An illustration from Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, depicting the fictional protagonist, Alice, playing a fantastical game of croquet.

Fiction is the form of any narrative or informative work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary—that is, invented by the author. Although fiction describes a major branch of literary work, it may also refer to theatrical, cinematic or musical work. Fiction contrasts with non-fiction, which deals exclusively with factual (or, at least, assumed factual) events, descriptions, observations, etc. (e.g., biographies, histories).

Types of fiction[link]

Realistic fiction[link]

Realistic fiction, although untrue, could actually happen. Some events, people, and places may even be real. This is termed "faction".

It can be possible that in the future imagined events could physically happen. For example, Jules Verne's novel From The Earth To The Moon, which at that time was just a product of his rich imagination, was proven possible in 1969, when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the Moon, and the team returned safely to Earth.

Realistic fiction strives to make the reader feel as if they're reading something that is actually happening—something that though not real, is described in a believable way that helps the reader make a picture as if it were an actual event. This can also confuse the reader into making the reader thinking it's non-fiction.

Non-realistic fiction[link]

Non-realistic fiction is that in which the story's events could not happen in real life, because they are supernatural, or involve an alternate form of history of mankind other than that recorded, or need impossible technology. A good deal of fiction books are like this, e.g. Alice In Wonderland, Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings.

However, even fantastic literature is bidimensional: it is situated between the poles of realism and the marvelous or mythic. Geographical details, character descriptions etc. create a rhetoric of realism, which “invites the reader to ignore the text's artifice, to suspend one's disbelief, exercise poetic faith and thereby indulge in the narrative's imaginative world.” The bidimensionality appears within the story as astonishment or frightening. According to G.W. Young and G. Wolfe, fictional realities outside the text are evoked, and the reader's previous conceptions of reality are exposed as incomplete. Hence, “by fiction is one able to gain even fuller constructs of what constitutes reality”. On the other hand, the infinite fictional possibilities signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality. There is no criterion to measure constructs of reality − in the last resort they are “entirely fictional”.^[1]

Semi-Fiction[link]

Semi-Fiction is fiction implementing a great deal of non-fiction,^[2] for example: a fictional depiction "based on a true story", or a fictionalized account, or a reconstructed biography.

Often, even when the author claims the story is true, there may be significant additions and subtractions from the true story to make it more suitable for storytelling.

Elements of fiction[link]

Even among writing instructors and bestselling authors, there is little consensus regarding the number and composition of the fundamental elements of fiction. For example:

• "Fiction has three main elements: plotting, character, and place or setting." (Morrell 2006, p. 151)
• "A charged image evokes all the other elements of your story—theme, character, conflict, setting, style, and so on." (Writer's Digest Handbook of Novel Writing 1992, p. 160)
• "For writers, the spices you add to make your plot your own include characters, setting, and dialogue." (Bell 2004, p. 16)
• "Contained within the framework of a story are the major story elements: characters, action, and conflict." (Evanovich 2006, p. 83)
• " . . . I think point of view is one of the most fundamental elements of the fiction-writing craft . . . ." (Selgin 2007, p. 41)

As stated by Janet Evanovich, "Effective writing requires an understanding of the fundamental elements of storytelling, such as point of view, dialogue, and setting." (Evanovich 2006, p. 39) The debate continues as to the number and composition of the fundamental elements of fiction.^{[citation needed]}

Plot[link]

Plot, is what the character(s) did, said, and thought. It is the Action Proper given unity by the Enveloping Action, the Universal Action, the Archetypal Action. As Aristotle said, What gives a story unity is not as the masses believe that it is about one person but that it is about one action. Plot, or storyline, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It is the rendering and ordering of the events and actions of a story. On a micro level, plot consists of action and reaction, also referred to as stimulus and response. On a macro level, plot has a beginning, a middle, and an ending. Plot is often depicted as an arc with a zig-zag line to represent the rise and fall of action. Plot also has a mid-level structure: scene and summary. A scene is a unit of drama–where the action occurs. Then, after a transition of some sort, comes the summary–an emotional reaction and regrouping, an aftermath. For a delightful tongue-in-cheek comment on plot, see Katherine Anne Porter's "No Plot, My Dear, No Story" in The Occasional Writings and Collected Essays of Katherine Anne Porter, Seymour Lawrence, 1970.

[edit] Exposition

Exposition refers to a fiction story's initial setup, where, variably, setting is established, characters are introduced, and conflict is initiated. For example:

It was a dark and stormy night. The young widow glared at the shadowy man dripping on her kitchen floor. "I told you my husband's not home," she said.

He smiled a rictus smile and shut the door behind him. "Tell me something I don't know."

[edit] Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a technique used by authors to provide clues so the reader can predict what might occur later in the story. An author drops subtle hints about plot developments to come later in the story. It prepares the reader for later action and subsequent images so that the reader or spectator is not jarred and verisimilitude is maintained even in science fiction, fantasy, magical realism, and other genres that might otherwise test credulity. If such preparation is recognized as such by the reader or spectator, it may be ineffective and artificial.

[edit] Rising action

The Rising action, in the narrative of a work of fiction, follows the exposition and leads up to the climax. The rising action's purpose is usually to build suspense all the way up the climactic finish. The rising action should not be confused with the middle of the story, but is the action right before the climax. The material beyond the climax is known as the falling action.

[edit] Climax

In a work of fiction, the climax often resembles that of the classical comedy, occurring near the end of the text or performance, after the rising action and before the falling action. It is the moment of greatest danger for the protagonist(s) and usually consists of a seemingly inevitable prospect of failure–it surprises you to the point that gets you excited to see what is to come in the end.

A climax often includes three elements. The most important element is that the protagonist experiences a change. The main character discovers something about himself or herself, and another unknown character. The last element is revealing the theme itself.

[edit] Falling action

The Falling action is the part of a story, usually found in tragedies and short stories, following the climax and showing the effects of the climax. It leads up to the denouement (or catastrophe).^[3] Where the story is settling down and you start to get the climax and where it might be resolved.

[edit] Resolution

Resolution occurs after the climax, where the conflict is resolved. It may contain a moment of final suspense, during which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.

[edit] Conflict

Conflict is a necessary element of fictional literature. As Brooks and Warren said in Understanding Fiction and as many others have noted, no conflict, no story. Often it is difficult for readers to discern conflict in sophisticated fiction but its locus is always focused on the protagonist. In order for the story to engage the reader or spectator, the conflict can usually be discerned as immediate, urgent, and insoluble. Furthermore, the conflict that is one between good and evil depends upon whether the reader or spectator prefers good or evil and is thus a slight story at best. It is defined as the problem in any piece of literature and is often classified according to the nature of the protagonist or antagonist, as follows:

Types of conflict[link]

There are five basic types of conflict. In ancient cultures Person vs. Fate often constitute the conflict of the story; however, so many people today believe they are in charge of their own destiny that few stories of this ilk can be found. In modern times, Person vs. Machine, also known as Person vs. Technology, has become another one.^[4]

Person vs. self[link]

Person vs. Self is the theme in literature that places a character against their own will, confusion, or fears. Person vs. Self can also be where a character tries to find out who they are or comes to a realization or a change in character. Although the struggle is internal, the character can be influenced by external forces. The struggle of the human being to come to a decision is the basis of Person vs. Self. Examples include the titular character of Beowulf. More recently, the Academy Award winning movie A Beautiful Mind has been posited as an application of Person vs. Self. Faulkner in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech noted that the great stories are those of the human heart in conflict with itself. With that in mind the other conflicts enumerated here can fade into the background as part of the setting rather than the conflict-in-itself of any given story. A simple, ready example may be Jack London's "To Build a Fire" wherein we can see that the conflict is not Man vs. Nature but Man vs. His Own Nature.

Person vs. person[link]

Person vs. Person is a theme in literature in which the main character's conflict with another person is the focus of the story. An example is the hero's conflicts with the central villain of a work, which may play a large role in the plot and contribute to the development of both characters. There are usually several confrontations before the climax is reached. The conflict is external. An example is the conflict between Judah and Messala in Ben-Hur, as would be the conflict between a bully and his victim.

Person vs. society[link]

Person vs. Society is a theme in fiction in which a main character's, or group of main characters', main source of conflict is social traditions or concepts. In this sense, the two parties are: a) the protagonist(s); b) the society of which the protagonist(s) are included. Society itself is often looked at as a single character, just as an opposing party would be looked at in a Person vs. Person conflict. This can also be one protagonist against a group or society of antagonists or society led by some antagonistic force. Examples in literature would include the short story "The Ones that Walk away from Omelas" by Ursula Le Guin or the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.

Person vs. nature[link]

Person vs. Nature is the theme in literature that places a character against forces of nature. Many disaster films focus on this theme, which is predominant within many survival stories. It is also strong in stories about struggling for survival in remote locales, such as Gary Paulson's Hatchet or Jack London's short story "To Build a Fire".

Person vs. supernatural[link]

Person vs. Supernatural is a theme in literature that places a character against supernatural forces. When an entity is in conflict with him-, her-, or itself, the conflict is categorized as internal, otherwise, it is external. Such stories are often seen in Freudian Criticism as representations of id vs. superego. Bram Stoker's Dracula is a good example of this, as well as Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and Christabel by Samuel Coleridge. It is also very common in comic books.

Person vs. machine/technology[link]

Person vs. Machine/Technology places a character against robot forces with "artificial intelligence". I, Robot (the film) and the Terminator series are good examples of this conflict.

Character[link]

Characterization is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. A character is a participant in the story, and is usually a person, but may be any personal identity, or entity whose existence originates from a fictional work or performance.

Characters may be of several types:

• Point-of-view character: The character from whose perspective (theme) the audience experiences the story. This is the character that represents the point of view the audience empathizes, or at the very least, sympathies with. Therefore this is the "Main" Character.
• Protagonist: The driver of the action of the story and therefore responsible for achieving the story's Objective Story Goal (the surface journey). In western storytelling tradition the Protagonist is usually the main character.
• Static character: A character who does not significantly change during the course of a story.
• Dynamic character: A character who undergoes character development during the course of a story.
• Foil: The character that contrasts to the protagonist in a way that illuminates their personality or characteristic.
• Supporting character: A character that plays a part in the plot, but is not major
• Minor character: A character in a bit/cameo part.

Methods of developing characters[link]

• Appearance explains or describes the character's outward appearance so the readers can picture them, and identify them relative to other characters.
• Dialogue is what characters say and how they say it.
• Action is what characters do and how they do it.
• Reaction of others is how other characters see and treat a main character.

[edit] Symbolism

Symbolism is the applied use of symbols: iconic representations that carry particular conventional meanings.

The term "symbolism" is limited to use in contrast to "representationalism"; defining the general directions of a linear spectrum – where in all symbolic concepts can be viewed in relation, and where changes in context may imply systemic changes to individual and collective definitions of symbols. "Symbolism" may refer to a way of choosing representative symbols in line with abstract rather than literal properties, allowing for the broader interpretation of a carried meaning than more literal concept-representations allow. A religion can be described as a language of concepts related to human spirituality. Symbolism hence is an important aspect of most religions.

The interpretation of abstract symbols has had an important role in religion and psychoanalysis. As envisioned by Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, symbols are not the creations of mind, but rather are distinct capacities within the mind to hold a distinct piece of information. In the mind, the symbol can find free association with any number of other symbols, can be organized in any number of ways, and can hold the connected meanings between symbols as symbols in themselves. Jung and Freud diverged on the issue of common cognitive symbol systems and whether they could exist only within the individual mind or among other minds; whether any cognitive symbolism was defined by innate symbolism or by the influence of the environment around them.

[edit] Metaphor

Metaphor (from the Greek language: Meaning "transfer") is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects. It is a figure of speech that compares two or more things not using like or as. In the simplest case, this takes the form: "The [first subject] is a [second subject]." More generally, a metaphor is a rhetorical trope that describes a first subject as being or equal to a second object in some way. Thus, the first subject can be economically described because implicit and explicit attributes from the second subject are used to enhance the description of the first. This device is known for usage in literature, especially in poetry, where with few words, emotions and associations from one context are associated with objects and entities in a different context. A simpler definition is the comparison of two unrelated things without using the words "like" or "as".

The term derives from Greek μεταφορά (metaphora), or "transference",^[5] from μεταφέρω (metaphero) "to carry over, to transfer"^[6] and that from μετά (meta), "between"^[7] + φέρω (phero), "to bear, to carry".^[8]

Types of plots[link]

[edit] Chronological order

All of the events occur in the text in the order they happen. There may be references to events from the past or future, however the events are written in time order. There are no flashbacks or flash-forwards.

[edit] Flashback

In history, film, television and other media, a flashback (also called analepsis) is an interjected scene that takes the narrative back in time from the current point the story has reached. Flashbacks are often used to recount events that happened prior to the story's primary sequence of events or to fill in crucial backstory. Character origin flashbacks specifically refers to flashbacks dealing with key events early in a character's development (Clark Kent discovering he could fly, for example, or the Elric brothers' attempt to bring back their mother). The television show Lost is particularly well known for extensive use of flashbacks in almost every episode. In the opposite direction, a flashforward (or prolepsis) reveals events that occur in the future. The technique is used to create suspense in a story, or develop a character. In literature, internal analepsis is a flashback to an earlier point in the narrative; external analepsis is a flashback to before the narrative started.

[edit] Setting

Setting, the location and time of a story, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. Sometimes setting is referred to as milieu, to include a context (such as society) beyond the immediate surroundings of the story. In some cases, setting becomes a character itself and can set the tone of a story. (Rozelle 2005, p. 2)

[edit] Theme

Theme, a conceptual distillation of the story, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It is the central idea or insight serving as a unifying element, creating cohesion and is an answer to the question, 'What did you learn from the piece of fiction?' In some cases a story's theme is a prominent element and somewhat unmistakable. (Morrell 2006, p. 263)

[edit] Style

Style is not so much what is written, but how it is written and interpreted. Style in fiction refers to language conventions used to construct the story or article. A fiction writer may manipulate diction, sentence structure, phrasing, dialogue, and other aspects of language to create style or mood. The communicative effect created by the author's style is sometimes referred to as the story's voice. Every writer has his or her own unique style, or voice (Provost 1988, p. 8). Style is sometimes listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction.

Writer Philip Roth defined the "sensuous aspects of fiction" as "tone, mood, voice, and, among other things, the juxtaposition of the narrative events themselves".^[9]

Categories[link]

Types of prose fiction:

• Flash fiction: A work of fewer than 2,000 words. (1,000 by some definitions) (around 5 pages)
• Short story: A work of at least 2,000 words but under 7,500 words. (5–25 pages)
• Novelette: A work of at least 7,500 words but under 17,500 words. (25–60 pages)
• Novella: A work of at least 17,500 words but under 50,000 words. (60–170 pages)
• Novel: A work of 50,000 words or more. (about 170+ pages)
• Epic: A work of 200,000 words or more. (about 680+ pages)^{[n 1][n 2]}

Forms of fiction[link]

Traditionally, fiction includes novels, short stories, fables, fairy tales, plays, poetry, but it now also encompasses films, comic books, and video games.

The Internet has had a major impact on the distribution of fiction, calling into question the feasibility of copyright as a means to ensure royalties are paid to copyright holders. Also, digital libraries such as Project Gutenberg make public domain texts more readily available. The combination of inexpensive home computers, the Internet and the creativity of its users has also led to new forms of fiction, such as interactive computer games or computer-generated comics. Countless forums for fan fiction can be found online, where loyal followers of specific fictional realms create and distribute derivative stories. The Internet is also used for the development of blog fiction, where a story is delivered through a blog either as flash fiction or serialblog, and collaborative fiction, where a story is written sequentially by different authors, or the entire text can be revised by anyone using a wiki.

Uses of fiction[link]

Although fiction may be viewed as a form of entertainment, it has other uses. Fiction has been used for instructional purposes, such as fictional examples used in school textbooks. It may be used in propaganda and advertising. Although they are not necessarily targeted at children, fables offer an explicit moral goal.

A whole branch of literature crossing entertainment and science speculation is science fiction. A less common similar cross is the philosophical fiction hybridizing fiction and philosophy, thereby often crossing the border towards propaganda fiction. These kinds of fictions constitute thought experiments exploring consequences of certain technologies or philosophies.

See also[link]

Main list: Outline of fiction

• Fictional character
• Fiction writing
  • Fan fiction
  • Mary Sue
• Pseudohistory
• Writing style
• Non-fiction
• Paranoid fiction
• History of fiction
• Creative nonfiction

Notes[link]

Footnotes[link]

Citations[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Fiction on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	Quotations from Wikiquote

This article relies on references to primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject, rather than references from independent authors and third-party publications. Please add citations from reliable sources. (April 2012)

Elizabeth F. Loftus
Elizabeth Loftus in 2011
Born	1944
Residence	California
Citizenship	United States
Nationality	United States
Fields	Psychology
Institutions	University of California, Irvine;
Alma mater	Stanford University
Known for	Studies of human memory
Notable awards	Grawemeyer Award (2005) National Academy of Sciences (2004) Royal Society of Edinburgh (2005)

Elizabeth F. Loftus (born 1944)^[1] is an American psychologist and expert on human memory. She has conducted extensive research on the misinformation effect and the nature of false memories.^[2][3] Loftus has been recognized throughout the world for her work, receiving numerous awards and honorary degrees. In 2002, Loftus was 58th in a list of the 100 most influential researchers in psychology in the 20th century, and the highest ranked woman on the list.^[4]

Biography[link]

Education[link]

Loftus received her bachelor's degree in mathematics and psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1966 and her MA (1967) and Ph.D (1970) in psychology from Stanford University.^[5]

Career[link]

Loftus is a Distinguished Professor in the Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, the Department of Criminology, Law, and Society, and the Department of Cognitive Sciences, a Fellow of The Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory at the University of California, Irvine, and a Fellow of the Committee of Skeptical Inquiry's CSICOP Executive Council. She is also a Professor of Law.^[6][7][8][9]

One of her studies is the reconstruction of automobile destruction study, which is an example of the misinformation effect. She also developed the lost in the mall technique as a method of testing her hypothesis that false memories can be clinically created. Her pilot study of the lost in the mall technique has been criticized for the ethics used in acquiring subjects^[10] and for being used to draw inappropriate conclusions about false memories and therapeutic techniques.^[10][11] Loftus published a rebuttal to these criticisms by pointing out the variety of errors, exaggerations and omissions regarding the research that may represent a deliberate attempt to distort her work, and stated that the criticisms appeared to be based on personal animosity rather than a valid understanding of the research. Loftus also pointed out that the study design and findings had been replicated repeatedly, demonstrating the soundness of the conclusions. Regarding the ethics of the creation of the study, Loftus stated that it was primarily a colleague who "piloted" the study with his daughter, and later revisited the idea as part of an undergraduate class she was teaching, and emphasized that participants demonstrated no adverse effects upon follow-up.^[12]

Loftus has also been involved in the trials of Ted Bundy, O. J. Simpson, the Hillside Stranglers, and the McMartin preschool trial workers.^[13] Loftus is a member of the Scientific and Professional Advisory Board of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation.^[14]

Testimony in Scooter Libby trial[link]

On October 26, 2006, Loftus was called as the first defense witness in a pretrial hearing in the federal perjury case against Presidential aide Lewis Libby.^[15]

Harassment related to research[link]

After criticizing the theory of recovered memory and testifying about the nature of memory and false allegations of child sexual abuse as part of the day care sex abuse hysteria, Loftus was subject to on-line harassment by Diana Napolis. A conspiracy theorist, Napolis believed Loftus was engaged in satanic ritual abuse or assisted in covering up these crimes as part of a larger conspiracy.^[16] After addressing a scientific conference in New Zealand, Loftus was accosted by a group of protesters who alleged she had abused children, in part basing their accusations on Napolis' web postings.

Jane Doe case[link]

Loftus and the University of Washington were sued in 2003 by Nicole Taus regarding a 2002 publication^[17] which questioned the use of Taus as a case study^[18] regarding the accuracy of repressed and recovered memories. The suit involved allegations of invasion of privacy and other torts, and resulted in twenty of the twenty-one counts against Loftus being dismissed as a "strategic lawsuit against public participation". In February, 2007, the Supreme Court of California dismissed all counts but Taus's claim that Loftus misrepresented herself as Corwin's supervisor in interviewing Taus's foster mother.^[19] The case was settled in August, 2007 when Loftus' insurance company agreed to a nuisance settlement of $7,500 rather than cover the cost of a trial, and both paid their own legal costs. In November, 2007 Taus was required to pay $246,000 to others she had sued.^[20][21]

Loftus published her own analysis of the case in 2009.^[22]

Other appearances[link]

Loftus attended and was a speaker at the Beyond Belief symposium on November 2006.^[23] She was a keynote speaker at The British Psychological Society Annual Conference in 2011, held in Glasgow on May 4–6.^[24]

Honors and awards[link]

A study published by the Review of General Psychology identifying the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century ranked Loftus 58th on the list, and she was the top ranked woman.^[4] Loftus has been the president of the Association for Psychological Science, the Western Psychological Association, and the American Psychology-Law Society. Loftus was the 2005 recipient of the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Psychology. In February 2011, Elizabeth Loftus received the 2010 AAAS Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award.^[25]

On February 19, 2011 Committee For Skeptical Inquiry CSICOP fellow Elizabeth Loftus was awarded the American Association for the Advancement of Science Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award. In her acceptance speech Loftus states that the word “freedom” is personally important to her, as when she began speaking out about repressed memory, she never imagined she would become “the target of organized, relentless vitriol and harassment”. Loftus feels that today's world is for science is a perilous one. If scientists want to preserve their freedoms they need to speak out “against even the most cherished beliefs that reflect unsubstantiated myths”.^[26]

Honorary doctorates[link]

Loftus has also received a total of six honorary degrees in a variety of fields.^[29]

Publications[link]

Loftus has written or contributed to numerous publications, including books and some notable journal articles.

Journal articles[link]

• Loftus, E.F (January 1991). "The glitter of everyday memory...and the gold". American Psychologist 46 (1): 16–18. DOI:10.1037/0003-066X.46.1.16. PMID 1996855 

Books[link]

Learning. Mednick, S.A., Pollio, R. H. & Loftus, E.F. (1973). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Japanese edition: Iwanami Shoten Publishers, Tokyo.

Human Memory: The Processing of Information. Loftus, G.R. & Loftus, E.F. (1976) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. Japanese edition: University of Tokyo Press.

Cognitive Processes. Bourne, L.E., Dominowski, R. L., & Loftus, E.F. (1979). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Eyewitness Testimony. Loftus, E.F. (1979). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.(National Media Award, Distinguished Contribution, 1980). (Reissued with new Preface in 1996). Japanese edition: Seishin Shobo, Tokyo.

Memory. Loftus, E.F. (1980). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. (Reprinted by NY: Ardsley Press 1988). Swedish edition: Liber Forlag, Stockholm. Hebrew edition: Or Am, Tel-Aviv. French edition: Le Jour, Editeur. Spanish edition: Compania Editorial Continental. Danish edition: Hernon Publishers.

Psychology. Wortman, C.B. & Loftus, E.F. (1981). New York: Random House (Knopf).

Essence of Statistics. Loftus, G.R. & Loftus, E.F. (1982). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Psychology Today Bootzin, R., Loftus, E., & Zajonc, R. (1983). (5th ed.). NY: Random House.

Mind at Play. Loftus, G.R. & Loftus, E.F. (1983). New York: Basic Books. Japanese edition: Companion Shuppan Ltd.

Eyewitness Testimony—Psychological perspectives. Wells, G. & Loftus, E.F. (Eds.) (1984). NY: Cambridge University Press.

Psychology (2nd ed.) Wortman, C.B. & Loftus, E.F. (1985). NY: Random House (Knopf).

Cognitive Processes. Bourne, L.E., Dominowski, R.L., Loftus, E.F., & Healy, A. (1986). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Eyewitness Testimony: Civil and Criminal. Loftus, E.F. & Doyle, J. (1987). NY: Kluwer.

Statistics. Loftus, G.R. & Loftus, E.F. (1988). New York: Random House.

Psychology (3rd ed.). Wortman, C.B. & Loftus, E.F. (1988). NY: Random House (Knopf).

Witness for the Defense; The Accused, the Eyewitness, and the Expert Who Puts Memory on Trial Loftus, E.F. & Ketcham, K. (1991) NY: St. Martin’s Press. Chinese Translation: Taiwan: Business Weekly Publications 1999..

Psychology (4th ed.) Wortman, C.B. & Loftus, E.F. (1992) NY: McGraw Hill.

Eyewitness Testimony - Civil and Criminal. Loftus, E.F. & Doyle, J.M. (1992) Charlottesville, VA: The Michie Co.

The Myth of Repressed Memory. Loftus, E.F. & Ketcham, K. (1994) NY: St. Martin’s Press. Dutch edition: Graven in het geheugen, Amsterdam/Antwerpen: Uitgeverji L.J. Veen (1995) German edition: Die Therapierte erinnerung. (translated by Ingrid Klein): Hamburg: Verlag GmbH. (1995). French edition: Le syndrome des faux souvenirs. Collection Regard Critique: Editions Exergue,(1997). Bastei Lubbe Publishing. Taiwanese Translation: Yuan Liou Publishing. Japanese edition: Seishin Shobo Publishers (2000). Korean edition: Dosol Publishing (2008)

Eyewitness testimony: Civil & Criminal, 3rd edition. Loftus, E.F. & Doyle, J.M. (1997) Charlottesville, Va: Lexis Law Publishing.

Psychology (5th edition). Wortman, C.B., Loftus, E.F., & Weaver, C. (1999) NY: McGraw Hill.

Eyewitness testimony: Civil & Criminal, 4th edition. Loftus, E.F., Doyle, J.M. & Dysert, J. (2008) Charlottesville, Va: Lexis Law Publishing. (482 pages)

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Hayne, H; Garry M (2006). Do justice and let the sky fall: Elizabeth F. Loftus and her contributions to science, law, and academic freedom. Routledge. ISBN 0-8058-5232-8. http://books.google.ie/books?id=lVxZDB1fyqoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 

External links[link]

• Works by or about Elizabeth Loftus in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Mind Changers: Elizabeth Loftus and Eye Witness Testimony: Loftus and colleagues interviewed on BBC Radio

Quentin Tarantino
Quentin Tarantino at the Berlin Film Festival in February 2009
Born	Quentin Jerome Tarantino (1963-03-27) March 27, 1963 (age 49) Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.
Occupation	Film director, producer, screenwriter, cinematographer, actor
Years active	1988–present
Notable work(s)	Pulp Fiction, Jackie Brown, Reservoir Dogs, Kill Bill, Inglourious Basterds
Influenced by	Sergio Leone, Brian De Palma, Howard Hawks, John Woo, Jim Jarmusch, Jean-Luc Godard, Elmore Leonard, Samuel Fuller, Steven Spielberg, Martin Scorsese, David Lynch, Sam Peckinpah, Jack Hill, Douglas Sirk, Jean-Pierre Melville, Enzo G. Castellari, Sergio Corbucci[1]

Quentin Jerome Tarantino^[2] (pronunciation: /ˌtærənˈtiːnoʊ/; born March 27, 1963) is an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer and actor. He has received many industry awards, including an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a BAFTA and the Palme d'Or and had been nominated for an Emmy and Grammy.

Born in Knoxville, Tennessee, Tarantino was an avid film fan. His career began in the late 1980's, when he wrote and directed My Best Friend's Birthday. Its screenplay would form the basis for True Romance. In the early 1990s, he began his career as an independent filmmaker with films employing nonlinear storylines and the aestheticization of violence. His films include Reservoir Dogs (1992), Pulp Fiction (1994), Jackie Brown (1997), Kill Bill (2003, 2004), Death Proof (2007), and Inglourious Basterds (2009).

His movies are generally characterized by stylistic influences from grindhouse, kung fu, and spaghetti western films. Tarantino also frequently collaborates with his friend and fellow filmmaker Robert Rodriguez.

Early life[link]

Tarantino was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, the son of Tony Tarantino, an actor and amateur musician who was born in Queens, New York, and Connie McHugh, a nurse.^[3] Tarantino's father is of Italian descent and his mother is of Irish and Cherokee ancestry.^[4][5][6] He was raised by his mother, as his parents separated before his birth.^[7] When he was two years old, he moved to Torrance, California and later to the Harbor City neighborhood where he went to Fleming Junior High School in Lomita and took drama classes.^[7] He attended Narbonne High School in Harbor City for his freshman year before dropping out of school at age 15, to attend an acting class full time at the James Best Theater Company in Toluca Lake.^[8] Quentin grew bored with the James Best Acting School and quit after two years, although he made a point of keeping in touch with all his acting friends. Then he landed a job which threatened to interfere with his long-term acting ambitions. ^[9]

As an employee of the Video Archives, a now-defunct video rental store in Manhattan Beach, he and fellow movie enthusiasts, including Roger Avary, discussed cinema and customer video recommendations at length. He paid close attention to the types of films people liked to rent and has cited that experience as inspiration for his directorial career.^[10] Tarantino has been quoted as saying, "When people ask me if I went to film school I tell them, 'no, I went to films.'"^[4]

Film career[link]

After Tarantino met Lawrence Bender at a Hollywood party, Bender encouraged him to write a screenplay. Tarantino directed and co-wrote a movie called My Best Friend's Birthday in 1987. The final reel of the film was almost fully destroyed in a lab fire that occurred during editing but its screenplay would form the basis for True Romance. In January 1992, Tarantino's Reservoir Dogs screened at the Sundance Film Festival and was an immediate hit. The film garnered critical acclaim. Reservoir Dogs was a dialogue-driven heist movie that set the tone for his later films. Tarantino wrote the script in three and a half weeks and Bender forwarded it to director Monte Hellman. Hellman helped Tarantino to secure funding from Richard Gladstein at Live Entertainment (which later became Artisan). Harvey Keitel read the script and also contributed to funding, taking a co-producer role, and a part in the movie.^[11]

Tarantino has had a number of collaborations with director Robert Rodriguez.

Tarantino's screenplay True Romance was optioned and eventually released in 1993. The second script that Tarantino sold was Natural Born Killers, which was revised by Dave Veloz, Richard Rutowski and director Oliver Stone. Tarantino was given story credit, and wished the film well.^[12] Following the success of Reservoir Dogs, Tarantino was approached by Hollywood and offered numerous projects, including Speed and Men in Black. He instead retreated to Amsterdam to work on his script for Pulp Fiction. After Pulp Fiction was completed, he then directed Episode Four of Four Rooms, "The Man from Hollywood", a tribute to the Alfred Hitchcock Presents episode that starred Steve McQueen. Four Rooms was a collaborative effort with filmmakers Allison Anders, Alexandre Rockwell, and Robert Rodriguez. The film was very poorly received by critics. He appeared in and wrote the script for Robert Rodriguez's From Dusk Till Dawn, which saw mixed reviews from the critics yet led to two sequels, for which Tarantino and Rodriguez would only serve as executive producers.

Tarantino's third feature film was Jackie Brown (1997), an adaptation of Rum Punch, a novel by Elmore Leonard. A homage to blaxploitation films, it starred Pam Grier, who starred in many of that genre's films of the 1970s. He had then planned to make the war film provisionally titled Inglourious Bastards, but postponed it to write and direct Kill Bill (released as two films, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2), a highly stylized "revenge flick" in the cinematic traditions of Wuxia (Chinese martial arts), Jidaigeki (Japanese period cinema), Spaghetti Westerns and Italian horror. It was based on a character (The Bride) and a plot that he and Kill Bill's lead actress, Uma Thurman, had developed during the making of Pulp Fiction. In 2004, Tarantino returned to Cannes, where he served as President of the Jury. Although Kill Bill was not in competition, Vol. 2 had an evening screening, while it was also shown on the morning of the final day in its original 3-hour-plus version with Quentin himself attending the full screening. Tarantino then went on to be credited as "Special Guest Director" in Robert Rodriguez's 2005 neo-noir film Sin City for his work directing the car sequence featuring Clive Owen and Benicio del Toro.

The next film project was Grindhouse, which he co-directed with Rodriguez. Released in theaters on April 6, 2007, Tarantino's contribution to the Grindhouse project was titled Death Proof. It began as a take on 1970s slasher films,^[13] but evolved dramatically as the project unfolded. Ticket sales were low despite mostly positive reviews.

Among his producing credits are the horror flick Hostel (which included numerous references to his own Pulp Fiction), the adaptation of Elmore Leonard's Killshot (for which Tarantino was credited as an executive producer although Tarantino was no longer associated with the film after its 2009 release.)^[14] and Hell Ride (written and directed by Larry Bishop, who appeared in Kill Bill Vol. 2).

Tarantino's 2009 film Inglourious Basterds is the story of a group of guerrilla U.S. soldiers in Nazi-occupied France during World War II. Filming began in October 2008.^[15] The film opened on August 21, 2009 to very positive reviews^[16] and the #1 spot at the box office worldwide.^[17] It went on to become Tarantino's highest grossing film, both in the United States and worldwide.^[18]

In 2011, production began on Django Unchained, about the revenge of a slave on his former master. The film stemmed from Tarantino's desire to produce a spaghetti western set in America's Deep South; Tarantino has called the proposed style "a southern",^[19] stating that he wanted "to do movies that deal with America's horrible past with slavery and stuff but do them like spaghetti westerns, not like big issue movies. I want to do them like they're genre films, but they deal with everything that America has never dealt with because it's ashamed of it, and other countries don't really deal with because they don't feel they have the right to".^[19] Tarantino finished the script on April 26, 2011, and handed in the final draft to The Weinstein Company.^[20] Agency William Morris Endeavor reported Christoph Waltz was cast to play a German bounty hunter,^[21] with Stacey Sher, Pilar Savone, and Reginald Hudlin producing. Although Will Smith and Idris Elba were heavily rumored to be up for the title role, Jamie Foxx has since been confirmed to play Django.^[22] Tarantino regular Samuel L. Jackson will play Stephen, a house slave. Leonardo DiCaprio has also been officially cast in the role of Calvin Candie, the primary antagonist in the film. Kevin Costner had been cast as Ace Woody, a "vile and sadistic trainer of slaves who are forced to fight in death matches for a plantation owner (DiCaprio)" before he later dropped out due to scheduling conflicts, and has been replaced by Kurt Russell.^[23] Kerry Washington has been cast as Broomhilda, the "long-suffering slave wife of Django."^[24] Other cast members include Dennis Christopher as Candie family lawyer Leonide 'Leo' Moguy, Laura Cayouette as Candie's sister, Lara Lee Candie-Fitzwilly, M.C. Gainey and Tom Savini as Big John and Ellis Brittle, two of the slave owners who separate Django and Broomhilda, Anthony LaPaglia and Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Australian brothers, Jano and an unnamed character, respectively,^[25] who encounter Django while escorting slaves to a fight.^[26][27] However, Gordon-Levitt has not fully committed to the film, due to possible scheduling issues,^{[28][29][30][31]} and Gerald McRaney and Michael K. Williams in unknown roles. Tarantino-collaborator RZA was cast as a slave named Thadeus. According to ReservoirWatchDogs.com, Sacha Baron Cohen was cast in the role as gambler Scotty Harmony who wishes to purchase Django's wife from Calvin Candie.^[32] Reportedly, Tarantino is also interested in including Lady Gaga in the film to some degree.^[33] The film is said to be inspired by the 1966 film Django, directed by Sergio Corbucci. James Remar is also involved in the film. The film is scheduled to be released on December 25, 2012.

Producer[link]

In recent years, Tarantino has used his Hollywood power to give smaller and foreign films more attention than they might have received otherwise. These films are usually labeled "Presented by Quentin Tarantino" or "Quentin Tarantino Presents". The first of these productions was in 2001 with the Hong Kong martial arts film Iron Monkey which made over $14 million in the United States, seven times its budget. In 2004 he brought the Chinese martial arts film Hero to U.S. shores. It ended up having a #1 opening at the box office and making $53.5 million. In 2006, the latest "Quentin Tarantino presents" production, Hostel, opened at #1 at the box office with a $20.1 million opening weekend, good for 8th all time in January. He presented 2006's The Protector, and is a producer of the (2007) film Hostel: Part II. in 2008 he produced the Larry Bishop helmed Hell Ride, a revenge biker film.^[34]

In addition, in 1995 Tarantino formed Rolling Thunder Pictures with Miramax as a vehicle to release or re-release several independent and foreign features. By 1997, Miramax shut down the company due to "lack of interest" in the pictures released. The following films were released by Rolling Thunder Pictures: Chungking Express (1994, dir. Wong Kar-wai), Switchblade Sisters (1975, dir. Jack Hill), Sonatine (1993, dir. Takeshi Kitano), Hard Core Logo (1996, dir. Bruce McDonald), The Mighty Peking Man (1977, dir. Ho Meng-Hua), Detroit 9000 (1973, dir. Arthur Marks), The Beyond (1981, dir. Lucio Fulci) and Curdled (1996, dir. Reb Braddock).

Other potential projects[link]

Before Inglourious Basterds, Quentin Tarantino had considered making The Vega Brothers. The film would have starred Michael Madsen and John Travolta reprising their roles of Vic (Mr. Blonde) from Reservoir Dogs and Vincent from Pulp Fiction. However in 2007, because of the age of the actors and the onscreen deaths of both characters, he claimed that the project (which he intended to call Double V Vega) is "kind of unlikely now".^[35]

In 2009, in an interview for Italian TV, after being asked about the success of the two Kill Bill films, Tarantino said "You haven't asked me about the third one", and implied that he would be making a third Kill Bill film with the words "The Bride will fight again!"^[36] Later that year, at the Morelia International Film Festival,^[37] Tarantino announced that he would like to film Kill Bill: Vol. 3. He explained that he wanted ten years to pass between The Bride's last conflict, in order to give her and her daughter a period of peace.^[38]

Personal life[link]

Tarantino has been romantically linked with American actress Mira Sorvino,^[39] directors Allison Anders and Sofia Coppola, actresses Julie Dreyfus and comedians Kathy Griffin and Margaret Cho.^[40] There have also been rumors about his relationship with Uma Thurman, whom he has referred to as his "muse".^[41] However, Tarantino has stated that their relationship is strictly platonic.^[42] Tarantino stated "I'm not saying that I'll never get married or have a kid before I'm 60. But I've made a choice, so far, to go on this road alone. Because this is my time to make movies."^[43] He also has said that he plans to retire from filmmaking at age 60, to focus on writing novels and film literature. He also is skeptical of the film industry going digital, saying, "If it actually gets to the place where you can't show 35 mm film in theatres anymore and everything is digital projection, I won't even make it to 60."^[44]

On February 18, 2010, it was announced that Tarantino had bought the New Beverly Cinema. Tarantino allowed the current owners to continue operating the theater, but he will be making programming suggestions from time to time. He was quoted as saying: "As long as I'm alive, and as long as I'm rich, the New Beverly will be there, showing films shot on 35mm."^[45]

Influences and style of filmmaking[link]

In an awards ceremony in the Critics Choice Awards celebrating Tarantino, he said he got his start in filmmaking in his 20s. Music is an important part of his filmmaking style. He said he would listen to music in his bedroom and create scenes that correlated to the music playing.^[46]

In the 2002 Sight & Sound Directors' poll, Tarantino revealed his top-twelve films: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly; Rio Bravo; Taxi Driver; His Girl Friday; Rolling Thunder; They All Laughed; The Great Escape; Carrie; Coffy; Dazed and Confused; Five Fingers of Death; and Hi Diddle Diddle.^[47] In 2009, he named Kinji Fukasaku's violent action film Battle Royale as his favorite film released since he became a director in 1992.^[48]

In August 2007, while teaching a four-hour film course during the 9th Cinemanila International Film Festival in Manila, Tarantino cited Filipino directors Cirio Santiago, Eddie Romero, and Gerardo de León as personal icons from the 1970s,^[49] citing De Leon's "soul-shattering, life-extinguishing" movies on vampires and female bondage, particularly Women in Cages. "It is just harsh, harsh, harsh," he said, and described the final shot as one of "devastating despair".^[49] Upon his arrival in the Philippines, Tarantino was quoted in the local newspaper as saying, 'I'm a big fan of RP [Republic of the Philippines] cinema.'

Actor Steve Buscemi has described Tarantino's different style of film making as "bursting with energy" and "focused,"^[50] a style that has earned him many accolades worldwide. According to Tarantino, a recurring hallmark in all his movies is that there is a different sense of humour in all his movies, which gets the audience to laugh at things that aren't funny.^[51] Michael Winner, whilst appearing on an episode of Piers Morgan's Life Stories (an ITV production), stated that Quentin Tarantino was a "big fan" of Death Wish.

Racial epithets in Tarantino's work[link]

Spike Lee questioned Tarantino's use of racial epithets in his films, particularly the racially offensive epithet, "nigger". In a Variety interview discussing Jackie Brown, Lee said: "I'm not against the word... and I use it, but Quentin is infatuated with the word. What does he want? To be made an honorary black man?"^[52] Tarantino responded on Charlie Rose by stating:

As a writer, I demand the right to write any character in the world that I want to write. I demand the right to be them, I demand the right to think them and I demand the right to tell the truth as I see they are, all right? And to say that I can't do that because I'm white, but the Hughes brothers can do that because they're black, that is racist. That is the heart of racism, all right. And I do not accept that ... That is how a segment of the black community that lives in Compton, lives in Inglewood, where Jackie Brown takes place, that lives in Carson, that is how they talk. I'm telling the truth. It would not be questioned if I was black, and I resent the question because I'm white. I have the right to tell the truth. I do not have the right to lie.^[53]

In addition, Tarantino retaliated on The Howard Stern Show by stating Lee would have to "stand on a chair to kiss my ass."^[54] Samuel L. Jackson, who has appeared in both directors' films, defended Tarantino's use of the word. At the Berlin Film Festival, where Jackie Brown was being screened, Jackson responded to Lee's criticism by saying:

I don't think the word is offensive in the context of this film ... Black artists think they are the only ones allowed to use the word. Well, that's bull. Jackie Brown is a wonderful homage to black exploitation films. This is a good film, and Spike hasn't made one of those in a few years.^[55]

Tarantino has defended his use of the word, arguing that black audiences have an appreciation of his blaxploitation-influenced films that eludes some of his critics, and, indeed, that Jackie Brown, another oft-cited example, was primarily made for "black audiences".^[56]

According to a 1995 Premiere magazine article, actor Denzel Washington also confronted Tarantino on his usage of racial slurs in his pictures, but mentioned that Tarantino was a "fine artist."^[57]

Recurring collaborators[link]

Actor	Reservoir Dogs	Pulp Fiction	Four Rooms	Jackie Brown	Kill Bill	Death Proof	Inglourious Basterds	Django Unchained
Michael Bacall						N	N	N
Zoe Bell					N	N	N
Michael Bowen				N	N
Steve Buscemi	N	N
Paul Calderón		N	N
Laura Cayouette					N			N
Omar Doom						N	N
Julie Dreyfus					N		N
Kathy Griffin		N	N
Sid Haig				N	N
Samuel L. Jackson		N		N	N		N	N
Harvey Keitel	N	N					N
Jonathan Loughran					N	N
Michael Madsen	N				N
James Parks					N	N		N
Michael Parks					N	N
Tina Rodriguez						N	N
Eli Roth						N	N
Tim Roth	N	N	N
David Steen	N							N
Bo Svenson					N		N
Uma Thurman		N			N
Christoph Waltz							N	N
Bruce Willis		N	N

Awards[link]

Tarantino in Paris at the César Awards 2011.

• Reservoir Dogs was given the Critic's Award at the 4th Yubari International Fantastic Film Festival in 1993.^[58]

• Pulp Fiction won the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival.^[59] The film was nominated for seven Oscars, winning one for Best Original Screenplay, which was shared jointly by Tarantino and co-writer Roger Avary.

• In 1996, Tarantino was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor in From Dusk till Dawn, but lost against Marlon Brando in The Island of Dr. Moreau.

• In 2005, Quentin Tarantino won the Icon of the Decade Award at the 10th Empire Awards.

• On August 15, 2007, Philippine president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo presented Tarantino with a lifetime achievement award at the Malacañang Palace in Manila.^[60]

• In 2009, his film Inglourious Basterds was nominated for eight Oscars including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Screenplay, winning one for Best Supporting Actor.

• In March 2010, Tarantino was awarded the Order of Merit of the Hungarian Republic along with Lucy Liu and Andy Vajna for producing the 2006 movie Freedom's Fury.^[61]

• In February 2011, Tarantino received an honorary César from the Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinéma.^[62]

Filmography[link]

Reception[link]

Critical[link]

See also[link]

• Quentin Tarantino Film Festival, a film festival in Austin, Texas hosted by Tarantino.

References[link]