actors feature regularly in Hollywood films. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on British people, stories or events, including Titanic, The Lord of the Rings, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films which include, Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan and Robin Hood.[411]
In 2009 British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7% globally and 17% in the United Kingdom.[412] UK box-office takings totalled £944 million in 2009, with around 173 million admissions.[412] The British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking of what it considers to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films.[413] The annual British Academy Film Awards, hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, are the British equivalent of the Oscars.[414]
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.[415][416] Other major players in the UK media include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network,[417] and News Corporation, which owns a number of national newspapers through News International such as the most popular tabloid The Sun and the longest-established daily "broadsheet" The Times,[418] as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting.[419] London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales respectively.[420] The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[421]
In 2009 it was estimated that individuals viewed a mean of 3.75 hours of television per day and 2.81 hours of radio. In that year the main BBC public service broadcasting channels accounted for an estimated 28.4% of all television viewing; the three main independent channels accounted for 29.5% and the increasingly important other satellite and digital channels for the remaining 42.1%.[422] Sales of newspapers have fallen since the 1970s and in 2009 42% of people reported reading a daily national newspaper.[423] In 2010 82.5% of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.[424]
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of 'British Empiricism', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the 'Scottish School of Common Sense'.[425] The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume; while Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for a theory of moral philosophy utilitarianism, first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism.[426][427] Other eminent philosophers from the UK and the unions and countries that preceded it include Duns Scotus, John Lilburne, Mary Wollstonecraft, Sir Francis Bacon, Adam Smith, Thomas Hobbes, William of Ockham, Bertrand Russell and A.J. "Freddie" Ayer. Foreign-born philosophers who settled in the UK include Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx, Karl Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Major sports, including association football, rugby league, rugby union, rowing, boxing, badminton, cricket, tennis, darts and golf, originated or were substantially developed in the United Kingdom and the states that preceded it. A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom.[429] In most international competitions, separate teams represent England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland usually field a single team representing all of Ireland, with notable exceptions including at the Commonwealth Games and association football. (In sporting contexts, these teams can be referred to collectively as the Home Nations.) However there are occasions where a single sports team represents the United Kingdom, including at the Olympics where the UK is represented by the Great Britain team. London was the site of the 1908 and 1948 Olympic Games, and in 2012 will become the first city to play host for a third time.
Each of the Home Nations has its own football association, national team and league system, though a few clubs play outside their country's respective systems for a variety of historical and logistical reasons. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland compete as separate countries in international competition and, as a consequence, the UK does not compete as a team in football events at the Olympic Games.[430] There are proposals to have a UK team take part in the 2012 Summer Olympics but the Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish football associations have declined to participate, fearing that it would undermine their independent status – a fear confirmed by FIFA president Sepp Blatter.[431] England has been the most successful of the home nations winning the World Cup on home soil in 1966, although there has historically been a close-fought rivalry between England and Scotland.
Cricket was invented in England. The England cricket team, controlled by the England and Wales Cricket Board,[432] is the only national team in the UK with Test status. Team members are drawn from the main county sides, and include both English and Welsh players. Cricket is distinct from football and rugby where Wales and England field separate national teams, although Wales had fielded its own team in the past. Irish and Scottish players have played for England because neither Scotland nor Ireland have Test status and have only recently started to play in One Day Internationals.[433][434] Scotland, England (and Wales), and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) have competed at the Cricket World Cup, with England reaching the finals on three occasions. There is a professional league championship in which clubs representing 17 English counties and 1 Welsh county compete.[435] Rugby league is a popular sport in some areas of the UK. It originates in Huddersfield and is generally played in Northern England.[436] A single 'Great Britain Lions' team had competed in the Rugby League World Cup and Test match games, but this changed in 2008 when England, Scotland and Ireland competed as separate nations.[437] Great Britain is still being retained as the full national team for Ashes tours against Australia, New Zealand and France. The highest form of professional rugby league in the UK and Europe is Super League where there are 11 teams from Northern England, 1 from London, 1 from Wales and 1 from France. Rugby union is organised on a separate basis for England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, each has a top-ranked international team and were collectively known as the Home Nations. The Six Nations Championship, played between the Home Nations as well as Italy and France, is the premier international tournament in the northern hemisphere.[438] The Triple Crown is awarded to any of the Home Nations who beats the other three in that tournament.[439]
The game of lawn tennis first originated in the city of Birmingham between 1859 and 1865.[440] The Championships, Wimbledon are international tennis events held in Wimbledon in south London every summer and are regarded as the most prestigious event of the global tennis calendar. Snooker is one of the UK's popular sporting exports, with the world championships held annually in Sheffield.[441] In Northern Ireland Gaelic football and hurling are popular team sports, both in terms of participation and spectating, and Irish expatriates throughout the UK and the US also play them.[442] Shinty (or camanachd) is popular in the Scottish Highlands.[443]
Thoroughbred racing, which originated under Charles II of England as the "sport of kings", is popular throughout the UK with world-famous races including the Grand National, the Epsom Derby, Royal Ascot and the Cheltenham National Hunt Festival (including the Cheltenham Gold Cup). The UK has proved successful in the international sporting arena in rowing. Golf is the sixth most popular sport, by participation, in the UK. Although The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland is the sport's home course,[444] the world's oldest golf course is actually Musselburgh Links' Old Golf Course.[445]
The UK is closely associated with motorsport. Many teams and drivers in Formula One (F1) are based in the UK, and drivers from Britain have won more world titles than any other country. The UK hosted the very first F1 Grand Prix in 1950 at Silverstone, the current location of the British Grand Prix held each year in July. The country also hosts legs of the World Rally Championship and has its own touring car racing championship, the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC).[446]
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (also referred to as the Union Jack). It was first created in 1606 by the superimposition of the Flag of England on the Flag of Scotland and updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick's Flag. Wales is not represented in the Union Flag as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom; the possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out.[447] The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the King", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman.
Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain.[448] Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding on the back of a lion. At and since the height of the British Empire, Britannia has often been associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!". Up until 2008, the lion symbol is depicted behind Britannia on the British fifty pence coin and on the back of the British ten pence coin. It is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. The bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom and has been associated with Winston Churchill's defiance of Nazi Germany.[449]
- ^ No law was passed making God Save the Queen the official anthem. In the British tradition, such laws are not necessary; proclamation and usage are sufficient to make it the official national anthem. God Save the Queen also serves as the Royal anthem for several other countries.
- ^ Under the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, the Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Cornish, Irish, Scots and its regional variant Ulster Scots are officially recognised as regional or minority languages by the UK Government for the purposes of the Charter.[3] See also Languages of the United Kingdom.
- ^ British dependencies drive on the left except for BIOT and Gibraltar.
- ^ ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 states that this should be GB and .gb was initially used by the Government, but registration has been suppressed in favour of .uk. The .eu domain is shared with other European Union member states.
- ^ In the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous (regional) languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, the UK's official name is as follows:
- Cornish: Rywvaneth Unys Breten Veur ha Kledhbarth Iwerdhon;
- Irish: Ríocht Aontaithe na Breataine Móire agus Thuaisceart Éireann;
- Scots: Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Irland;
- Ulster-Scots: Claught Kängrick o Docht Brätain an Norlin Airlann
or Unitet Kängdom o Great Brittain an Norlin Airlann;
- Scottish Gaelic: Rìoghachd Aonaichte na Breatainne Mòire is Èireann a Tuath;
- Welsh: Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon
- ^ Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 Acts of Union which reads: the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall...be united into one Kingdom, by the Name of "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"
- ^ Namely: New Zealand, Israel, and San Marino
- ^ In 2007–2008, this was calculated to be £115 per week for single adults with no dependent children; £199 per week for couples with no dependent children; £195 per week for single adults with two dependent children under 14; and £279 per week for couples with two dependent children under 14.
- ^ a b "English language – Government, citizens and rights". Directgov. http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ a b "Commonwealth Secretariat – UK". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookHomeInternal/139560/. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages". Scottish Government. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/ArtsCulture/gaelic/gaelic-english/17910/europeancharter. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "United Kingdom population by ethnic group" (XLS). United Kingdom Census 2001. Office for National Statistics. 1 April 2001. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/StatBase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D6588.xls. Retrieved 15 April 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Population change". Office for National Statistics. 30 June 2011. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=950. [dead link]
- ^ "Census 2001: Population estimates". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/pop2001/united_kingdom.asp. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
- ^ a b c d "United Kingdom". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=67&pr.y=18&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=112&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ "Income inequalities". The Poverty Site. http://www.poverty.org.uk/09/index.shtml. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
- ^ a b "Countries within a country". Prime Minister's Office. 10 January 2003. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823.
- ^ "Fall in UK university students". BBC News. 29 January 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7859034.stm.
- ^ "Country Overviews: United Kingdom". Transport Research Knowledge Centre. http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
- ^ "Key facts about the United Kingdom". Directgov. http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517. Retrieved 3 May 2011. "The full title of this country is 'the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. 'The UK' is made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. 'Britain' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom. 'Great Britain' is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK."
- ^ "Working with Overseas Territories". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/what-we-do/overseas-territories. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
- ^ Mathias, P. (2001). The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26672-6.
- ^ a b Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2.
- ^ Sheridan, Greg (15 May 2010). "Cameron has chance to make UK great again". The Australian (Sydney). http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
- ^ "The 15 Major Spender Countries in 2011". Military Expenditures. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/15majorspenders. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
- ^ Cottrell, P. (2008). The Irish Civil War 1922–23. p. 85. ISBN 1-84603-270-9.
- ^ "Acts of Union 1707". UK Parliament. http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ "Making the Act of Union 1707". Scottish Parliament. http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/vli/visitingHolyrood/union_exhibition.pdf. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ "England – Profile". BBC. 10 February 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ "The Creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707". Historical Association. http://www.history.org.uk/resources/he_resource_730_9.html. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ "Treaty of Union, 1706". Scots History Online. http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ Barnett, Hilaire; Jago, Robert (2011). Constitutional & Administrative Law (8th ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-415-56301-7. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Gascoigne, Bamber. "History of Great Britain (from 1707)". History World. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
- ^ Population Trends, Issues 75–82, p.38, 1994, UK Office of Population Censuses and Surveys
- ^ Life in the United Kingdom: a journey to citizenship, p7, United Kingdom Home Office, 2007, ISBN 978-0-11-341313-3.
- ^ Whyte, John; FitzGerald, Garret (1991). Interpreting Northern Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827380-6.
- ^ Dunn, Seamus; Dawson, Helen. (2000). An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict. Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-7711-7.
- ^ Murphy, Dervla (1979). A Place Apart. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005030-1.
- ^ "Guardian Unlimited Style Guide". London: Guardian News and Media Limited. 19 December 2008. http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,,184840,00.html. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "BBC style guide (Great Britain)". BBC News. 19 August 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "Key facts about the United Kingdom". Government, citizens and rights. HM Government. http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
- ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online Definition of Great Britain
- ^ New Oxford American Dictionary: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.")
- ^ "Great Britain". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/great-britain. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
- ^ "Team GB – Our Greatest Team". British Olympic Association. http://www.olympics.org.uk/teamgb/about/. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
- ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/dec/11/ian-jack-saddened-by-scotland-going-gaelic
- ^ http://www.direct.gov.uk/cy/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517CY
- ^ Bradley, Anthony Wilfred; Ewing, Keith D. (2007). Constitutional and administrative law. 1 (14th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Longman. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4058-1207-8. http://books.google.com/?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36&dq=%22The+adjective+'British'+is+used+in+common+speech%22#v=onepage&q=%22The%20adjective%20'British'%20is%20used%20in%20common%20speech%22&f=false.
- ^ Schrijver, Frans (2006). Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 275–277. ISBN 978-90-5629-428-1. http://books.google.com/?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275&dq=scotland+England+wales+country+and+UK+national+identity#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself?". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey. ARK – Access Research Knowledge. 2008. http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2008/Community_Relations/NINATID.html. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ "Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2007". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey. ARK – Access Research Knowledge. 22 December 2009. http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2007/Community_Relations/index.html. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
- ^ "Ancient skeleton was 'even older'". BBC News. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 973. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
- ^ Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel; Baines, Menna et al., eds. (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 915. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.
- ^ Short Athelstan biography on the BBC History website
- ^ Mackie, J.D. (1991). A History of Scotland. London: Penguin. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-14-013649-4.
- ^ Campbell, Ewan (1999). Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh: Canongate. pp. 8–15. ISBN 0-86241-874-7.
- ^ Haigh, Christopher (1990). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-39552-6.
- ^ Ganshof, F.L. (1996). Feudalism. University of Toronto. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8020-7158-3.
- ^ Chibnall, Marjorie (1999). The debate on the Norman Conquest. Manchester University Press. pp. 115–122. ISBN 978-0-7190-4913-2.
- ^ Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years War". BBC History.
- ^ The Reformation in England and Scotland and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabth I, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ "British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors". BBC History. 5 November 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ Nicholls, Mark (1999). A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0.
- ^ Canny, Nicholas P. (2003). Making Ireland British, 1580–1650. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–200. ISBN 978-0-19-925905-2.
- ^ Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN 1-85534-380-0
- ^ Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN 1-902930-16-9
- ^ English Civil Wars. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ "Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660". Archontology.org. 14 March 2010. http://www.archontology.org/nations/scotland/01_laws.php. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
- ^ Lodge, Richard (2007) [1910]. The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702). Read Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4067-0897-4. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC.
- ^ "Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy". Royal Navy History. Institute of Naval History. http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
- ^ Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924676-9. http://books.google.com/?id=eQHSivGzEEMC. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "Articles of Union with Scotland 1707". UK Parliament. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
- ^ "Acts of Union 1707". UK Parliament. http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
- ^ "Treaty (act) of Union 1706". Scottish History online. http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Loosemore, Jo (2007). Sailing against slavery. BBC Devon. 2007.
- ^ Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad. p.73.
- ^ "The Act of Union". Act of Union Virtual Library. http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- ^ Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5.
- ^ Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. ISBN 1-86189-202-0.
- ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 332. ISBN 0-19-924678-5. http://books.google.com/?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ The Workshop of the World. BBC History. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
- ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-924678-5. http://books.google.com/?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ Marshall, P.J. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–57. ISBN 0-521-00254-0. http://books.google.com/?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ Tompson, Richard S. (2003). Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present. New York: Facts on File. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8160-4474-0. http://books.google.com/?id=H5kcJqmXk2oC&pg=PA63&dq=britain+19th+century+widening+franchise#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Hosch, William L. (2009). World War I: People, Politics, and Power. America at War. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61530-048-8.
- ^ Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. ISBN 978-0-04-445109-9.
- ^ a b Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). History of World War I, Volume 3. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698 and 705. ISBN 0-7614-7231-2.
- ^ Turner, J. (1988). Britain and the First World War. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 0-04-445109-1.
- ^ SR&O 1921, No. 533 of 3 May 1921.
- ^ "The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921". CAIN. http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- ^ Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 0-415-03719-0.
- ^ "Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S.". The New York Times. 28 December 2006. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ^ Francis, Martin (1997). Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain. Manchester University Press. pp. 225–233. ISBN 978-0-7190-4833-3.
- ^ Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 173–199. ISBN 978-0-415-13103-2.
- ^ Larres, Klaus (2009). A companion to Europe since 1945. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4051-0612-2. http://books.google.com/?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118&dq=labour+government+1945+independence+for+india#v=onepage&q=labour%20government%201945%20independence%20for%20india&f=false. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Julios, Christina (2008). Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse. Studies in migration and diaspora. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-7546-7158-9. http://books.google.com/?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84&dq=government+policy+in+post+war+britain+brought+people+from+the+commonwealth+to+create+a+multiethnic+society#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- ^ Aughey, Arthur (2005). The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement. London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-415-32788-6.
- ^ "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Holland, Jack (1999). Hope against history: The course of conflict in Northern Ireland. New York: Henry Holt. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-8050-6087-4.
- ^ Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN 1-84631-065-2.
- ^ Dorey, Peter (1995). British politics since 1945. Making contemporary Britain. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 164–223. ISBN 978-0-631-19075-2.
- ^ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (2007). Applied Economics (11th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-273-70822-3. http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- ^ Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: the Journal of Federalism 28 (1): 217. http://publius.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/28/1/217. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Jackson, Mike (3 April 2011). "Military action alone will not save Libya". Financial Times (London). http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a6d31ca2-5e22-11e0-b1d8-00144feab49a.html#axzz1MN2vkt7a.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."
- ^ a b c d e f "United Kingdom". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd. "United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online". Atlapedia.com. http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- ^ Neal, Clare. "How long is the UK coastline?". British Cartographic Society. http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- ^ "The Channel Tunnel". Eurotunnel. http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure/. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
- ^ "England – Profile". BBC News. 11 February 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm.
- ^ "Scotland Facts". Scotland Online Gateway. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
- ^ Winter, Jon (19 May 2001). "The complete guide to Scottish Islands". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to--scottish-islands-754070.html.
- ^ "Overview of Highland Boundary Fault". Gazetteer for Scotland. University of Edinburgh. http://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst7728.html. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^ "Ben Nevis Weather". Ben Nevis Weather. http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Profile: Wales". BBC News. 9 June 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "Geography of Northern Ireland". University of Ulster. http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm. Retrieved 22 May 2006.
- ^ "UK climate summaries". Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ Salkeld, Luke (8 December 2011). "Snow News". http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2070541/UK-weather-Snow-gales-blizzards-arctic-conditions-leave-Britain-shivering.html (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2070541/UK-weather-Snow-gales-blizzards-arctic-conditions-leave-Britain-shivering.html. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
- ^ United Nations Economic and Social Council (August 2007). "Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names". UN Statistics Division. Archived from the original on 1 December 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5lhCIacyi. Retrieved 21 October 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Barlow, I.M. (1991). Metropolitan Government. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02099-2.
- ^ "Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network". Government Offices. Archived from the original on 15 June 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5hYQkeu1p. Retrieved 3 July 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "A short history of London government". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080421023053/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp. Retrieved 4 October 2008.
- ^ Sherman, Jill; Norfolk, Andrew (5 November 2004). "Prescott's dream in tatters as North East rejects assembly". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece. Retrieved 15 February 2008. "The Government is now expected to tear up its twelve-year-old plan to create eight or nine regional assemblies in England to mirror devolution in Scotland and Wales."
- ^ "Local Authority Elections". Local Government Association. http://www.lga.gov.uk/lga/aio/39780. Retrieved 3 October 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007". Political Studies Association. http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
- ^ Ethical Standards in Public Life framework: "Ethical Standards in Public Life". The Scottish Government. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Government/local-government/ethical-standards. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
- ^ "Who we are". Convention of Scottish Local Authorities. http://www.cosla.gov.uk/about/decision-making-cosla. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Local Authorities". The Welsh Assembly Government. http://new.wales.gov.uk/topics/localgovernment/localauthorities/?lang=en. Retrieved 31 July 2008.
- ^ "Local government elections in Wales". The Electoral Commission. 2008. http://www.aboutmyvote.co.uk/how_do_i_vote/voting_systems/local_government_elections_i3.aspx. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ "Welsh Local Government Association". Welsh Local Government Association. http://www.wlga.gov.uk/. Retrieved 20 March 2008.
- ^ Devenport, Mark (18 November 2005). "NI local government set for shake-up". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ "Foster announces the future shape of local government" (Press release). Northern Ireland Executive. 13 March 2008. http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm. Retrieved 20 October 2008.
- ^ "Local Government elections to be aligned with review of public administration" (Press release). Northern Ireland Office. 25 April 2008. http://www.nio.gov.uk/local-government-elections-to-be-aligned-with-review-of-public-administration/media-detail.htm?newsID=15153. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
- ^ "Working with Overseas Territories". Foreign & Commonwealth Office. 6 October 2010. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/what-we-do/overseas-territories/. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
- ^ "Overseas Territories". Foreign & Commonwealth Office. http://collections.europarchive.org/tna/20080205132101/www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front%3fpagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1013618138295. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
- ^ "The World Factbook". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ay.html. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- ^ "Country profiles". Foreign & Commonwealth Office. 21 February 2008. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
- ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons. "House of Commons – Crown Dependencies – Justice Committee". Publications.parliament.uk. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmjust/56/5604.htm. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "Profile of Jersey". States of Jersey. http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20060902092534/http://www.gov.je/ChiefMinister/International+Relations/Profile+of+Jersey.htm. Retrieved 31 July 2008. "The legislature passes primary legislation, which requires approval by The Queen in Council, and enacts subordinate legislation in many areas without any requirement for Royal Sanction and under powers conferred by primary legislation."
- ^ Bagehot, Walter (1867) The English Constitution, London:Chapman and Hall, p103
- ^ Sarah Carter. "A Guide To the UK Legal System". University of Kent at Canterbury. http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
- ^ "Official UK Parliament web page on parliamentary sovereignty". UK Parliament. http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/sovereignty.cfm.
- ^ "The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet". Public services all in one place. Directgov. http://direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
- ^ "Brown is UK's new prime minister". BBC News. 27 June 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6245682.stm. Retrieved 23 January 2008.
- ^ "David Cameron is UK's new prime minister". BBC News. 11 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/election_2010/8675265.stm. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
- ^ November 2010 "Elections and voting – UK Parliament". Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fabout%2Fhow%2Felections-and-voting%2F&date=14 November 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ November 2010 "The Parliament Acts – UK Parliament". Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fabout%2Fhow%2Flaws%2Fparliamentacts%2F&date=14 November 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ "United Kingdom". European Election Database. Norwegian Social Science Data Services. http://www.nsd.uib.no/european_election_database/country/uk/. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
- ^ Wainwright, Martin (28 May 2010). "Thirsk and Malton: Conservatives take final seat in parliament". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/may/28/general-election-2010-conservatives. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
- ^ "Sinn Fein moves into Westminster". BBC News. 21 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/1771635.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "European Election: United Kingdom Result". BBC News. 8 June 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/elections/euro/09/html/ukregion_999999.stm.
- ^ "Scots MPs attacked over fees vote". BBC News. 27 January 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3432767.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ Taylor, Brian (1 June 1998). "Talking Politics: The West Lothian Question". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/talking_politics/82358.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures". BBC News. 8 April 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Salmond elected as first minister". BBC News. 16 May 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6659531.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Devolution review body launched". BBC News. 25 March 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7311840.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "'Radical' Holyrood powers urged". BBC News. 15 June 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8099634.stm.
- ^ "Scottish election: SNP wins election". BBC News. 6 May 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-13305522.
- ^ "Structure and powers of the Assembly". BBC News. 9 April 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ Owen, Paul (16 July 2007). "What powers does the Welsh Assembly have?". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2007/jul/16/wales.devolution. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Carwyn Jones clinches leadership in Wales". WalesOnline (Media Wales Ltd). 1 December 2009. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/2009/12/01/carwyn-jones-clinches-leadership-in-wales-91466-25299305/. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
- ^ "Devolved Government – Ministers and their departments". Northern Ireland Executive. Archived from the original on 22 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070822230925/http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/index/your-government/devolved-government.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ N. Burrows, "Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998", The Modern Law Review, vol. 62, issue 2, (March 1999), p249: "The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden..."
- ^ M. Elliot, "United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure", International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 2, issue 3, (2004), pp 553–554: "Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the U.K. Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied ... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters ... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses..."
- ^ G. Walker,"Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Devolution, 1945–1979", Journal of British Studies, vol. 39, no. 1 (January 2010), pp 124 & 133
- ^ A. Gamble, "The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom", Publius, volume 36, issue 1, p29: "The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster."
- ^ E. Meehan, "The Belfast Agreement—Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK’s Devolution Programme", Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 52, issue 1, (1 January 1999), p23: "[T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland’s new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminister and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states... Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminister’s ‘powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland’ remains ‘unaffected’, without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement".
- ^ "The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706". Scottish History Online. http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "UK Supreme Court judges sworn in". BBC News. 1 October 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm.
- ^ Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United KingdomPDF (252 KB), Department for Constitutional Affairs. Retrieved 22 May 2006.
- ^ Bainham, Andrew (1998). The international survey of family law:1996. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 298. ISBN 978-90-411-0573-8. http://books.google.com/?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298&dq=english+and+northern+irish+law+are+based+on+common-law#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ Adeleye, Gabriel; Acquah-Dadzie, Kofi; Sienkewicz, Thomas; McDonough, James (1999). World dictionary of foreign expressions. Waucojnda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-86516-423-9. http://books.google.com/?id=a4ddQNrt8e8C&pg=PA371&dq=%22stare+decisis+et+non+quieta+movere%22#v=onepage&q=%22stare%20decisis%20et%20non%20quieta%20movere%22&f=false. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ "The Australian courts and comparative law". Australian Law Postgraduate Network. http://www.alpn.edu.au/node/66. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ "Court of Session – Introduction". Scottish Courts. http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "High Court of Justiciary – Introduction". Scottish Courts. http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "House of Lords – Practice Directions on Permission to Appeal". UK Parliament. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
- ^ "Introduction". Scottish Courts. http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/introduction.asp. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ Luckhurst, Tim (20 March 2005). "The case for keeping 'not proven' verdict". The Sunday Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article431121.ece. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "Police-recorded crime down by 9%". BBC News. 17 July 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7511192.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "New record high prison population". BBC News. 8 February 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7235438.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Crime falls to 32 year low" (Press release). Scottish Government. 7 September 2010. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2010/09/07111730. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
- ^ "Prisoner Population at Friday 22 August 2008". Scottish Prison Service. http://www.sps.gov.uk/default.aspx?documentid=7811a7f1-6c61-4667-a12c-f102bbf5b808. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
- ^ "Scots jail numbers at record high". BBC News. 29 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7587724.stm. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Britain is 'surveillance society'". BBC News. 2 November 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6108496.stm. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
- ^ Swaine, Jon (13 January 2009). "Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 3 May 2011.
- ^ Kirchner, E. J.; Sperling, J. (2007). Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st Century. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 100. ISBN 0-415-39162-8
- ^ Camber, Rebecca (10 September 2008). "British Army enjoys recruitment boom from Irish Republic after troops leave Northern Ireland". Daily Mail. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1054462/British-Army-enjoys-recruitment-boom-Irish-Republic-troops-leave-Northern-Ireland.html. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
- ^ "DFID's expenditure on development assistance". UK Parliament. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
- ^ "Where are British troops and why". BBC News. 29 April 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4094818.stm. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ Krishnan, Armin (2008). War as business: technological change and military service contracting. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-7167-1. http://books.google.com/?id=Bx_adGe_OiEC&pg=PA3&dq=uk+armed+forces+are+one+of+the+most+technologically+advanced+in+the+world#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ Martin, Laurence W.; Garnett, John C. (1997). British foreign policy: challenges and choices for the twenty first century. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs. ISBN 978-1-85567-469-1. http://books.google.com/?id=WY4CoIHNC3wC&pg=PA44&dq=uk+the+best+trained+armed+forces+in+the+world#v=onepage&q=uk%20the%20best%20trained%20armed%20forces%20in%20the%20world&f=false. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ "House of Commons Hansard". UK Parliament. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/vo050221/text/50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
- ^ "Defence Spending". Ministry of Defence. http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/Organisation/KeyFactsAboutDefence/DefenceSpending.htm. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
- ^ "The Royal Navy: Britain’s Trident for a Global Agenda – The Henry Jackson Society". Henry Jackson Society. http://www.henryjacksonsociety.org/stories.asp?pageid=49&id=279. Retrieved 17 October 2008. [dead link]
- ^ UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Office for National Statistics. p. 89.
- ^ "Principles for Economic Regulation". Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. April 2011. http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "United Kingdom". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=112&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=18&pr.y=10. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
- ^ Chavez-Dreyfuss, Gertrude (1 April 2008). "Global reserves, dollar share up at end of 2007-IMF". Reuters. http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINN3141616420080331?sp=true. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ More About the Bank Bank of England – Retrieved 8 August 2008
- ^ "UK in recession as economy slides". BBC News. 23 January 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7846266.stm. Retrieved 23 January 2009.
- ^ "UK youth unemployment at its highest in two decades: 22.5%". MercoPress. 15 April 2012. http://en.mercopress.com/2012/03/15/uk-youth-unemployment-at-its-highest-in-two-decades-22.5.
- ^ Groom, Brian (19 January 2011). "UK youth unemployment reaches record". Financial Times (London). http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/32a8c8c0-23b4-11e0-8bb1-00144feab49a.html.
- ^ "UK Government Debt & Deficit". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=277. Retrieved 12 June 2011. [dead link]
- ^ "Statistical Bulletin: Government deficit and debt under the Maastricht Treaty". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/pdfdir/maast0311.pdf. Retrieved 12 June 2011. [dead link]
- ^ "Index of Services (experimental)". Office for National Statistics. 26 April 2006. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=9333. Retrieved 24 May 2006. [dead link]
- ^ Sassen, Saskia (2001). The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-07866-1.
- ^ "Global Financial Centres 7". Z/Yen. 2010. http://www.zyen.com/PDF/GFC%207.pdf#page=30. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ^ "Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008". Mastercard. http://www.mastercard.com/us/company/en/insights/pdfs/2008/MCWW_WCoC-Report_2008.pdf. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ ""World's Most Economically Powerful Cities".". Forbes. 15 July 2008. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/15/economic-growth-gdp-biz-cx_jz_0715powercities.html. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ "Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025". PricewaterhouseCoopers. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Media-Library/Global-city-GDP-rankings-2008-2025-61a.aspx. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ Mark Lazarowicz (Labour MP) (30 April 2003). "Financial Services Industry". United Kingdom Parliament. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030430/halltext/30430h05.htm#30430h05_spnew0. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ International Tourism Receipts. UNWTO Tourism Highlights, Edition 2005. page 12. World Tourism Organisation. Retrieved 24 May 2006.
- ^ Bremner, Caroline (10 January 2010). "Euromonitor International's Top City Destination Ranking". Euromonitor International. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. http://www.euromonitor.com/Euromonitor_Internationals_Top_City_Destination_Ranking. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
- ^ "From the Margins to the Mainstream – Government unveils new action plan for the creative industries". DCMS. 9 March 2007. http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx. Retrieved 9 March 2007.
- ^ a b "European Countries – United Kingdom". Europa (web portal). http://europa.eu/abc/european_countries/eu_members/unitedkingdom/index_en.htm. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
- ^ Harrington, James W.; Warf, Barney (1995). Industrial location: Principles, practices, and policy. London: Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-415-10479-1. http://books.google.com/?id=NBKjj5Wq6N0C&pg=PA121&dq=industrial+revolution+started+with+heavy+industry+such+as#v=onepage&q=industrial%20revolution%20started%20with%20heavy%20industry%20such%20as&f=false. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Alternative Volume: Since 1300. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-55528-5. http://books.google.com/?id=aAgi_5xIVBMC&pg=PT343&dq=industrial+revolution+started+with+heavy+industry+such+as#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
- ^ Hewitt, Patricia (15 July 2004). "TUC Manufacturing Conference". Department of Trade and Industry. http://www.dti.gov.uk/ministers/speeches/hewitt150704b.html. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
- ^ "Industry topics". Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. 2011. https://www.smmt.co.uk/industry-topics/economy/#. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Robertson, David (9 January 2009). "The Aerospace industry has thousands of jobs in peril". The Times (London). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/engineering/article5477974.ece. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ "Facts & Figures – 2009". Aerospace & Defence Association of Europe. http://www.asd-europe.org/site/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/ASD_Facts_And_Figures_2009.pdf. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ "UK Aerospace Industry Survey – 2010". ADS Group. http://www.adsgroup.org.uk/community/dms/download.asp?txtPageLinkDocPK=23948. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ "The Pharmaceutical sector in the UK". Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. http://www.bis.gov.uk/policies/business-sectors/biotechnology-pharmaceuticals-and-healthcare/pharmaceutical. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ "Ministerial Industry Strategy Group – Pharmaceutical Industry: Competitiveness and Performance Indicators". Department of Health. http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/@ps/documents/digitalasset/dh_113133.pdf. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
- ^ "United Kingdom: Numbers in low income". The Poverty Site. http://www.poverty.org.uk/01/index.shtml. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
- ^ "United Kingdom: Children in low income households". The Poverty Site. http://www.poverty.org.uk/16/index.shtml. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
- ^ "Warning of food price hike crisis". BBC News. 4 April 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7982056.stm.
- ^ Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-521-34804-8.
- ^ Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. OCLC 474197910
- ^ Burtt, E.A. (2003) [1924].The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. ISBN 0-486-42551-7.
- ^ Hatt, C. (2006). Scientists and Their Discoveries. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. ISBN 0-237-53195-X.
- ^ Jungnickel, C.; McCormmach, R. (1996). Cavendish. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-220-1.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945: Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst B. Chain, Sir Howard Florey". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zbLPNl0x.
- ^ Hatt, C. (2006). Scientists and Their Discoveries. London: Evans Brothers. p. 56. ISBN 0-237-53195-X.
- ^ James, I. (2010). Remarkable Engineers: From Riquet to Shannon. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–6. ISBN 0-521-73165-8.
- ^ Bova, Ben (2002) [1932]. The Story of Light. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks. p. 238. ISBN 978-1-4022-0009-0.
- ^ "Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922)". Scottish Science Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zbRVYsAo.
- ^ "John Logie Baird (1888–1946)". BBC History. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zbSBRsV4.
- ^ Cole, Jeffrey (2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 121. ISBN 1-59884-302-8.
- ^ O'Connell, Dominic (30 January 2011). "Britannia still rules the skies". The Sunday Times (London). http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/public/roadtorecovery/article526545.ece.
- ^ "IMS Health". IMS Health. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zcKUBLse.
- ^ "The Pharmaceutical sector in the UK". Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. 2007. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.dti.gov.uk/sectors/biotech/pharmaceutical/page10219.html.
- ^ "Automotive industry". Department of Business Innovation and Skills. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zcLGeZqp.
- ^ Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. ISBN 0-415-10015-1.
- ^ "Knowledge, networks and nations: scientific collaborations in the twenty-first century". Royal Society. 2011. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zdOvXsEt.
- ^ McCook, Alison. "Is peer review broken?". Reprinted from the Scientist 20(2) 26, 2006. Archived from the original on 21 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zcLYYyjt.
- ^ a b "Heathrow 'needs a third runway'". BBC News. 25 June 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7472432.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ a b "Statistics: Top 30 World airports" (Press release). Airports Council International. July 2008. http://www.aci.aero/aci/aci/file/Press%20Releases/2008/TOP30_International%20Passengers_2007.pdf. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
- ^ "Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2010". Department for Transport. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/tsgb/latest/tsgb2010vehicles.pdf. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Major new rail lines considered". BBC News. 21 June 2008. Archived from the original on 9 October 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5u79BVcN1.
- ^ a b "Size of Reporting Airports October 2009 – September 2010". CAA. http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/201009/Table_01_Size_of_UK_Airports.pdf. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "BMI being taken over by Lufthansa". BBC News. 29 October 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7697261.stm. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
- ^ "United Kingdom Energy Profile". U.S. Energy Information Administration. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=UK. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
- ^ a b c "United Kingdom – Quick Facts Energy Overview". U.S. Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/Profile.html. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
- ^ a b c "United Kingdom – Oil". U.S. Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/Oil.html. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
- ^ a b "United Kingdom – Natural Gas". U.S. Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/NaturalGas.html. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
- ^ The Coal Authority (10 April 2006). "Coal Reserves in the United Kingdom". The Coal Authority. Archived from the original on 4 January 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090104054403/http://www.coal.gov.uk/media//860AD/Response%20to%20Energy%20Review%20-%20Appendix%202.pdf. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "England Expert predicts 'coal revolution'". BBC News. 16 October 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7046981.stm. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
- ^ Mason, Rowena (24 October 2009). "Let the battle begin over black gold". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- ^ Heath, Michael (26 November 2010). "RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term". Bloomberg (New York). http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- ^ "Census Geography". Office for National Statistics. 30 October 2007. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110604093106/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/geography/census_geog.asp. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Welcome to the 2011 Census for England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. No date. http://www.ons.gov.uk/census/index.html. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f "Annual Mid-year Population Estimates, 2010". Office for National Statistics. 2011. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pop-estimate/population-estimates-for-uk--england-and-wales--scotland-and-northern-ireland/mid-2010-population-estimates/annual-mid-year-population-estimates--2010.pdf. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ Travis, Alan (22 August 2008). "Ageing Britain: Pensioners outnumber under-16s for first time". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/22/population.socialtrends. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
- ^ Batty, David (30 December 2010). "One in six people in the UK today will live to 100, study says". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/dec/30/one-in-six-people-live-100.
- ^ a b "Population: UK population grows to 59.6 million" (Press release). Office for National Statistics. 24 June 2004. Archived from the original on 22 July 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20040722014729/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=760. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ Khan, Urmee (16 September 2008). "England is most crowded country in Europe". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
- ^ a b "UK fertility remains high" (Press release). Office for National Statistics. 24 June 2010. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110629182330/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=951&Pos=1&ColRank=1&Rank=326. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ Boseley, Sarah (14 July 2008). "The question: What's behind the baby boom?". The Guardian (London): p. 3. http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2008/jul/14/familyandrelationships.women. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ "Fertility Summary – 2010". Office for National Statistics. 6 October 2011. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/fertility-analysis/fertility-summary/2010/uk-fertility-summary.html.
- ^ http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/census-2001-key-statistics/urban-areas-in-england-and-wales/index.html
- ^ KS01 Usual resident population, Key Statistics for Settlements and Localities Scotland General Register Office for Scotland
- ^ http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census/pdf/ks_sett_tables.pdf
- ^ Thomas, Mark G. et al. Evidence for a segregated social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273(1601): 2651–2657.
- ^ Owen, James (19 July 2005). Review of "The Tribes of Britain". National Geographic.
- ^ Oppenheimer, Stephen (October 2006). Myths of British ancestry. Prospect (London). Retrieved 5 November 2010.
- ^ Henderson, Mark (23 October 2009). "Scientist – Griffin hijacked my work to make race claim about 'British aborigines'". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6887552.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1. Retrieved 26 October 2009.
- ^ Costello, Ray (2001). Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918. Liverpool: Picton Press. ISBN 1-873245-07-6.
- ^ "Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community". Chambré Hardman Trust. http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369. Retrieved 26 October 2009.
- ^ Coleman, David; Compton, Paul; Salt, John (2002). "The demographic characteristics of immigrant populations". Council of Europe. p.505. ISBN 92-871-4974-7.
- ^ Mason, Chris (30 April 2008). "'Why I left UK to return to Poland'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7374683.stm.
- ^ "Ethnicity: 7.9% from a non-White ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. 24 June 2004. Archived from the original on 5 July 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070705200411/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=764&Pos=4&ColRank=1&Rank=176. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): London". Office for National Statistics. http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930dce6eace0153cf12440ca609dc762c8ae598.e38OaNuRbNuSbi0Ma3aNaxiQbNiLe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1201351285750&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812&bhcp=1. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
- ^ "Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): Leicester". Office for National Statistics. http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276827&c=Leicester&d=13&e=13&g=394575&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1208962134759&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
- ^ "Census 2001 – Ethnicity and religion in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/commentaries/ethnicity.asp. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
- ^ Loveys, Kate (22 June 2011). "One in four primary school pupils are from an ethnic minority and almost a million schoolchildren do not speak English as their first language". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2006892/1-4-primary-school-pupils-Britain-ethnic-minority.html. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
- ^ "Official EU languages". European Commission. 8 May 2009. http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm. Retrieved 16 October 2009.
- ^ "Language Courses in New York". United Nations. 2006. http://www.un.org/depts/OHRM/sds/lcp/UNLCP/english/. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
- ^ Melitz, Jacques (1999). "English-Language Dominance, Literature and Welfare". Centre for Economic Policy Research. http://www.cepr.org/pubs/new-dps/dplist.asp?dpno=2055. Retrieved 26 May 2006.
- ^ National Statistics Online – Welsh Language[dead link]. National Statistics Office.
- ^ "Differences in estimates of Welsh Language Skills". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fow/WelshLanguage.pdf. Retrieved 30 December 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Wynn Thomas, Peter (March 2007). "Welsh today". Voices. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/welsh.shtml. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Scotland's Census 2001 – Gaelic Report. General Register Office for Scotland. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
- ^ "Local UK languages 'taking off'". BBC News. 12 February 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7885493.stm.
- ^ Edwards, John R. (2010). Minority languages and group identity: cases and categories. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 150–158. ISBN 978-90-272-1866-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q2dJlB0TW8oC&pg=PT160. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
- ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 696. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA696. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
- ^ "Language Data – Scots". European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070623185445/http://eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
- ^ "Fall in compulsory language lessons". BBC News. 4 November 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/3983713.stm.
- ^ The School Gate for parents in Wales. BBC Wales. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
- ^ Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). A Dictionary of British History. Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-19-955037-9.
- ^ Field, Clive D. (November 2009). "British religion in numbers"[dead link]. BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–6. ISBN 0-7546-4389-1.
- ^ Brown, Callum G. (2006). Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. ISBN 0-582-47289-X.
- ^ Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-521-83984-X.
- ^ Fergusson, David (2004). Church, State and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-521-52959-X.
- ^ "UK Census 2001". National Office for Statistics. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070312034628/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293. Retrieved 22 April 2007.
- ^ "Religious Populations". Office for National Statistics. 11 October 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zFDlspeL.
- ^ "United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church". News.adventist.org. 4 April 2007. http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
- ^ The History of the Church of England. The Church of England. Retrieved 23 November 2008.
- ^ "Queen and Church of England". British Monarchy Media Centre. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061008203611/http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "Queen and the Church". The British Monarchy (Official Website). Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zG8tzxhd.
- ^ "How we are organised". Church of Scotland. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zG8WCEAc.
- ^ Weller, Paul (2005). Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. ISBN 0567084876.
- ^ Peach, Ceri, "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape", in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. ISBN 90-5589-248-3.
- ^ Richards, Eric (2004). Britannia's children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600. London: Hambledon, p143. ISBN 978-1-85285-441-6.
- ^ Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall (2005). Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present, ABC-CLIO, p630. ISBN 1-57607-796-9
- ^ "Short history of immigration". BBC. 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
- ^ 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad, Eurostat, Katya Vasileva, 34/2011.
- ^ Muenz, Rainer (June 2006). "Europe: Population and Migration in 2005". Migration Policy Institute. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=402. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
- ^ "Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high". London Evening Standard. 22 August 2008. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23542455-details/Immigration+and+births+to+non-British+mothers+pushes+British+population+to+record+high/article.do.
- ^ Doughty, Steve; Slack, James (3 June 2008). "Third World migrants behind our 2.3m population boom". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1023512/Third-World-migrants-2-3m-population-boom.html.
- ^ Bentham, Martin (20 October 2008). "Tories call for tougher control of immigration". London Evening Standard. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23575160-details/Tories+get+tough+on+immigration+after+Labour's+U-turn/article.do.
- ^ "Minister rejects migrant cap plan". BBC News. 8 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7602526.stm. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Johnston, Philip (5 January 2007). "Immigration 'far higher' than figures say". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1538598/Immigration-%27far-higher%27-than-figures-say.html. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ Travis, Alan (25 August 2011). "UK net migration rises 21%". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/25/uk-net-migration-rises-21.
- ^ a b "Migration Statistics Quarterly Report May 2012". Office for National Statistics. 24 May 2012. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/migration1/migration-statistics-quarterly-report/may-2012/msqr.html.
- ^ "Migration to UK more than double government target". BBC News. 24 May 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18189797.
- ^ a b "Citizenship". Home Office. August 2011. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/science-research-statistics/research-statistics/immigration-asylum-research/immigration-brief-q2-2011/citizenship. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ^ Bamber, David (20 December 2000). "Migrant squad to operate in France". The Daily Telegraph (Calais). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1377707/Migrant-squad-to-operate-in-France.html.
- ^ "Settlement". Home Office. August 2011. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/science-research-statistics/research-statistics/immigration-asylum-research/immigration-brief-q2-2011/immig-q2-settlement. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ^ "Births in England and Wales by parents’ country of birth, 2010", National Statistics.
- ^ a b Sriskandarajah, Dhananjayan; Drew, Catherine (11 December 2006). "Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration". Institute for Public Policy Research. http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509. Retrieved 20 January 2007.
- ^ "Brits Abroad: world overview". BBC. 6 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/default.stm. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ Casciani, Dominic (11 December 2006). "5.5 m Britons 'opt to live abroad'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6210358.stm. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ "Brits Abroad: Country-by-country". BBC News. 11 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm.
- ^ Richards (2004), pp. 6–7.
- ^ Right of Union citizens and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States. European Commission. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
- ^ Doward, Jamie; Temko, Ned (23 September 2007). "Home Office shuts the door on Bulgaria and Romania". The Observer (London): p. 2. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/sep/23/immigration.eu. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
- ^ Sumption, Madeleine; Somerville, Will (January 2010). The UK's new Europeans: Progress and challenges five years after accession. London: Equality and Human Rights Commission. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-84206-252-4. http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/new_europeans.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
- ^ Doward, Jamie; Rogers, Sam (17 January 2010). "Young, self-reliant, educated: portrait of UK's eastern European migrants". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/jan/17/eastern-european-uk-migrants. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
- ^ Hopkirk, Elizabeth (20 October 2008). "Packing up for home: Poles hit by UK's economic downturn". London Evening Standard. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23575019-details/Packing+up+for+home:+Poles+hit+by+UK's+economic+downturn/article.do.
- ^ "Migrants to UK 'returning home'". BBC News. 8 September 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8243225.stm. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ "UK sees shift in migration trend". BBC News. 27 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/10174019.stm. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
- ^ "Fresh Talent: Working in Scotland". London: UK Border Agency. http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/workingintheuk/tier1/freshtalent/. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
- ^ Boxell, James (28 June 2010). "Tories begin consultation on cap for migrants". Financial Times (London). http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9ab202a4-8299-11df-85ba-00144feabdc0.html. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ "Vince Cable: Migrant cap is hurting economy". The Guardian. Press Association (London). 17 September 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/sep/17/vince-cable-migrant-cap-economy. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ "Local Authorities". Department for Children, Schools and Families. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081230030407/http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/localauthorities/index.cfm. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
- ^ Gordon, J.C.B. (1981). Verbal Deficit: A Critique. London: Croom Helm. p. 44 note 18. ISBN 978-0-85664-990-5.
- ^ Section 8 ('Duty of local education authorities to secure provision of primary and secondary schools'), Sections 35–40 ('Compulsory attendance at Primary and Secondary Schools') and Section 61 ('Prohibition of fees in schools maintained by local education authorities ...'), Education Act 1944.
- ^ MacLeod, Donald (9 November 2007). "Private school pupil numbers in decline". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2007/nov/09/schools.uk. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
- ^ "More state pupils in universities". BBC News. 19 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6905288.stm.
- ^ "QS World University Rankings Results 2010". Quacquarelli Symonds. http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2010/results. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- ^ "England's pupils in global top 10". BBC News. 10 December 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7773081.stm.
- ^ Davenport, F.; Beech, C.; Downs, T.; Hannigan, D. (2006). Ireland. Lonely Planet, 7th edn. ISBN 1-74059-968-3. p. 564.
- ^ About SQA Scottish Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 7 October 2008.
- ^ About Learning and Teaching Scotland. Learning and Teaching Scotland. Retrieved 7 October 2008.
- ^ Brain drain in reverse. Scotland Online Gateway. Retrieved 7 October 2008.
- ^ "Increase in private school intake". BBC News. 17 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6563167.stm.
- ^ "MSPs vote to scrap endowment fee". BBC News. 28 February 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7268101.stm.
- ^ About Us – What we do. Council for the Curriculum Examinations & Assessment. Retrieved 7 October 2008.
- ^ What will your child learn? The Welsh Assembly Government. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
- ^ Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds. (2000). The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance. Geneva: World Health Organisation. ISBN 92-4-156198-X. http://www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ World Health Organization. Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries. New York University. http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~wgreene/Statistics/WHO-COMP-Study-30.pdf. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "'Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS". BBC News. 28 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7586147.stm.
- ^ Triggle, Nick (2 January 2008). "NHS now four different systems". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7149423.stm.
- ^ Fisher, Peter. "The NHS from Thatcher to Blair". NHS Consultants Association (International Association of Health Policy). http://www.healthp.org/node/71. "The Budget ... was even more generous to the NHS than had been expected amounting to an annual rise of 7.4% above the rate of inflation for the next 5 years. This would take us to 9.4% of GDP spent on health ie around EU average."
- ^ "OECD Health Data 2009 – How Does the United Kingdom Compare". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
- ^ "The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad". Journal of the British Politics Society, Norway. Volume 6. No. 1. Winter 2011
- ^ Sheridan, Greg (15 May 2010). "Cameron has chance to make UK great again". The Australian (Sydney). http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
- ^ Goldfarb, Jeffrey (10 May 2006). "Bookish Britain overtakes America as top publisher". RedOrbit. Reuters (Texas). http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20080106093222/http://www.redorbit.com/news/entertainment/499053/bookish_britain_overtakes_america_as_top_publisher/.
- ^ "William Shakespeare (English author)". Britannica Online encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/537853/William-Shakespeare. Retrieved 26 February 2006.
- ^ "MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare". MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare. Archived from the original on 9 February 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060209154055/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html. Retrieved 26 February 2006.
- ^ "William Shakespeare". William Shakespeare. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Shakespeare%2c+William. Retrieved 26 February 2006.
- ^ "Mystery of Christie's success is solved". Daily Telegraph (London). 19 December 2005. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ Edinburgh, UK appointed first UNESCO City of Literature UNESCO. Retrieved 20 August 2008.
- ^ "Early Welsh poetry". BBC Wales. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/language_poetry.shtml. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ Lang, Andrew (2003) [1913]. History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne. Holicong, PA: Wildside Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8095-3229-2. http://books.google.com/?id=dKJiPyyTevgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=History+of+English+literature+from+Beowulf+to+Swinburne#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ "Dafydd ap Gwilym". Academi website. Academi. 2011. http://www.academi.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng/. Retrieved 3 January 2011. "Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages."
- ^ True birthplace of Wales's literary hero. BBC News. Retrieved 28 April 2012
- ^ Kate Roberts: Biography. BBC Wales. Retrieved 28 April 2012
- ^ Swift, Jonathan; Fox, Christopher (1995). Gulliver's travels: complete, authoritative text with biographical and historical contexts, critical history, and essays from five contemporary critical perspectives. Basingstoke: Macmillan. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-333-63438-7. http://books.google.com/?id=m0CUOYfTdrkC&pg=PA10&dq=jonathan+swift+move+to+england#v=onepage&q=jonathan%20swift%20move%20to%20england&f=false. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ "Bram Stoker." (PDF). The New York Times. 23 April 1912. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F10C12F9395517738DDDAA0A94DC405B828DF1D3. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ a b "1960–1969". EMI Group Ltd. http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/. Retrieved 31 May 2008.
- ^ a b "Paul At Fifty". TIME (New York). 8 June 1992. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html.
- ^ a b Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p.230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel". UK Parliament. 20 July 2009. http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ Andrews, John (14 April 2006). "Handel all'inglese". Playbill (New York). http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ Citron, Stephen (2001). Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: The new musical. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-1-85619-273-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=AWaZ1LAFAZEC. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ "Beatles a big hit with downloads". Belfast Telegraph. 25 November 2010. http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/beatles-a-big-hit-with-downloads-15013117.html. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2" (Press release). EMI. 2 February 2009. http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar®-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe/.
- ^ Khan, Urmee (17 July 2008). "Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html.
- ^ Alleyne, Richard (19 April 2008). "Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
- ^ Fresco, Adam (11 July 2006). "Pink Floyd founder Syd Barrett dies at home". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-2265034,00.html. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
- ^ Holton, Kate (17 January 2008). "Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSL1767761020080117. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ Walker, Tim (12 May 2008). "Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 February 2012
- ^ Lewis Corner (16 February 2012). "Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011". Digital Spy. http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a366130/adele-coldplay-biggest-selling-uk-artists-worldwide-in-2011.html. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
- ^ Hughes, Mark (14 January 2008). "A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
- ^ "Glasgow gets city of music honour". BBC News. 20 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/7570915.stm. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
- ^ Bayley, Stephen (24 April 2010). "The startling success of Tate Modern". The Times (London). http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ "The Directors' Top Ten Directors". British Film Institute. http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
- ^ "Chaplin, Charles (1889–1977)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462570/index.html. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Powell, Michael (1905–1990)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/447167/index.html. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Reed, Carol (1906–1976)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/459891/index.html. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Scott, Sir Ridley (1937–)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462413/index.html. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Andrews, Julie (1935–)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/446530/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Burton, Richard (1925–1984)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/472165/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Caine, Michael (1933–)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/463342/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Chaplin, Charles (1889–1977)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462570/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Connery, Sean (1930–)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/455509/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Leigh, Vivien (1913–1967)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/488753/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Niven, David (1910–1983)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/458293/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Olivier, Laurence (1907–1989)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/450224/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Sellers, Peter (1925–1980)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/461941/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Winslet, Kate (1975–)". British Film Institute. http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/489012/index.html. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise". The Guardian (London). 11 September 2007. http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2007/sep/11/jkjoannekathleenrowling. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
- ^ "History of Ealing Studios". Ealing Studios. http://www.ealingstudios.com/EalingStudios/history_home.html. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "Barry Ronge's Classic DVD: Alice in Wonderland". Sunday Times (Johannesburg). http://www.timeslive.co.za/sundaytimes/article600292.ece/Barry-Ronges-Classic-DVD---Alice-in-Wonderland. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ a b "UK film – the vital statistics". UK Film Council. http://www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/vitalstats. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
- ^ "The BFI 100". British Film Institute. 6 September 2006. http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/bfi100/1-10.html.
- ^ "Baftas fuel Oscars race". BBC News. 26 February 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1190562.stm. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
- ^ Newswire7 (13 August 2009). "BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand". Media Newsline. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVS8t2sR.
- ^ "TV Licence Fee: facts & figures". BBC Press Office. April 2010. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVSwSITq.
- ^ "Publications & Policies: The History of ITV". ITV. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVTPxDEI.
- ^ "Publishing". News Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVXpU10Z.
- ^ "Direct Broadcast Satellite Television". News Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVY0iZ5c.
- ^ William, D. (2010). UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. ISBN 978-9987-16-021-1, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145.
- ^ "Publishing". Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVhIk6SY.
- ^ Ofcom "Communication Market Report 2010", 19 August 2010, pp. 97, 164 and 191, retrieved 17 June 2011.
- ^ "Social Trends: Lifestyles and social participation". Office for National Statistics. 16 February 2010. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVhuudFT.
- ^ "Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users". Internet World Stats. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5zVi9vpVQ.
- ^ Fieser, James, ed. (2000). A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins. Bristol: Thoemmes Press. http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
- ^ Palmer, Michael (1999). Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7188-2978-0. http://books.google.com/?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66&dq=jeremy+bentham+utilitarianism#v=onepage&q=jeremy%20bentham%20utilitarianism&f=false. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Scarre, Geoffrey (1995). Utilitarianism. London: Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-12197-2. http://books.google.com/?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82&dq=john+stuart+mill+biography+utilitarianism#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Gysin, Christian (9 March 2007). "Wembley kick-off: Stadium is ready and England play first game in fortnight". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-441182/Wembley-kick-Stadium-ready-England-play-game-fortnight.html. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
- ^ Britain's Most Popular Sports – MORI Sports Tracker Ipsos MORI. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ "Why is there no GB Olympics football team?". BBC Sport. 5 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/football/7529807.stm. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
- ^ "Blatter against British 2012 team". BBC News. 9 March 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/football/7286011.stm. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
- ^ About ECB England and Wales Cricket Board. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
- ^ McLaughlin, Martyn (4 August 2009). "Howzat happen? England fields a Gaelic-speaking Scotsman in Ashes". The Scotsman (Edinburgh). http://news.scotsman.com/scotland/Howzat-happen-England-fields-.5519537.jp. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Uncapped Joyce wins Ashes call up". BBC Sport. 15 November 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/england/6149210.stm. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Glamorgan". BBC South East Wales. August 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/history/pages/counties_glamorgan.shtml. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Ardener, Shirley (2007). Professional identities: policy and practice in business and bureaucracy. New York: Berghahn. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-84545-054-0. http://books.google.com/?id=7rY2tVBypH0C&pg=PA27&dq=rugby+league+started+in+huddersfield#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ "Official Website of Rugby League World Cup 2008". http://www.rlwc08.com/.
- ^ Louw, Jaco; Nesbit, Derrick (2008). The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby. Johannesburg: South Publishers. ISBN 978-0-620-39541-0. http://books.google.com/?id=0-IiowvNomMC&pg=PA95&dq=rugby+union+six+nations+tournament#v=onepage. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
- ^ "Triple Crown". RBS 6 Nations. http://www.rbs6nations.com/en/championship-information_trophies_triple-crown.php. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "Lawn Tennis and Major T.Gem". The Birmingham Civic Society. http://www.birminghamcivicsociety.org.uk/lawntennis.htm. Retrieved 31 December 2010. [dead link]
- ^ Chowdhury, Saj (22 January 2007). "China in Ding's hands". BBC Sport. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/6288739.stm. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
- ^ Gould, Joe (10 April 2007). "The ancient Irish sport of hurling catches on in America". Columbia News Service (Columbia Journalism School). http://jscms.jrn.columbia.edu/cns/2007-04-10/gould-hurling.html. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
- ^ Shinty. Scottish Sport. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ "Tracking the Field". Ipsos MORI. Archived from the original on 5 February 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090205004856/http://www.ipsospublicaffairs.co.uk/_assets/newsletters/tracking-the-field.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "Links plays into the record books". BBC News. 17 March 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/7949045.stm.
- ^ "Wales Rally GB, Rally Guide 1". walesrallygb.com. http://www.walesrallygb.com/documents/Rally_Guide_1.pdf. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
- ^ "Welsh dragon call for Union flag". BBC News. 27 November 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7114248.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "Britannia on British Coins". Chard. http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
- ^ Baker, Steve (2001). Picturing the Beast. University of Illinois Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-252-07030-5.
- Government
- General information
- Travel
 Geographic locale |
|
|
|
|
|
International organisations
|
|
|
|
|
| Permanent members |
|
|
|
| Term ends 31 December 2012 |
|
|
| Term ends 31 December 2013 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| By continent |
|
|
| By country |
|
|
| By type |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Click on a coloured region to get related article:
|
|
| |
- Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority.
|
|
| Africa |
|
|
| Americas |
|
|
| Europe |
|
|
| Oceania |
|
|
|
| |
- Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority language.
|
|
| Africa |
|
|
| Americas |
|
|
| Asia |
|
|
| Europe |
|
|
| Oceania |
|
|
|
|
lez:ЧӀехибританияvep:Sur' Britanii
97*
91*
.jpg)
Geographic data related to 
.svg)
