- published: 18 May 2008
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Anthony Quinton on Spinoza and Leibniz: Section 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:11
- Updated: 13 Aug 2013
The ideas of rationalist philosophers Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz are examined in this program by philosophy Anthony Quinton. Spinoza favors a panth...
http://wn.com/Anthony_Quinton_on_Spinoza_and_Leibniz_Section_1
The ideas of rationalist philosophers Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz are examined in this program by philosophy Anthony Quinton. Spinoza favors a panth...
19/42 Secret History: Leibniz the Optimist and Alchemy (vs. Isaac Newton's science, Voltaire)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:56
- Updated: 18 Aug 2013
http://www.garygeck.com for more info. In this part, I reveal parts of history relating to Voltaire and Isaac Newton's opposition to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibni...
http://wn.com/19_42_Secret_History_Leibniz_the_Optimist_and_Alchemy_vs_Isaac_Newton's_science,_Voltaire
http://www.garygeck.com for more info. In this part, I reveal parts of history relating to Voltaire and Isaac Newton's opposition to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibni...
- published: 15 Aug 2012
- views: 23993
- author: GaryGeckDotCom
La Aventura del Pensamiento - Gottfried Leibniz.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 23:45
- Updated: 16 Aug 2013
Gottfried Leibniz por Fernando Savater en el programa La Aventura del Pensamiento.
http://wn.com/La_Aventura_del_Pensamiento_Gottfried_Leibniz
Gottfried Leibniz por Fernando Savater en el programa La Aventura del Pensamiento.
- published: 07 Feb 2013
- views: 2673
- author: Germán Riveros S.
The Birth Of Calculus (1986)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:44
- Updated: 19 Aug 2013
A documentary on Leibniz and the calculus.
http://wn.com/The_Birth_Of_Calculus_1986
A documentary on Leibniz and the calculus.
- published: 13 Dec 2011
- views: 85279
- author: Gottfried Leibniz
G.W.Leibniz: Doctrina de las Mónadas - Filosofía - Educatina
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:54
- Updated: 31 Jul 2013
Más sobre este video en: ▷ http://www.educatina.com/filosofia/g-w-leibniz-doctrina-de-las-monadas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...
http://wn.com/GWLeibniz_Doctrina_de_las_Mónadas_Filosofía_Educatina
Más sobre este video en: ▷ http://www.educatina.com/filosofia/g-w-leibniz-doctrina-de-las-monadas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...
- published: 26 Apr 2012
- views: 8472
- author: educatina
Carlo Sini, "Leibniz e il dio matematico", Milano, 13 ottobre 2010
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 62:31
- Updated: 03 Aug 2013
Casa della Cultura, Milano Seminario di filosofia "Religione e filosofia nella tradizione dell'Occidente", 2010 Lezione di Carlo Sini del 13 ottobre 2010: "L...
http://wn.com/Carlo_Sini,_Leibniz_e_il_dio_matematico,_Milano,_13_ottobre_2010
Casa della Cultura, Milano Seminario di filosofia "Religione e filosofia nella tradizione dell'Occidente", 2010 Lezione di Carlo Sini del 13 ottobre 2010: "L...
- published: 25 Sep 2012
- views: 1706
- author: Luca Moretto
Gottfried Wilhem Leibniz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:45
- Updated: 05 Aug 2013
A history of Leibniz. Another Historic figure that did more then you or I ever will.
http://wn.com/Gottfried_Wilhem_Leibniz
A history of Leibniz. Another Historic figure that did more then you or I ever will.
- published: 24 Feb 2011
- views: 9213
- author: NStrayer
Leibniz's Monadology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 99:03
- Updated: 17 Aug 2013
A discussion on Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz's 'Monadology'.
http://wn.com/Leibniz's_Monadology
A discussion on Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz's 'Monadology'.
- published: 15 Dec 2011
- views: 6222
- author: Gottfried Leibniz
Der letzte Universalgelehrte: Leibniz und der harmonische Kosmos
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:33
- Updated: 17 Jul 2013
Der Gedanke der Harmonie, also der wechselseitigen Anpassung allen Daseins, durchzieht die gesamte Leibnizsche Philosophie: Seine Auffassung von Glückseligke...
http://wn.com/Der_letzte_Universalgelehrte_Leibniz_und_der_harmonische_Kosmos
Der Gedanke der Harmonie, also der wechselseitigen Anpassung allen Daseins, durchzieht die gesamte Leibnizsche Philosophie: Seine Auffassung von Glückseligke...
- published: 02 Mar 2012
- views: 5429
- author: eDysfunktion
Die Entdeckungen großer Forscher - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:27
- Updated: 04 May 2013
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Der letzte Universalgelehrte Er hatte mindestens so viele Begabungen wie der nach ihm benannte Butterkeks Zähne: Gottfried Wilhelm ...
http://wn.com/Die_Entdeckungen_großer_Forscher_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Der letzte Universalgelehrte Er hatte mindestens so viele Begabungen wie der nach ihm benannte Butterkeks Zähne: Gottfried Wilhelm ...
- published: 26 Mar 2013
- views: 489
- author: Yin Yang
Newton Vs. Leibniz - Grandes peleas de la ciencia - Proyecto G
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 12 Aug 2013
Sección "Grandes peleas de la ciencia". Capítulo 07 del programa Proyecto G quinta temporada, emitido por Canal Encuentro de Argentina. Una nueva animación l...
http://wn.com/Newton_Vs_Leibniz_Grandes_peleas_de_la_ciencia_Proyecto_G
Sección "Grandes peleas de la ciencia". Capítulo 07 del programa Proyecto G quinta temporada, emitido por Canal Encuentro de Argentina. Una nueva animación l...
- published: 12 Nov 2012
- views: 4598
- author: ProyectogTelevision
Leibniz and Malebranche on the problem of evil
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:30
- Updated: 17 Aug 2013
Prof. Steven Nadler discusses Leibniz, Malebrance, and Arnauld on theodicy and the problem of evil. You can find his book here: http://www.amazon.com/Best-Al...
http://wn.com/Leibniz_and_Malebranche_on_the_problem_of_evil
Prof. Steven Nadler discusses Leibniz, Malebrance, and Arnauld on theodicy and the problem of evil. You can find his book here: http://www.amazon.com/Best-Al...
- published: 10 Dec 2011
- views: 2975
- author: Gottfried Leibniz
Gottfried Leibniz. Parte 1 de 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:01
- Updated: 07 Jul 2013
Parte 3 de 3 de Serie "Filósofos" de canal á. Capítulo dedicado a Gottfried Leibniz.
http://wn.com/Gottfried_Leibniz_Parte_1_de_3
Parte 3 de 3 de Serie "Filósofos" de canal á. Capítulo dedicado a Gottfried Leibniz.
- published: 19 Sep 2012
- views: 543
- author: Patricio Mendieta
La complessità del sistema di Leibniz - Videolezioni di filosofia moderna - 29elode
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:06
- Updated: 26 Apr 2013
corso completo sul sito 29elode.it.
http://wn.com/La_complessità_del_sistema_di_Leibniz_Videolezioni_di_filosofia_moderna_29elode
Leibniz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 38:22
- Updated: 07 Aug 2013
Chapter Eleven from Book Three, Part One of Bertrand Russell's "The History Of Western Philosophy" (1945).
http://wn.com/Leibniz
Chapter Eleven from Book Three, Part One of Bertrand Russell's "The History Of Western Philosophy" (1945).
- published: 17 Sep 2012
- views: 1558
- author: workingklass0
![[1] « Dans le labyrinthe : nécessité, contingence et liberté chez Leibniz » Jacques Bouveresse](http://web.archive.org./web/20131024151959im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/30DCnfkRKK8/default.jpg "[1] « Dans le labyrinthe : nécessité, contingence et liberté chez Leibniz » Jacques Bouveresse")
[1] « Dans le labyrinthe : nécessité, contingence et liberté chez Leibniz » Jacques Bouveresse
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 68:43
- Updated: 11 Aug 2013
C'est Leibniz lui-même qui a parlé de « labyrinthes à erreurs » à propos de deux problèmes philosophiques centraux : celui du continu et celui de la liberté....
http://wn.com/_1_«_Dans_le_labyrinthe_nécessité,_contingence_et_liberté_chez_Leibniz_»_Jacques_Bouveresse
C'est Leibniz lui-même qui a parlé de « labyrinthes à erreurs » à propos de deux problèmes philosophiques centraux : celui du continu et celui de la liberté....
- published: 21 Sep 2012
- views: 1529
- author: NiC0CRV
Spinoza e Leibniz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:23
- Updated: 23 Jul 2013
Breve storia della Filosofia. Quindicesima puntata: Spinoza e Leibniz. Supporto multimediale per la didattica realizzato su idea e progetto di Francesco Pung...
http://wn.com/Spinoza_e_Leibniz
Breve storia della Filosofia. Quindicesima puntata: Spinoza e Leibniz. Supporto multimediale per la didattica realizzato su idea e progetto di Francesco Pung...
- published: 23 Jan 2013
- views: 815
- author: Francesco Pungitore
A historia do numero 1 (6/6) 6. Dos Número Binários (Leibniz) ao Computador
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:24
- Updated: 28 Jul 2013
A História do Número 1″, produzido pela BBC e apresentado por Terry Jones, usa uma boa dose de humor (inglês) para contar a história deste número. "O herói d...
http://wn.com/A_historia_do_numero_1_6_6_6_Dos_Número_Binários_Leibniz_ao_Computador
A História do Número 1″, produzido pela BBC e apresentado por Terry Jones, usa uma boa dose de humor (inglês) para contar a história deste número. "O herói d...
- published: 27 Sep 2011
- views: 2106
- author: Denise Filetti
G.W.Leibniz: Doctrina de la armonía preestablecida - Filosofía - Educatina
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:05
- Updated: 30 Jul 2013
Más sobre este video en: ▷ http://www.educatina.com/filosofia/g-w-leibniz-doctrina-de-la-armonia-preestablecida - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...
http://wn.com/GWLeibniz_Doctrina_de_la_armonía_preestablecida_Filosofía_Educatina
Más sobre este video en: ▷ http://www.educatina.com/filosofia/g-w-leibniz-doctrina-de-la-armonia-preestablecida - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -...
- published: 26 Apr 2012
- views: 5104
- author: educatina
Claudio Costa: A METAFÍSICA DE LEIBNIZ - Parte 1 de 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:43
- Updated: 29 Jul 2013
Exposição introdutória das principais ideias de Leibniz. Claudio F. Costa, curso de filosofia UFRN.
http://wn.com/Claudio_Costa_A_METAFÍSICA_DE_LEIBNIZ_Parte_1_de_2
Exposição introdutória das principais ideias de Leibniz. Claudio F. Costa, curso de filosofia UFRN.
- published: 20 Dec 2012
- views: 408
- author: Claudio ferreira costa
Denker des Abendlandes - 28 - Die ersten Systeme der Philosophie - Spinoza, Leibniz, Newton
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 29:33
- Updated: 28 Jul 2013
Denker des Abendlandes - 28 - Die ersten Systeme der Philosophie - Spinoza, Leibniz, Newton.
http://wn.com/Denker_des_Abendlandes_28_Die_ersten_Systeme_der_Philosophie_Spinoza,_Leibniz,_Newton
Denker des Abendlandes - 28 - Die ersten Systeme der Philosophie - Spinoza, Leibniz, Newton.
- published: 04 Oct 2011
- views: 5339
- author: Daniel Michel
Deleuze: Sur Leibniz, séance 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 123:37
- Updated: 20 Jun 2013
Gilles Deleuze Sur Leibniz, séance 1 Université Paris-VIII, 15 avril 1980 [some of these files are cut off at the beginning or the end, and most contain gaps...
http://wn.com/Deleuze_Sur_Leibniz,_séance_1
Gilles Deleuze Sur Leibniz, séance 1 Université Paris-VIII, 15 avril 1980 [some of these files are cut off at the beginning or the end, and most contain gaps...
- published: 10 Nov 2011
- views: 4989
- author: SocioPhilosophy
Lipdub Leibnizschule Hannover
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:35
- Updated: 28 Jul 2013
Over 900 kids and teachers perform to the music of LATE AFTERNOON, the school band, all having a great time! Production: up-and-coming Int. Film Festival Han...
http://wn.com/Lipdub_Leibnizschule_Hannover
Over 900 kids and teachers perform to the music of LATE AFTERNOON, the school band, all having a great time! Production: up-and-coming Int. Film Festival Han...
- published: 27 Jun 2013
- views: 5134
- author: George Speckert
Send this Playlist by SMS
Wer war Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:23
- Updated: 05 Apr 2013
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (* 21. Junijul./ 1. Juli 1646greg. in Leipzig; † 14. November 1716 in Hannover) war ein deutscher Philosoph, Wissenschaftler, Mathe...
http://wn.com/Wer_war_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (* 21. Junijul./ 1. Juli 1646greg. in Leipzig; † 14. November 1716 in Hannover) war ein deutscher Philosoph, Wissenschaftler, Mathe...
- published: 05 Apr 2013
- views: 19
- author: MKROXTON
Mit Leibniz on tour Segway teil1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 07 Aug 2013
Leibniz on Segway
Leibniz ist ein Universalgenie aus Hannover . Wer ihn nicht kennt sollte ihn schleunigst kennen lernen. Er soll ja auch Weltkultur Erbe werden. Der Antrag ist gestellt.
Hier ist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, der mit dem Keks und den 52 Zähnen, im Gespräch mit dem "Kaiser von Hannover" alias Pedro Prüser.
Viel Spaß beim ansehen.
Gespielt wird Leibniz natürlich von keinem geringeren als Rainer Künnecke.
viel Spaß damit
Mehr zu mir:
Ich bin Pedro Prüser, Comedy Künstler aus Hannover. Ich schlüpfe oft in andere Rollen.
Da gibt es :
Hausmeister Heinrich Bloch
Julio Zapato
Schlagerstar Don Pedro
Kaiser von Hannover
Butler Mortimer...
und vieles mehr.
Mit meinen Filmen möchte ich ein kleines Lächeln in den trüben Alltag bringen ..
Viel Spaß beim ansehen ..
Euer Pedro
mehr zu mir gibt es auf :
www.Comedy-Hannover.de
www.Kaiser-von-Hannover.de
www.Happy-Duo.de
http://wn.com/Mit_Leibniz_on_tour_Segway_teil1
Leibniz on Segway
Leibniz ist ein Universalgenie aus Hannover . Wer ihn nicht kennt sollte ihn schleunigst kennen lernen. Er soll ja auch Weltkultur Erbe werden. Der Antrag ist gestellt.
Hier ist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, der mit dem Keks und den 52 Zähnen, im Gespräch mit dem "Kaiser von Hannover" alias Pedro Prüser.
Viel Spaß beim ansehen.
Gespielt wird Leibniz natürlich von keinem geringeren als Rainer Künnecke.
viel Spaß damit
Mehr zu mir:
Ich bin Pedro Prüser, Comedy Künstler aus Hannover. Ich schlüpfe oft in andere Rollen.
Da gibt es :
Hausmeister Heinrich Bloch
Julio Zapato
Schlagerstar Don Pedro
Kaiser von Hannover
Butler Mortimer...
und vieles mehr.
Mit meinen Filmen möchte ich ein kleines Lächeln in den trüben Alltag bringen ..
Viel Spaß beim ansehen ..
Euer Pedro
mehr zu mir gibt es auf :
www.Comedy-Hannover.de
www.Kaiser-von-Hannover.de
www.Happy-Duo.de
- published: 07 Aug 2013
- views: 21
Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011 | Journal Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:16
- Updated: 29 Jul 2013
Journal Interview with Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011.
http://wn.com/Anja_Feldmann,_Computer_Scientist_Leibniz_Prize_Winner,_2011_|_Journal_Interview
Journal Interview with Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011.
- published: 04 Jan 2011
- views: 1197
- author: deutschewelleenglish
Lee Smolin at arcfinity.org (1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:25
- Updated: 04 Aug 2013
Can the future be predicted? In his book Time Reborn (2013), physicist Lee Smolin sets out to show that the world is an unpredictable place, and that common-...
http://wn.com/Lee_Smolin_at_arcfinityorg_1
Can the future be predicted? In his book Time Reborn (2013), physicist Lee Smolin sets out to show that the world is an unpredictable place, and that common-...
- published: 09 Jun 2013
- views: 159
- author: Arc Quarterly
Keine Staus im Internet - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis für Anja Feldmann
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:58
- Updated: 06 Mar 2012
Am 16. März 2011 erhielt Prof. Anja Feldmann, TU Berlin, von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) den Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis 2011. Der mit 2,5...
http://wn.com/Keine_Staus_im_Internet_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-Preis_für_Anja_Feldmann
Am 16. März 2011 erhielt Prof. Anja Feldmann, TU Berlin, von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) den Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis 2011. Der mit 2,5...
- published: 16 Mar 2011
- views: 519
- author: TUBerlinTV
Leibniz-Preis für Peter Sanders
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:46
- Updated: 24 May 2013
Interview anlässlich der offiziellen Verleihung des Leibniz-Preises Professor Peter Sanders vom Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) erhält den renommie...
http://wn.com/Leibniz-Preis_für_Peter_Sanders
Interview anlässlich der offiziellen Verleihung des Leibniz-Preises Professor Peter Sanders vom Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) erhält den renommie...
- published: 27 Feb 2012
- views: 1576
- author: KITinformatik
#31 Daniela Fichte, Leipniz Universität Hannover, Interview Teil 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:03
- Updated: 28 Jun 2013
Fair Culture Videocountdown © Daniel Mühe, Marina Vowinkel Interview mit Daniela Fichte von der Leibniz Universität Hannover. Die Dozentin hat mit Studenten ...
http://wn.com/_31_Daniela_Fichte,_Leipniz_Universität_Hannover,_Interview_Teil_2
Fair Culture Videocountdown © Daniel Mühe, Marina Vowinkel Interview mit Daniela Fichte von der Leibniz Universität Hannover. Die Dozentin hat mit Studenten ...
- published: 31 May 2013
- views: 16
- author: FairCultureFestival
Black White Supremacist Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:17
- Updated: 01 Aug 2013
Hilarious home video.
http://wn.com/Black_White_Supremacist_Interview
WiLHELM LEiBNiZ vs. Newton & Voltaire - Illuminism in Check
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:56
- Updated: 15 Aug 2013
By Gary Geck @ http://www.garygeck.com In this documentary, Gary reveals parts of history relating to Voltaire and Isaac Newton's opposition to Gottfried Wil...
http://wn.com/WiLHELM_LEiBNiZ_vs_Newton_Voltaire_Illuminism_in_Check
By Gary Geck @ http://www.garygeck.com In this documentary, Gary reveals parts of history relating to Voltaire and Isaac Newton's opposition to Gottfried Wil...
- published: 11 Feb 2013
- views: 793
- author: leesoarez
Typisch deutsch von A bis Z (typical German) - Storey's Stories by Schahin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:58
- Updated: 15 Aug 2013
"Typisch deutsch" (typical German) is an entertaining clip presented & produced by Katrin Schahin Storey (Storey's Stories) about the question: "What is typi...
http://wn.com/Typisch_deutsch_von_A_bis_Z_typical_German_Storey's_Stories_by_Schahin
"Typisch deutsch" (typical German) is an entertaining clip presented & produced by Katrin Schahin Storey (Storey's Stories) about the question: "What is typi...
- published: 22 Jul 2011
- views: 19010
- author: beauypeauy
Paul Raabe 1927-2013 Kurznachruf in Lichtgeschwindigkeit 3504
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:52
- Updated: 07 Jul 2013
Paul Raabe 1927-2013 Kurznachruf in Lichtgeschwindigkeit 3504 Sonntag, 7. Juli 2013 Einzelheiten zur Lage - live und ungeschnitten -- aus Köln Thema: Der Bib...
http://wn.com/Paul_Raabe_1927-2013_Kurznachruf_in_Lichtgeschwindigkeit_3504
Paul Raabe 1927-2013 Kurznachruf in Lichtgeschwindigkeit 3504 Sonntag, 7. Juli 2013 Einzelheiten zur Lage - live und ungeschnitten -- aus Köln Thema: Der Bib...
- published: 07 Jul 2013
- views: 1
- author: dietmarmoews
Leibniz Podcast #4: Schülervertretung
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:18
- Updated: 26 Jun 2013
Ein Interview mit Bahar Nalbant. Über die Aufgaben der SV in der Leibnizschule. Mit Christian als Moderator, Henning und Jannik hinter der Kamera und Gavi be...
http://wn.com/Leibniz_Podcast_4_Schülervertretung
Ein Interview mit Bahar Nalbant. Über die Aufgaben der SV in der Leibnizschule. Mit Christian als Moderator, Henning und Jannik hinter der Kamera und Gavi be...
- published: 24 Mar 2012
- views: 314
- author: FilmteamLBS
»bookmarks« - Beitrag von Prof. Thomas Hoeren am 29. Januar 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 43:39
- Updated: 18 Apr 2013
bookmarks« - 16. januar - 15. februar 2009 Das Internet verändert unseren Umgang mit Wissen radikal. Wie wir Wissen heute schaffen, ihm eine Form geben, es ...
http://wn.com/»bookmarks«_Beitrag_von_Prof_Thomas_Hoeren_am_29_Januar_2009
bookmarks« - 16. januar - 15. februar 2009 Das Internet verändert unseren Umgang mit Wissen radikal. Wie wir Wissen heute schaffen, ihm eine Form geben, es ...
- published: 07 Feb 2013
- views: 401
- author: kestnergesellschaft
The Religious Situation in Germany and Europe Today
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 91:23
- Updated: 12 Aug 2013
For more on this event, visit: http://bit.ly/PpUqoy For more on the Berkley Center, visit: http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu October 26, 2012 | The role of...
http://wn.com/The_Religious_Situation_in_Germany_and_Europe_Today
For more on this event, visit: http://bit.ly/PpUqoy For more on the Berkley Center, visit: http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu October 26, 2012 | The role of...
- published: 09 Nov 2012
- views: 891
- author: Berkley Center
Erpresservideo Leibniz
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:50
- Updated: 30 Jan 2013
Es geht ihm gut! Noch....
http://wn.com/Erpresservideo_Leibniz
5 Questions with Prof. Dr. Jürgen Mlynek, President, Helmholtz Association
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:26
- Updated: 07 Sep 2011
Jürgen Mlynek studied physics at the TU Hannover and the École Polytechnique in Paris. He gained his doctorate at the University of Hannover (Dr. rer. nat.) ...
http://wn.com/5_Questions_with_Prof_Dr_Jürgen_Mlynek,_President,_Helmholtz_Association
Jürgen Mlynek studied physics at the TU Hannover and the École Polytechnique in Paris. He gained his doctorate at the University of Hannover (Dr. rer. nat.) ...
- published: 05 Sep 2011
- views: 506
- author: IBMResearchZurich
Stefan Hell on nanometer-scale microscopy in biophotonics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:32
- Updated: 06 Aug 2013
http://spie.org/pw Using stimulated emission depletion microscopy and other techniques, Stefan Hell explores new ways to examine living cells noninvasively. ...
http://wn.com/Stefan_Hell_on_nanometer-scale_microscopy_in_biophotonics
http://spie.org/pw Using stimulated emission depletion microscopy and other techniques, Stefan Hell explores new ways to examine living cells noninvasively. ...
- published: 12 Apr 2011
- views: 2110
- author: SPIETV
Bonn University.wmv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 11 Jul 2013
The University of Bonn (German: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in 1818 the...
http://wn.com/Bonn_Universitywmv
The University of Bonn (German: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in 1818 the...
- published: 30 Apr 2010
- views: 6308
- author: Debasish Kr. Das
Historia XIX wieku. Przeobrażenie Świata / Jurgen Osterhammel: PREMIERA 17.09.2013
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:14
- Updated: 12 Aug 2013
W czerwcu 2006 r. w australijskim ogrodzie zoologicznym dokonała żywota żółwica Harriet, która w 1835 r. na Wyspach Galapagos poznała młodego badacza natury ...
http://wn.com/Historia_XIX_wieku_Przeobrażenie_Świata_Jurgen_Osterhammel_PREMIERA_17092013
W czerwcu 2006 r. w australijskim ogrodzie zoologicznym dokonała żywota żółwica Harriet, która w 1835 r. na Wyspach Galapagos poznała młodego badacza natury ...
- published: 12 Aug 2013
- views: 5
- author: Wyd Poznańskie
Manuel DeLanda. Deleuze and the History of Philosophy 2006 8/8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:09
- Updated: 06 Jun 2013
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
http://wn.com/Manuel_DeLanda_Deleuze_and_the_History_of_Philosophy_2006_8_8
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
- published: 12 Apr 2007
- views: 6614
- author: egsvideo
Conceptual art - Wiki Article
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 34:33
- Updated: 26 Jul 2013
Conceptual art, sometimes simply called Conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic an...
http://wn.com/Conceptual_art_Wiki_Article
Conceptual art, sometimes simply called Conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic an...
- published: 17 Jun 2013
- views: 44
- author: Wikispeak
Manuel DeLanda. Deleuze and the History of Philosophy 2006 3/8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 08 May 2013
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
http://wn.com/Manuel_DeLanda_Deleuze_and_the_History_of_Philosophy_2006_3_8
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
- published: 11 Apr 2007
- views: 10346
- author: egsvideo
Manuel DeLanda. Deleuze and the History of Philosophy 2006 2/8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:50
- Updated: 08 May 2013
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
http://wn.com/Manuel_DeLanda_Deleuze_and_the_History_of_Philosophy_2006_2_8
http://www.egs.edu/ Manuel DeLanda lecturing about the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Henri Poincare, Albert Einstein, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, computer,sci...
- published: 11 Apr 2007
- views: 13745
- author: egsvideo
0:23
Wer war Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (* 21. Junijul./ 1. Juli 1646greg. in Leipzig; † 14. November 17...
published: 05 Apr 2013
author: MKROXTON
Wer war Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (* 21. Junijul./ 1. Juli 1646greg. in Leipzig; † 14. November 1716 in Hannover) war ein deutscher Philosoph, Wissenschaftler, Mathe...
- published: 05 Apr 2013
- views: 19
- author: MKROXTON
3:50
Mit Leibniz on tour Segway teil1
Leibniz on Segway
Leibniz ist ein Universalgenie aus Hannover . Wer ihn nicht kennt soll...
published: 07 Aug 2013
Mit Leibniz on tour Segway teil1
Leibniz on Segway
Leibniz ist ein Universalgenie aus Hannover . Wer ihn nicht kennt sollte ihn schleunigst kennen lernen. Er soll ja auch Weltkultur Erbe werden. Der Antrag ist gestellt.
Hier ist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, der mit dem Keks und den 52 Zähnen, im Gespräch mit dem "Kaiser von Hannover" alias Pedro Prüser.
Viel Spaß beim ansehen.
Gespielt wird Leibniz natürlich von keinem geringeren als Rainer Künnecke.
viel Spaß damit
Mehr zu mir:
Ich bin Pedro Prüser, Comedy Künstler aus Hannover. Ich schlüpfe oft in andere Rollen.
Da gibt es :
Hausmeister Heinrich Bloch
Julio Zapato
Schlagerstar Don Pedro
Kaiser von Hannover
Butler Mortimer...
und vieles mehr.
Mit meinen Filmen möchte ich ein kleines Lächeln in den trüben Alltag bringen ..
Viel Spaß beim ansehen ..
Euer Pedro
mehr zu mir gibt es auf :
www.Comedy-Hannover.de
www.Kaiser-von-Hannover.de
www.Happy-Duo.de
- published: 07 Aug 2013
- views: 21
9:16
Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011 | Journal Interview
Journal Interview with Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011....
published: 04 Jan 2011
author: deutschewelleenglish
Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011 | Journal Interview
Journal Interview with Anja Feldmann, Computer Scientist & Leibniz Prize Winner, 2011.
- published: 04 Jan 2011
- views: 1197
- author: deutschewelleenglish
6:25
Lee Smolin at arcfinity.org (1)
Can the future be predicted? In his book Time Reborn (2013), physicist Lee Smolin sets out...
published: 09 Jun 2013
author: Arc Quarterly
Lee Smolin at arcfinity.org (1)
Can the future be predicted? In his book Time Reborn (2013), physicist Lee Smolin sets out to show that the world is an unpredictable place, and that common-...
- published: 09 Jun 2013
- views: 159
- author: Arc Quarterly
0:58
Keine Staus im Internet - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis für Anja Feldmann
Am 16. März 2011 erhielt Prof. Anja Feldmann, TU Berlin, von der Deutschen Forschungsgemei...
published: 16 Mar 2011
author: TUBerlinTV
Keine Staus im Internet - Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis für Anja Feldmann
Am 16. März 2011 erhielt Prof. Anja Feldmann, TU Berlin, von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) den Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Preis 2011. Der mit 2,5...
- published: 16 Mar 2011
- views: 519
- author: TUBerlinTV
5:46
Leibniz-Preis für Peter Sanders
Interview anlässlich der offiziellen Verleihung des Leibniz-Preises Professor Peter Sander...
published: 27 Feb 2012
author: KITinformatik
Leibniz-Preis für Peter Sanders
Interview anlässlich der offiziellen Verleihung des Leibniz-Preises Professor Peter Sanders vom Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) erhält den renommie...
- published: 27 Feb 2012
- views: 1576
- author: KITinformatik
2:03
#31 Daniela Fichte, Leipniz Universität Hannover, Interview Teil 2
Fair Culture Videocountdown © Daniel Mühe, Marina Vowinkel Interview mit Daniela Fichte vo...
published: 31 May 2013
author: FairCultureFestival
#31 Daniela Fichte, Leipniz Universität Hannover, Interview Teil 2
Fair Culture Videocountdown © Daniel Mühe, Marina Vowinkel Interview mit Daniela Fichte von der Leibniz Universität Hannover. Die Dozentin hat mit Studenten ...
- published: 31 May 2013
- views: 16
- author: FairCultureFestival
2:17
Black White Supremacist Interview
Hilarious home video....
published: 23 Feb 2009
author: Orinaze1992
Black White Supremacist Interview
Hilarious home video.
- published: 23 Feb 2009
- views: 7509
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47:56
WiLHELM LEiBNiZ vs. Newton & Voltaire - Illuminism in Check
By Gary Geck @ http://www.garygeck.com In this documentary, Gary reveals parts of history ...
published: 11 Feb 2013
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WiLHELM LEiBNiZ vs. Newton & Voltaire - Illuminism in Check
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- published: 11 Feb 2013
- views: 793
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14:58
Typisch deutsch von A bis Z (typical German) - Storey's Stories by Schahin
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published: 22 Jul 2011
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7:52
Paul Raabe 1927-2013 Kurznachruf in Lichtgeschwindigkeit 3504
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Paul Raabe 1927-2013 Kurznachruf in Lichtgeschwindigkeit 3504
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Leibniz Podcast #4: Schülervertretung
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- published: 24 Mar 2012
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43:39
»bookmarks« - Beitrag von Prof. Thomas Hoeren am 29. Januar 2009
bookmarks« - 16. januar - 15. februar 2009 Das Internet verändert unseren Umgang mit Wisse...
published: 07 Feb 2013
author: kestnergesellschaft
»bookmarks« - Beitrag von Prof. Thomas Hoeren am 29. Januar 2009
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- published: 07 Feb 2013
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91:23
The Religious Situation in Germany and Europe Today
For more on this event, visit: http://bit.ly/PpUqoy For more on the Berkley Center, visit:...
published: 09 Nov 2012
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The Religious Situation in Germany and Europe Today
For more on this event, visit: http://bit.ly/PpUqoy For more on the Berkley Center, visit: http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu October 26, 2012 | The role of...
- published: 09 Nov 2012
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Vimeo results:
10:01
_grau | 10:01 min | d 2004
_grau is a personal reflection on memories coming up during a car accident, where past eve...
published: 30 Dec 2008
author: Robert Seidel
_grau | 10:01 min | d 2004
_grau is a personal reflection on memories coming up during a car accident, where past events emerge, fuse, erode and finally vanish ethereally … various real sources where distorted, filtered and fitted into a sculptural structure to create not a plain abstract, but a very private snapshot of a whole life within its last seconds …
Media critic Matt Hanson, author of The End of Celluloid and founder of onedotzero festival says: "_grau appeals to me because it is organo-tech. it does not deliberately ape the abstract pioneers of abstract cinema, and it is worlds away from the motion graphic masturbation of many of those enamoured by digital animation. seidel's work is impressionistic, melding biological and emotional currents. out of amorphous shapes we make out bones, heads, a hand. a spirit leaving the body. at least, this is what i sense out of the chaos of galactic reconfigurations, neurological connections, and biological forms. this is a powerful piece of digital animation precisely because it does not feel like such, it feels emotional, epic. and once you release the background to the animation--communicating a 'coming to terms' with the aftermath of a car accident--you realise why."
Robert Seidel | 10:01 minutes | Germany 2004 | www.robertseidel.com
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"Music is a hidden arithmetic exercise of the soul, which does not know that it is counting."
Leibniz
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Allotment - A Leibniz performance
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Allotment - A Leibniz performance
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"Masks" a Leibniz performance
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"Masks" a Leibniz performance
Youtube results:
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Erpresservideo Leibniz
Es geht ihm gut! Noch.......
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Erpresservideo Leibniz
Es geht ihm gut! Noch....
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5 Questions with Prof. Dr. Jürgen Mlynek, President, Helmholtz Association
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5 Questions with Prof. Dr. Jürgen Mlynek, President, Helmholtz Association
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- published: 05 Sep 2011
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6:32
Stefan Hell on nanometer-scale microscopy in biophotonics
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Stefan Hell on nanometer-scale microscopy in biophotonics
http://spie.org/pw Using stimulated emission depletion microscopy and other techniques, Stefan Hell explores new ways to examine living cells noninvasively. ...
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9:55
Bonn University.wmv
The University of Bonn (German: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) is a publi...
published: 30 Apr 2010
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Bonn University.wmv
The University of Bonn (German: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in 1818 the...
- published: 30 Apr 2010
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photo: AP / Michael Probst
23 Oct 2013
The Vatican on Wednesday suspended a scandal-tainted German Catholic cleric dubbed the "bling bishop" for his luxury lifestyle, despite multiple calls for the prelate to be dismissed. "The Holy See de. ems it appropriate to authorise a period of leave from the diocese for Franz-Peter Tebartz-van Elst," the Vatican said in a statement. "The Holy Father has been continuously and objectively informed of the situation," it said ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)
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Newstrack India
23 Oct 2013
Tweet. Washington, Oct. 23 (ANI). An international team of astronomers have discovered that Milky Way galaxy "wobbles.". The team of astronomers around Mary Williams from the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP) detected and examined this phenomenon with the RAdial Velocity Experiment (RAVE), a survey of almost half a million stars around the Sun ... (ANI). Post comments.. ) .. ).. Comments.. HOME . . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 2.0Kb)
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The Hindu
23 Oct 2013
Astronomers have discovered that besides being permanently in motion, our Milky Way galaxy also makes small wobbling or squishing movements ... An international team of astronomers, including Mary Williams from the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP) in Germany, detected and examined this phenomenon with the RAdial Velocity Experiment (RAVE), a survey of almost half a million stars around the Sun ... Keywords....(size: 2.4Kb)
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The Examiner
18 Oct 2013
99 bottles of WHAT? on the wall.... Not beer, says Willy Blackmore, Food editor for TakePart. Wine? "Grapes thrive in the warmer south, while grains like barley can tolerate the snow and frost of the north. Now, with climate change throwing off historic weather patterns... We're not in trouble yet, says Nils Stein, a geneticist at the Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics. ... Contact....(size: 1.8Kb)
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noodls
18 Oct 2013
(Source. University of York). Posted on 17 October 2013 ... Now Professor Paul Busch of the University of York, UK, Professor Pekka Lahti of the University of Turku, Finland and Professor Reinhard Werner of Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany have finally provided a precise formulation and proof of the error-disturbance relation in an article published today in the journal Physical Review Letters ... Professor Werner said ... Notes to editors.....(size: 4.0Kb)
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noodls
10 Oct 2013
(Source. The University of Tennessee) ... Examining different conservation methods over time is crucial to estimate future extinction risks due to climate change, explained co-lead author Dennis Rodder, curator for herpetology at the Leibniz-Institute for Terrestrial Biodiversity Research at the Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig in Bonn, Germany ... Many of the most threatened turtles and tortoises are in Asia ... -. C O N T A C T .....(size: 4.2Kb)
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The Times of India
07 Oct 2013
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM ... "We have no crisis in food security, it is crisis in distribution of safe food and the government has to address that," Green activist Sridhar Radhakrishnan told TOI on Friday ... Dr. Jorg Freyhof, Scientist at the Leibniz Institute of Inland Fisheries in Berlin, Germany stressed the need for larger holistic data bases to convince and prioritise arguments for biodiversity conservation ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
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Seattle Post
04 Oct 2013
Toronto, Canada (PRWEB) October 04, 2013. Join esteemed speakers from Iowa State University, Kansas State University and Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Resaerch (IPK), as they share their research including a case study of how custom target enrichment from Roche NimbleGen is enabling plant genomics research ... Contact.. Karen Lim (416) 977-6555 ext 227....(size: 1.7Kb)
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noodls
02 Oct 2013
Laila Bahaa-el-Din of Panthera, Oxford University, and the University of Kwazulu-Natal; Philipp Henschel of Panthera; Rostand Abaa formerly of the Wildlife Conservation Society and now with the Gabon National Parks agency; Kate Abernethy of the University of Stirling and the Institut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale; Torsten Bohm of the Leibniz ......(size: 4.4Kb)
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PR Newswire
01 Oct 2013
RENO, Nev., Oct. 1, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- The stress of constant noise is much more than an annoyance or a cause for a lack of sleep ... To assess an individual's risk for cardiovascular issues, researchers at the Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine used a measure of arterial hardening known as "thoracic aortic calcification" (TAC) ... How does relentless noise affect our body?. Noise can affect more than just our ears ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
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Deutsche Welle
30 Sep 2013
Cameroon goes to the polls to elect a new parliament on Monday. Observers say the chances of political change are slight and confidence in the electoral process at a low ebb ... Paul Biya is one of Africa's longest serving presidents ... Andreas Mehler, an expert on Africa at the GIGA Institute (Leibniz Institute of Global and Area Studies) in Hamburg, believes the international community needs to maintain a stronger presence in Cameroon ... ....(size: 3.9Kb)
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noodls
26 Sep 2013
(Source. APS - American Physiological Society). Bethesda, Md. (Sept. 25, 2013)-Several studies have shown that expecting a reward or punishment can affect brain activity in areas responsible for processing different senses, including sight or touch ... Methodology ... Results ... Study Team. In addition to Tina Weis, the study team also includes Andre Brechmann of the Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, and Sebastian Puschmann and Christiane M....(size: 4.3Kb)
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Gizmodo
24 Sep 2013
Jamie Condliffe - ... A team of researchers from the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics in Potsdam, Germany, have used data from the Radial Velocity Experiment (RAVE) survey to work out the exit velocity required to leave our home galaxy ... For context, a rocket needs to reach 11.2 kilometres per second to escape Earth’s gravity ... Sounds like a challenge. [arXiv via New Scientist]. Image by GSFC ... Comments. Cancel reply ... Ross ... 0. ... ....(size: 3.9Kb)
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New Scientist
23 Sep 2013
Getting out of the galaxy might take an antimatter engine. Future explorers departing the Milky Way will have to boost their spaceship to 0.2 per cent of the speed of light, according to a study of fast-moving stars in our galaxy. Tilmann Piffl at the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics in Potsdam, Germany, and his colleagues used the latest data from the Radial Velocity Experiment (RAVE) survey ... "It's not as massive as we thought."...(size: 2.5Kb)
"Leibniz" redirects here. For other uses, see Leibniz (disambiguation).
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz |
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| Born | July 1, 1646 Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony |
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| Died | November 14, 1716(1716-11-14) (aged 70) Hanover, Electorate of Hanover |
| Era | 17th-century philosophy 18th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy |
| Main interests | Mathematics, metaphysics, logic, theodicy |
| Notable ideas | Infinitesimal calculus Monads Best of all possible worlds Leibniz formula for π Leibniz harmonic triangle Leibniz formula for determinants Leibniz integral rule Principle of sufficient reason Diagrammatic reasoning Notation for differentiation Proof of Fermat's little theorem Kinetic energy Entscheidungsproblem AST |
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Influenced
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| Signature | 128px |
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (sometimes von Leibniz) (German pronunciation: [ˈɡɔtfʁiːt ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈlaɪbnɪts][1] or [ˈlaɪpnɪts][2]) (July 1, 1646 – November 14, 1716) was a German mathematician and philosopher. He wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin (~40%), French (~30%) and German (~15%).[3]
Leibniz occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy. He developed the infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and Leibniz's mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published. His visionary Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity only found mathematical implementation in the 20th century. He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685[4] and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, which is at the foundation of virtually all digital computers. In philosophy, Leibniz is mostly noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th century advocates of rationalism. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy, but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence. Leibniz made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in philosophy, probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics, and information science. He wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibniz's contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters, and in unpublished manuscripts. As of 2012, there is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz.[5]
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life[link]
Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1, 1646 in Leipzig, Saxony (at the end of the Thirty Years' War), to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his family journal: "On Sunday 21 June [NS: 1 July] 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world after six in the evening, ¾ to seven [ein Viertel uff sieben], Aquarius rising."[6] His father, who was of Sorbian ancestry,[7][8] died when Leibniz was six years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibniz's philosophical thoughts in his later life.
Leibniz's father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig and Leibniz inherited his father's personal library. He was given free access to this from the age of seven. While Leibniz's schoolwork focused on a small canon of authorities, his father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and theological works – ones that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his college years.[9] Access to his father's library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language. Leibniz was proficient in Latin by the age of 12, and he composed three hundred hexameters of Latin verse in a single morning for a special event at school at the age of 13.[10]
He enrolled in his father's former university at age 15,[11] and he completed his bachelor's degree in philosophy in December 1662. He defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the Principle of individuation, on June 9, 1663. Leibniz earned his master's degree in philosophy on February 7, 1664. He published and defended a dissertation Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum, arguing for both a theoretical and a pedagogical relationship between philosophy and law, in December 1664. After one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelor's degree in Law on September 28, 1665.[citation needed]
In 1666, (at age 20), Leibniz published his first book, On the Art of Combinations, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in philosophy. His next goal was to earn his license and doctorate in Law, which normally required three years of study then. In 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibniz's doctoral application and refused to grant him a doctorate in law, most likely due to his relative youth (he was 21 years old at the time).[12] Leibniz subsequently left Leipzig.[13]
Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf, and almost immediately he submitted a thesis, which he had probably been working on earlier in Leipzig.[14] The title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis De Casibus Perplexis In Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666. He next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that "my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction.[15]
As an adult, Leibniz often introduced himself as "Gottfried von Leibniz". Also many posthumously published editions of his writings presented his name on the title page as "Freiherr G. W. von Leibniz." However, no document has ever been found from any contemporary government that stated his appointment to any form of nobility.[16]
1666–74[link]
Leibniz's first position was as a salaried alchemist in Nuremberg, even though he knew nothing about the subject.[17] He soon met Johann Christian von Boyneburg (1622–1672), the dismissed chief minister of the Elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn.[18] Von Boyneburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him. Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment. The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for his Electorate.[19] In 1669, Leibniz was appointed Assessor in the Court of Appeal. Although von Boyneburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained under the employment of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674.
Von Boyneburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice. Leibniz's service to the Elector soon followed a diplomatic role. He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious Polish nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown. The main force in European geopolitics during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of Louis XIV of France, backed by French military and economic might. Meanwhile, the Thirty Years' War had left German-speaking Europe exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward. Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows. France would be invited to take Egypt as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the Dutch East Indies. In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed. This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support. In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to Paris for discussion,[20] but the plan was soon overtaken by the outbreak of the Franco-Dutch War and became irrelevant. Napoleon's failed invasion of Egypt in 1798 can be seen as an unwitting implementation of Leibniz's plan.
Thus Leibniz began several years in Paris. Soon after arriving, he met Dutch physicist and mathematician Christiaan Huygens and realised that his own knowledge of mathematics and physics was patchy. With Huygens as mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon pushed him to making major contributions to both subjects, including inventing his version of the differential and integral calculus. He met Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld, the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of Descartes and Pascal, unpublished as well as published. He befriended a German mathematician, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus; they corresponded for the rest of their lives. In 1675 he was admitted by the French Academy of Sciencesas a foreign honorary member, despite his lack of attention to the academy.
When it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the English government in London, early in 1673.[21] There Leibniz came into acquaintance of Henry Oldenburg and John Collins. He met with the Royal Society where he demonstrated a calculating machine the he had designed and had been building since 1670. The machine was able to execute all four basic operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing), and the society quickly made him an external member. The mission ended abruptly when news reached it of the Elector's death, whereupon Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.[22]
The sudden deaths of Leibniz's two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career. In this regard, a 1669 invitation from the Duke of Brunswick to visit Hanover proved fateful. Leibniz declined the invitation, but began corresponding with the Duke in 1671. In 1673, the Duke offered him the post of Counsellor which Leibniz very reluctantly accepted two years later, only after it became clear that no employment in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the Habsburg imperial court was forthcoming.
House of Hanover, 1676–1716[link]
Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676 after making one more short journey to London, where he was later accused by Newton of being shown some of Newton's unpublished work on the calculus.[23] This fact was deemed evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen the calculus from Newton. On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in The Hague where he met Leeuwenhoek, the discoverer of microorganisms. He also spent several days in intense discussion with Spinoza, who had just completed his masterwork, the Ethics.[24] Leibniz respected Spinoza's powerful intellect, but was dismayed by his conclusions that contradicted both Christian and Jewish orthodoxy.
In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counselor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life. Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the ducal library. He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and theological matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period.
Among the few people in north Germany to accept Leibniz were the Electress Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover (1668–1705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and Caroline of Ansbach, the consort of her grandson, the future George II. To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend. In turn, they all approved of Leibniz more than did their spouses and the future king George I of Great Britain.[25]
The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz. Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of Brunswick was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it. In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The British Act of Settlement 1701 designated the Electress Sophia and her descent as the royal family of England, once both King William III and his sister-in-law and successor, Queen Anne, were dead. Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one. For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was formally censured by the British Parliament.
The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous effort Leibniz devoted to intellectual pursuits unrelated to his duties as a courtier, pursuits such as perfecting the calculus, writing about other mathematics, logic, physics, and philosophy, and keeping up a vast correspondence. He began working on the calculus in 1674; the earliest evidence of its use in his surviving notebooks is 1675. By 1677 he had a coherent system in hand, but did not publish it until 1684. Leibniz's most important mathematical papers were published between 1682 and 1692, usually in a journal which he and Otto Mencke founded in 1682, the Acta Eruditorum. That journal played a key role in advancing his mathematical and scientific reputation, which in turn enhanced his eminence in diplomacy, history, theology, and philosophy.
The Elector Ernest Augustus commissioned Leibniz to write a history of the House of Brunswick, going back to the time of Charlemagne or earlier, hoping that the resulting book would advance his dynastic ambitions. From 1687 to 1690, Leibniz traveled extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, seeking and finding archival materials bearing on this project. Decades went by but no history appeared; the next Elector became quite annoyed at Leibniz's apparent dilatoriness. Leibniz never finished the project, in part because of his huge output on many other fronts, but also because he insisted on writing a meticulously researched and erudite book based on archival sources, when his patrons would have been quite happy with a short popular book, one perhaps little more than a genealogy with commentary, to be completed in three years or less. They never knew that he had in fact carried out a fair part of his assigned task: when the material Leibniz had written and collected for his history of the House of Brunswick was finally published in the 19th century, it filled three volumes.
In 1708, John Keill, writing in the journal of the Royal Society and with Newton's presumed blessing, accused Leibniz of having plagiarized Newton's calculus.[26] Thus began the calculus priority dispute which darkened the remainder of Leibniz's life. A formal investigation by the Royal Society (in which Newton was an unacknowledged participant), undertaken in response to Leibniz's demand for a retraction, upheld Keill's charge. Historians of mathematics writing since 1900 or so have tended to acquit Leibniz, pointing to important differences between Leibniz's and Newton's versions of the calculus.
In 1711, while traveling in northern Europe, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great stopped in Hanover and met Leibniz, who then took some interest in Russian matters for the rest of his life. In 1712, Leibniz began a two-year residence in Vienna, where he was appointed Imperial Court Councillor to the Habsburgs. On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Elector George Louis became King George I of Great Britain, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. Even though Leibniz had done much to bring about this happy event, it was not to be his hour of glory. Despite the intercession of the Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, George I forbade Leibniz to join him in London until he completed at least one volume of the history of the Brunswick family his father had commissioned nearly 30 years earlier. Moreover, for George I to include Leibniz in his London court would have been deemed insulting to Newton, who was seen as having won the calculus priority dispute and whose standing in British official circles could not have been higher. Finally, his dear friend and defender, the Dowager Electress Sophia, died in 1714.
Death[link]
Leibniz died in Hanover in 1716: at the time, he was so out of favor that neither George I (who happened to be near Hanover at the time) nor any fellow courtier other than his personal secretary attended the funeral. Even though Leibniz was a life member of the Royal Society and the Berlin Academy of Sciences, neither organization saw fit to honor his passing. His grave went unmarked for more than 50 years. Leibniz was eulogized by Fontenelle, before the Academie des Sciences in Paris, which had admitted him as a foreign member in 1700. The eulogy was composed at the behest of the Duchess of Orleans, a niece of the Electress Sophia.
Personal life[link]
Leibniz never married. He complained on occasion about money, but the fair sum he left to his sole heir, his sister's stepson, proved that the Brunswicks had, by and large, paid him well. In his diplomatic endeavors, he at times verged on the unscrupulous, as was all too often the case with professional diplomats of his day. On several occasions, Leibniz backdated and altered personal manuscripts, actions which put him in a bad light during the calculus controversy. On the other hand, he was charming, well-mannered, and not without humor and imagination.[27] He had many friends and admirers all over Europe.
Philosopher[link]
Leibniz's philosophical thinking appears fragmented, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents. He wrote only two philosophical treatises, of which only the Théodicée of 1710 was published in his lifetime.
Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his Discourse on Metaphysics, which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld. This led to an extensive and valuable correspondence with Arnauld;[28] it and the Discourse were not published until the 19th century. In 1695, Leibniz made his public entrée into European philosophy with a journal article titled "New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances".[29] Between 1695 and 1705, he composed his New Essays on Human Understanding, a lengthy commentary on John Locke's 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the New Essays were not published until 1765. The Monadologie, composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms.
Leibniz met Spinoza in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and has since been suspected of appropriating some of Spinoza's ideas. While Leibniz admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also forthrightly dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions,[30] especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy.
Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a thorough university education in philosophy. He was influenced by his Leipzig professor Jakob Thomasius, who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy. Leibniz also eagerly read Francisco Suárez, a Spanish Jesuit respected even in Lutheran universities. Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of Descartes, Huygens, Newton, and Boyle, but viewed their work through a lens heavily tinted by scholastic notions. Yet it remains the case that Leibniz's methods and concerns often anticipate the logic, and analytic and linguistic philosophy of the 20th century.
The Principles[link]
Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles:[31]
- Identity/contradiction. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and vice versa.
- Identity of indiscernibles. Two distinct things cannot have all their properties in common. If every predicate possessed by x is also possessed by y and vice versa, then entities x and y are identical; to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names. Frequently invoked in modern logic and philosophy. The "identity of indiscernibles" is often referred to as Leibniz's Law. It has attracted the most controversy and criticism, especially from corpuscular philosophy and quantum mechanics.
- Sufficient reason. "There must be a sufficient reason [often known only to God] for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain."[32]
- Pre-established harmony.[33] "[T]he appropriate nature of each substance brings it about that what happens to one corresponds to what happens to all the others, without, however, their acting upon one another directly." (Discourse on Metaphysics, XIV) A dropped glass shatters because it "knows" it has hit the ground, and not because the impact with the ground "compels" the glass to split.
- Law of Continuity. Natura non saltum facit.
- Optimism. "God assuredly always chooses the best."[34]
- Plenitude. "Leibniz believed that the best of all possible worlds would actualize every genuine possibility, and argued in Théodicée that this best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute nature's perfection."
Leibniz would on occasion give a rational defense of a specific principle, but more often took them for granted.[35]
The monads[link]
Leibniz's best known contribution to metaphysics is his theory of monads, as exposited in Monadologie. According to Leibniz, monads are elementary particles with blurred perception of each other. Monads can also be compared to the corpuscles of the Mechanical Philosophy of René Descartes and others. Monads are the ultimate elements of the universe. The monads are "substantial forms of being" with the following properties: they are eternal, indecomposable, individual, subject to their own laws, un-interacting, and each reflecting the entire universe in a pre-established harmony (a historically important example of panpsychism). Monads are centers of force; substance is force, while space, matter, and motion are merely phenomenal.
The ontological essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity. Unlike atoms, monads possess no material or spatial character. They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent. Instead, by virtue of the principle of pre-established harmony, each monad follows a preprogrammed set of "instructions" peculiar to itself, so that a monad "knows" what to do at each moment. (These "instructions" may be seen as analogs of the scientific laws governing subatomic particles.) By virtue of these intrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe. Monads need not be "small"; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case free will is problematic. God, too, is a monad, and the existence of God can be inferred from the harmony prevailing among all other monads; God wills the pre-established harmony.
Monads are purported to having gotten rid of the problematic:
- Interaction between mind and matter arising in the system of Descartes;
- Lack of individuation inherent to the system of Spinoza, which represents individual creatures as merely accidental.
Theodicy and optimism[link]
(Note that the word "optimism" here is used in the classic sense of optimal, not in the mood-related sense, as being positively hopeful.)
The Theodicy[36] tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is optimal among all possible worlds. It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by an all powerful and all knowing God, who would not choose to create an imperfect world if a better world could be known to him or possible to exist. In effect, apparent flaws that can be identified in this world must exist in every possible world, because otherwise God would have chosen to create the world that excluded those flaws.
Leibniz asserted that the truths of theology (religion) and philosophy cannot contradict each other, since reason and faith are both "gifts of God" so that their conflict would imply God contending against himself. The Theodicy is Leibniz's attempt to reconcile his personal philosophical system with his interpretation of the tenets of Christianity.[37] This project was motivated in part by Leibniz's belief, shared by many conservative philosophers and theologians during the Enlightenment, in the rational and enlightened nature of the Christian religion, at least as this was defined in tendentious comparisons between Christian and non Western or "primitive" religious practices and beliefs. It was also shaped by Leibniz's belief in the perfectibility of human nature (if humanity relied on correct philosophy and religion as a guide), and by his belief that metaphysical necessity must have a rational or logical foundation, even if this metaphysical causality seemed inexplicable in terms of physical necessity (the natural laws identified by science).
Because reason and faith must be entirely reconciled, any tenet of faith which could not be defended by reason must be rejected. Leibniz then approached one of the central criticisms of Christian theism:[38] if God is all good, all wise and all powerful, how did evil come into the world? The answer (according to Leibniz) is that, while God is indeed unlimited in wisdom and power, his human creations, as creations, are limited both in their wisdom and in their will (power to act). This predisposes humans to false beliefs, wrong decisions and ineffective actions in the exercise of their free will. God does not arbitrarily inflict pain and suffering on humans; rather he permits both moral evil (sin) and physical evil (pain and suffering) as the necessary consequences of metaphysical evil (imperfection), as a means by which humans can identify and correct their erroneous decisions, and as a contrast to true good.
Further, although human actions flow from prior causes that ultimately arise in God, and therefore are known as a metaphysical certainty to God, an individual's free will is exercised within natural laws, where choices are merely contingently necessary, to be decided in the event by a "wonderful spontaneity" that provides individuals an escape from rigorous predestination.
This theory drew controversy and refutations, that are collected in the article Best of all possible worlds.
Symbolic thought[link]
Leibniz believed that much of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion:
The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate [calculemus], without further ado, to see who is right.[39]
Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of making such calculations feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda[40] that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic—and thus his calculus—off the ground. But Gerhard and Couturat did not publish these writings until modern formal logic had emerged in Frege's Begriffsschrift and in writings by Charles Sanders Peirce and his students in the 1880s, and hence well after Boole and De Morgan began that logic in 1847.
Leibniz thought symbols were important for human understanding. He attached so much importance to the invention of good notations that he attributed all his discoveries in mathematics to this. His notation for the infinitesimal calculus is an example of his skill in this regard. C.S. Peirce, a 19th-century pioneer of semiotics, shared Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, and his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics.
But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a character as any written sign, he then defined a "real" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply as the word embodying the idea. Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning. Many characters well known in his day, including Egyptian hieroglyphics, Chinese characters, and the symbols of astronomy and chemistry, he deemed not real.[41] Instead, he proposed the creation of a characteristica universalis or "universal characteristic", built on an alphabet of human thought in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique "real" character:
It is obvious that if we could find characters or signs suited for expressing all our thoughts as clearly and as exactly as arithmetic expresses numbers or geometry expresses lines, we could do in all matters insofar as they are subject to reasoning all that we can do in arithmetic and geometry. For all investigations which depend on reasoning would be carried out by transposing these characters and by a species of calculus.[42]
Complex thoughts would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gödel numbering. Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers. Leibniz's idea of reasoning through a universal language of symbols and calculations however remarkably foreshadows great 20th century developments in formal systems, such as Turing completeness, where computation was used to define equivalent universal languages (see Turing degree).
Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the characteristic, at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought", modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting characteristic included a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his analysis situs (geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more.
What Leibniz actually intended by his characteristica universalis and calculus ratiocinator, and the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to the calculus, may never be established.[43]
Formal logic[link]
Main article: Algebraic logic
Leibniz is the most important logician between Aristotle and 1847, when George Boole and Augustus De Morgan each published books that began modern formal logic. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, set inclusion, and the empty set. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two:
- All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the alphabet of human thought.
- Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication.
The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary negation and quantified variables ranging over some universe of discourse.
Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts. In his book History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell went so far as to claim that Leibniz had developed logic in his unpublished writings to a level which was reached only 200 years later.
Mathematician[link]
Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular.[44] In the 18th century, "function" lost these geometrical associations.
Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of linear equations could be arranged into an array, now called a matrix, which can be manipulated to find the solution of the system, if any. This method was later called Gaussian elimination. Leibniz's discoveries of Boolean algebra and of symbolic logic, also relevant to mathematics, are discussed in the preceding section. The best overview of Leibniz's writings on the calculus may be found in Bos (1974).[45]
Calculus[link]
Leibniz is credited, along with Sir Isaac Newton, with the invention of infinitesimal calculus (that comprises differential and integral calculus). According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on November 11, 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of a function y = ƒ(x). He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the integral sign ∫ representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa and the d used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia. This cleverly suggestive notation for the calculus is probably his most enduring mathematical legacy. Leibniz did not publish anything about his calculus until 1684.[46] The product rule of differential calculus is still called "Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule.
Leibniz exploited infinitesimals in developing the calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting that they had paradoxical algebraic properties. George Berkeley, in a tract called The Analyst and also in De Motu, criticized these. A recent study argues that Leibnizian calculus was free of contradictions, and was better grounded than Berkeley's empiricist criticisms.[47]
From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with John Keill, Newton and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton. This subject is treated at length in the article Leibniz-Newton controversy.
Infinitesimals were officially banned from mathematics by the followers of Karl Weierstrass, but survived in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the fundamental computational device known as the differential. Beginning in 1960, Abraham Robinson worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using model theory, in the context of a field of hyperreal numbers. The resulting non-standard analysis can be seen as a belated vindication of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning. Robinson's transfer principle is a mathematical implementation of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity.
Topology[link]
Leibniz was the first to use the term analysis situs,[48] later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as topology. There are two takes on this situation. On the one hand, Mates, citing a 1954 paper in German by Jacob Freudenthal, argues:
Although for Leibniz the situs of a sequence of points is completely determined by the distance between them and is altered if those distances are altered, his admirer Euler, in the famous 1736 paper solving the Königsberg Bridge Problem and its generalizations, used the term geometria situs in such a sense that the situs remains unchanged under topological deformations. He mistakenly credits Leibniz with originating this concept. ...it is sometimes not realized that Leibniz used the term in an entirely different sense and hence can hardly be considered the founder of that part of mathematics.[49]
But Hideaki Hirano argues differently, quoting Mandelbrot:[50]
To sample Leibniz' scientific works is a sobering experience. Next to calculus, and to other thoughts that have been carried out to completion, the number and variety of premonitory thrusts is overwhelming. We saw examples in 'packing,'... My Leibniz mania is further reinforced by finding that for one moment its hero attached importance to geometric scaling. In "Euclidis Prota"..., which is an attempt to tighten Euclid's axioms, he states,...: 'I have diverse definitions for the straight line. The straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole, and it alone has this property, not only among curves but among sets.' This claim can be proved today.[51]
Thus the fractal geometry promoted by Mandelbrot drew on Leibniz's notions of self-similarity and the principle of continuity: natura non facit saltus. We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that "the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole", he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As for "packing", Leibniz told to his friend and correspondent Des Bosses to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept.
Scientist and engineer[link]
Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge. Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's Mathematical Writings.
Physics[link]
See also: Dynamism (metaphysics)
Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging about him, often disagreeing with Descartes and Newton. He devised a new theory of motion (dynamics) based on kinetic energy and potential energy, which posited space as relative, whereas Newton was thoroughly convinced that space was absolute. An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his Specimen Dynamicum of 1695.[52]
Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the quantum mechanics governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense. For instance, he anticipated Albert Einstein by arguing, against Newton, that space, time and motion are relative, not absolute.[citation needed] Leibniz's rule is an important, if often overlooked, step in many proofs in diverse fields of physics. The principle of sufficient reason has been invoked in recent cosmology, and his identity of indiscernibles in quantum mechanics, a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense. Those who advocate digital philosophy, a recent direction in cosmology, claim Leibniz as a precursor.
[edit] The vis viva
Leibniz's vis viva (Latin for living force) is mv2, twice the modern kinetic energy. He realized that the total energy would be conserved in certain mechanical systems, so he considered it an innate motive characteristic of matter.[53] Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute. His vis viva was seen as rivaling the conservation of momentum championed by Newton in England and by Descartes in France; hence academics in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea. In reality, both energy and momentum are conserved, so the two approaches are equally valid.
Other natural science[link]
By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern geology. In embryology, he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers. In the life sciences and paleontology, he revealed an amazing transformist intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils. One of his principal works on this subject, Protogaea, unpublished in his lifetime, has recently been published in English for the first time. He worked out a primal organismic theory.[54] In medicine, he exhorted the physicians of his time—with some results—to ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view.
Social science[link]
In psychology,[55] he anticipated the distinction between conscious and unconscious states. In public health, he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over epidemiology and veterinary medicine. He worked to set up a coherent medical training programme, oriented towards public health and preventive measures. In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance program, and discussed the balance of trade. He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as game theory. In sociology he laid the ground for communication theory.
Technology[link]
In 1906, Garland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work. To date, few of these writings have been translated into English. Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life. Following the motto theoria cum praxis, he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of applied science. He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc. With Denis Papin, he invented a steam engine. He even proposed a method for desalinating water. From 1680 to 1685, he struggled to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the Harz Mountains, but did not succeed.[56]
Computation[link]
Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist.[57] Early in life, he documented the binary numeral system (base 2), then revisited that system throughout his career.[58] He anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and algorithmic information theory. His calculus ratiocinator anticipated aspects of the universal Turing machine. In 1934, Norbert Wiener claimed to have found in Leibniz's writings a mention of the concept of feedback, central to Wiener's later cybernetic theory.
In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetical operations, gradually improving it over a number of years. This "Stepped Reckoner" attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the Royal Society in 1673. A number of such machines were made during his years in Hanover, by a craftsman working under Leibniz's supervision. It was not an unambiguous success because it did not fully mechanize the operation of carrying. Couturat reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.[59]
Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace. In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.[60] Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679.
Librarian[link]
While serving as librarian of the ducal libraries in Hanover and Wolfenbuettel, Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of library science. The latter library was enormous for its day, as it contained more than 100,000 volumes, and Leibniz helped design a new building for it, believed to be the first building explicitly designed to be a library. He also designed a book indexing system in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing. He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to Gutenberg. Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the Library of Congress and the British Library.
He called for the creation of an empirical database as a way to further all sciences. His characteristica universalis, calculus ratiocinator, and a "community of minds"—intended, among other things, to bring political and religious unity to Europe—can be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., Esperanto and its rivals), symbolic logic, even the World Wide Web.
Advocate of scientific societies[link]
Leibniz emphasized that research was a collaborative endeavor. Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the British Royal Society and the French Academie Royale des Sciences. More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Berlin. Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the Berlin Academy of Sciences was created. Leibniz drew up its first statutes, and served as its first President for the remainder of his life. That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works.[61]
Lawyer, moralist[link]
With the possible exception of Marcus Aurelius, no philosopher has ever had as much experience with practical affairs of state as Leibniz. Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics[62] were long overlooked by English-speaking scholars, but this has changed of late.[63]
While Leibniz was no apologist for absolute monarchy like Hobbes, or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary John Locke, views invoked in support of democracy, in 18th-century America and later elsewhere. The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boyneburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments:
As for.. the great question of the power of sovereigns and the obedience their peoples owe them, I usually say that it would be good for princes to be persuaded that their people have the right to resist them, and for the people, on the other hand, to be persuaded to obey them passively. I am, however, quite of the opinion of Grotius, that one ought to obey as a rule, the evil of revolution being greater beyond comparison than the evils causing it. Yet I recognize that a prince can go to such excess, and place the well-being of the state in such danger, that the obligation to endure ceases. This is most rare, however, and the theologian who authorizes violence under this pretext should take care against excess; excess being infinitely more dangerous than deficiency.[64]
In 1677, Leibniz called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences;[65] this is sometimes tendentiously considered an anticipation of the European Union. He believed that Europe would adopt a uniform religion. He reiterated these proposals in 1715.
Ecumenism[link]
Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called ecumenical endeavor, seeking to reconcile first the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches, later the Lutheran and Reformed churches. In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boyneburg and the Duke John Frederick—both cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adults—who did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others. (The House of Brunswick remained Lutheran because the Duke's children did not follow their father.) These efforts included corresponding with the French bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, and involved Leibniz in a fair bit of theological controversy. He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the Reformation.
Philologist[link]
Leibniz the philologist was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about vocabulary and grammar that came his way. He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars in his day, that Hebrew was the primeval language of the human race. He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that a form of proto-Swedish was the ancestor of the Germanic languages. He puzzled over the origins of the Slavic languages, was aware of the existence of Sanskrit, and was fascinated by classical Chinese.
He published the princeps editio (first modern edition) of the late medieval Chronicon Holtzatiae, a Latin chronicle of the County of Holstein.
Sinophile[link]
Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellect to take a close interest in Chinese civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other works by, European Christian missionaries posted in China. Having read Confucius Sinicus Philosophus on the first year of its publication,[66] he concluded that Europeans could learn much from the Confucian ethical tradition. He mulled over the possibility that the Chinese characters were an unwitting form of his universal characteristic. He noted with fascination how the I Ching hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.[67]
Leibniz's attraction to Chinese philosophy originates from his perception that Chinese philosophy was similar to his own.[66] The historian E.R. Hughes suggests that Leibniz's ideas of "simple substance" and "pre-established harmony" were directly influenced by Confucianism, pointing to the fact that they were conceived during the period that he was reading Confucius Sinicus Philosophus.[66]
As polymath[link]
While making his grand tour of European archives to research the Brunswick family history that he never completed, Leibniz stopped in Vienna between May 1688 and February 1689, where he did much legal and diplomatic work for the Brunswicks. He visited mines, talked with mine engineers, and tried to negotiate export contracts for lead from the ducal mines in the Harz mountains. His proposal that the streets of Vienna be lit with lamps burning rapeseed oil was implemented. During a formal audience with the Austrian Emperor and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a Concordat between the Habsburgs and the Vatican, and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund. He wrote and published an important paper on mechanics.
Leibniz also wrote a short paper, first published by Louis Couturat in 1903,[68] summarizing his views on metaphysics. The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing critical edition finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 1677–90. Couturat's reading of this paper was the launching point for much 20th-century thinking about Leibniz, especially among analytic philosophers. But after a meticulous study of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688—a study the 1999 additions to the critical edition made possible—Mercer (2001) begged to differ with Couturat's reading; the jury is still out.
Posthumous reputation[link]
As a mathematician and philosopher[link]
When Leibniz died, his reputation was in decline. He was remembered for only one book, the Théodicée, whose supposed central argument Voltaire lampooned in his Candide. Voltaire's depiction of Leibniz's ideas was so influential that many believed it to be an accurate description. Thus Voltaire and his Candide bear some of the blame for the lingering failure to appreciate and understand Leibniz's ideas. Leibniz had an ardent disciple, Christian Wolff, whose dogmatic and facile outlook did Leibniz's reputation much harm. He also influenced David Hume who read his Théodicée and used some of his ideas.[69] In any event, philosophical fashion was moving away from the rationalism and system building of the 17th century, of which Leibniz had been such an ardent proponent. His work on law, diplomacy, and history was seen as of ephemeral interest. The vastness and richness of his correspondence went unrecognized.
Much of Europe came to doubt that Leibniz had discovered the calculus independently of Newton, and hence his whole work in mathematics and physics was neglected. Voltaire, an admirer of Newton, also wrote Candide at least in part to discredit Leibniz's claim to having discovered the calculus and Leibniz's charge that Newton's theory of universal gravitation was incorrect.[citation needed] The rise of relativity and subsequent work in the history of mathematics has put Leibniz's stance in a more favorable light.
Leibniz's long march to his present glory began with the 1765 publication of the Nouveaux Essais, which Kant read closely. In 1768, Dutens edited the first multi-volume edition of Leibniz's writings, followed in the 19th century by a number of editions, including those edited by Erdmann, Foucher de Careil, Gerhardt, Gerland, Klopp, and Mollat. Publication of Leibniz's correspondence with notables such as Antoine Arnauld, Samuel Clarke, Sophia of Hanover, and her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, began.
In 1900, Bertrand Russell published a critical study of Leibniz's metaphysics.[70] Shortly thereafter, Louis Couturat published an important study of Leibniz, and edited a volume of Leibniz's heretofore unpublished writings, mainly on logic. They made Leibniz somewhat respectable among 20th-century analytical and linguistic philosophers in the English-speaking world (Leibniz had already been of great influence to many Germans such as Bernhard Riemann). For example, Leibniz's phrase salva veritate, meaning interchangeability without loss of or compromising the truth, recurs in Willard Quine's writings. Nevertheless, the secondary English-language literature on Leibniz did not really blossom until after World War II. This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's bibliography fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946. American Leibniz studies owe much to Leroy Loemker (1904–85) through his translations and his interpretive essays in LeClerc (1973).
Nicholas Jolley has surmised that Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive.[71] Analytic and contemporary philosophy continue to invoke his notions of identity, individuation, and possible worlds, while the doctrinaire contempt for metaphysics, characteristic of analytic and linguistic philosophy, has faded[citation needed]. Work in the history of 17th- and 18th-century ideas has revealed more clearly the 17th-century "Intellectual Revolution" that preceded the better-known Industrial and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. The 17th- and 18th-century belief that natural science, especially physics, differs from philosophy mainly in degree and not in kind, is no longer dismissed out of hand. That modern science includes a "scholastic" as well as a "radical empiricist" element is more accepted now than in the early 20th century. Leibniz's thought is now seen as a major prolongation of the mighty endeavor begun by Plato and Aristotle: the universe and man's place in it are amenable to human reason.
In 1985, the German government created the Leibniz Prize, offering an annual award of 1.55 million euros for experimental results and 770,000 euros for theoretical ones. It is the world's largest prize for scientific achievement.
The collection of manuscript papers of Leibniz at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächische Landesbibliothek were inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register in 2007.[72]
Leibniz biscuits[link]
Leibniz-Keks, a popular brand of biscuits, are named after Gottfried Leibniz. These biscuits honour Leibniz because he was a resident of Hanover, where the company is based.[73]
Writings and edition[link]
Leibniz mainly wrote in three languages: scholastic Latin, French and German. During his lifetime, he published many pamphlets and scholarly articles, but only two "philosophical" books, the Combinatorial Art and the Théodicée. (He published numerous pamphlets, often anonymous, on behalf of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, most notably the "De jure suprematum" a major consideration of the nature of sovereignty.) One substantial book appeared posthumously, his Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain, which Leibniz had withheld from publication after the death of John Locke. Only in 1895, when Bodemann completed his catalogues of Leibniz's manuscripts and correspondence, did the enormous extent of Leibniz's Nachlass become clear: about 15,000 letters to more than 1000 recipients plus more than 40,000 other items. Moreover, quite a few of these letters are of essay length. Much of his vast correspondence, especially the letters dated after 1685, remains unpublished, and much of what is published has been so only in recent decades. The amount, variety, and disorder of Leibniz's writings are a predictable result of a situation he described in a letter as follows:
I cannot tell you how extraordinarily distracted and spread out I am. I am trying to find various things in the archives; I look at old papers and hunt up unpublished documents. From these I hope to shed some light on the history of the [House of] Brunswick. I receive and answer a huge number of letters. At the same time, I have so many mathematical results, philosophical thoughts, and other literary innovations that should not be allowed to vanish that I often do not know where to begin.[74]
The extant parts of the critical edition[75] of Leibniz's writings are organized as follows:
- Series 1. Political, Historical, and General Correspondence. 21 vols., 1666–1701.
- Series 2. Philosophical Correspondence. 1 vol., 1663–85.
- Series 3. Mathematical, Scientific, and Technical Correspondence. 6 vols., 1672–96.
- Series 4. Political Writings. 6 vols., 1667–98.
- Series 5. Historical and Linguistic Writings. Inactive.
- Series 6. Philosophical Writings. 7 vols., 1663–90, and Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain.
- Series 7. Mathematical Writings. 3 vols., 1672–76.
- Series 8. Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings. In preparation.
The systematic cataloguing of all of Leibniz's Nachlass began in 1901. It was hampered by two world wars, the Nazi dictatorship (with the Holocaust, which affected a Jewish employee of the project, and other personal consequences), and decades of German division (two states with the cold war's "iron curtain" in between, separating scholars and also scattering portions of his literary estates). The ambitious project has had to deal with seven languages contained in some 200,000 pages of written and printed paper. In 1985 it was reorganized and included in a joint program of German federal and state (Länder) academies. Since then the branches in Potsdam, Münster, Hannover and Berlin have jointly published 25 volumes of the critical edition, with an average of 870 pages, and prepared index and concordance works.
Selected works[link]
The year given is usually that in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication.
- 1666. De Arte Combinatoria (On the Art of Combination); partially translated in Loemker §1 and Parkinson (1966).
- 1671. Hypothesis Physica Nova (New Physical Hypothesis); Loemker §8.I (partial).
- 1673 Confessio philosophi (A Philosopher's Creed); an English translation is available.
- 1684. Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis (New method for maximums and minimums); translated in Struik, D. J., 1969. A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800. Harvard University Press: 271–81.
- 1686. Discours de métaphysique; Martin and Brown (1988), Ariew and Garber 35, Loemker §35, Wiener III.3, Woolhouse and Francks 1. An online translation by Jonathan Bennett is available.
- 1703. Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire (Explanation of Binary Arithmetic); Gerhardt, Mathematical Writings VII.223. An online translation by Lloyd Strickland is available.
- 1710. Théodicée; Farrer, A.M., and Huggard, E.M., trans., 1985 (1952). Wiener III.11 (part). An online translation is available at Project Gutenberg.
- 1714. Monadologie; translated by Nicholas Rescher, 1991. The Monadology: An Edition for Students. University of Pittsburg Press. Ariew and Garber 213, Loemker §67, Wiener III.13, Woolhouse and Francks 19. Online translations: Jonathan Bennett's translation; Latta's translation; French, Latin and Spanish edition, with facsimile of Leibniz's manuscript.
- 1765. Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain; completed in 1704. Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996. New Essays on Human Understanding. Cambridge University Press. Wiener III.6 (part). An online translation by Jonathan Bennett is available.
Collections[link]
Five important collections of English translations are Wiener (1951), Loemker (1969), Ariew and Garber (1989), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Strickland (2006). The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe.[75]
See also[link]
- General Leibniz rule
- German inventors and discoverers
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover
- Leibniz formula for π
- Leibniz formula for determinants
- Leibniz harmonic triangle
- Leibniz integral rule for differentiation under the integral sign
- Leibniz test
- Leibniz's notation
- Leibniz operator
- Leibniz–Clarke correspondence
- Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy
- Scientific Revolution
- Stepped Reckoner – A mechanical calculator
- Transcendental Law of Homogeneity
Notes[link]
- ^ Max Mangold (ed.), ed. (2005) (in German). Duden-Aussprachewörterbuch (Duden Pronunciation Dictionary) (7th ed.). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut GmbH. ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7.
- ^ Eva-Maria Krech et al. (ed.), ed. (2010) (in German). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary) (1st ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN 978-3-11-018203-3.
- ^ www.gwlb.de. Leibniz-Nachlass (i.e. Legacy of Leibniz), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek (one of the three Official Libraries of the German state Lower Saxony).
- ^ David Smith, p.173-181 (1929)
- ^ Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
- ^ [1] Leibnitiana
- ^ Comenius in England, Oxford University Press 1932, p. 6
- ^ [2] Poland and Germany, Studies Centre on Polish-German Affairs, Greenwood press 1994, p. 30
- ^ Mackie (1845), 21
- ^ Mackie (1845), 22
- ^ Mackie (1845), 26
- ^ Jolley, Nicholas (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge University Press. :20
- ^ Mackie (1845), 38
- ^ Mackie (1845), 39
- ^ Mackie (1845), 40
- ^ Aiton 1985: 312
- ^ Mackie (1845), 41-42
- ^ Mackie (1845), 43
- ^ Mackie (1845), 44-45
- ^ Mackie (1845), 58-61
- ^ Mackie (1845), 69-70
- ^ Mackie (1845), 73-74
- ^ On the encounter between Newton and Leibniz and a review of the evidence, see Alfred Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War: The Quarrel Between Newton and Leibniz (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 44–69.
- ^ Mackie (1845), 117-118
- ^ For a recent study of Leibniz's correspondence with Sophia Charlotte, see MacDonald Ross (1998).
- ^ Mackie (1845), 109
- ^ See Wiener IV.6 and Loemker § 40. Also see a curious passage titled "Leibniz's Philosophical Dream," first published by Bodemann in 1895 and translated on p. 253 of Morris, Mary, ed. and trans., 1934. Philosophical Writings. Dent & Sons Ltd.
- ^ Ariew & Garber, 69; Loemker, §§36, 38
- ^ Ariew & Garber, 138; Loemker, §47; Wiener, II.4
- ^ Ariew & Garber, 272–84; Loemker, §§14, 20, 21; Wiener, III.8
- ^ Mates (1986), chpts. 7.3, 9
- ^ Loemker 717
- ^ See Jolley (1995: 129–31), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Mercer (2001).
- ^ Loemker 311
- ^ For a precis of what Leibniz meant by these and other Principles, see Mercer (2001: 473–84). For a classic discussion of Sufficient Reason and Plenitude, see Lovejoy (1957).
- ^ Rutherford (1998) is a detailed scholarly study of Leibniz's theodicy.
- ^ Magill, Frank (ed.). Masterpieces of World Philosophy. New York: Harper Collins (1990).
- ^ Magill, Frank (ed.) (1990)
- ^ The Art of Discovery 1685, Wiener 51
- ^ Many of his memoranda are translated in Parkinson 1966.
- ^ Loemker, however, who translated some of Leibniz's works into English, said that the symbols of chemistry were real characters, so there is disagreement among Leibniz scholars on this point.
- ^ Preface to the General Science, 1677. Revision of Rutherford's translation in Jolley 1995: 234. Also Wiener I.4
- ^ A good introductory discussion of the "characteristic" is Jolley (1995: 226–40). An early, yet still classic, discussion of the "characteristic" and "calculus" is Couturat (1901: chpts. 3,4).
- ^ Struik (1969), 367
- ^ Jesseph, Douglas M. (1998). "Leibniz on the Foundations of the Calculus: The Question of the Reality of Infinitesimal Magnitudes". Perspectives on Science 6.1&2: 6–40. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_on_science/v006/6.1jesseph.html. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- ^ For an English translation of this paper, see Struik (1969: 271–84), who also translates parts of two other key papers by Leibniz on the calculus.
- ^ Katz, Mikhail; Sherry, David (2012), "Leibniz’s Infinitesimals: Their Fictionality, Their Modern Implementations, and Their Foes from Berkeley to Russell and Beyond", Erkenntnis, arXiv:1205.0174, DOI:10.1007/s10670-012-9370-y
- ^ Loemker §27
- ^ Mates (1986), 240
- ^ HIRANO, Hideaki. "Leibniz's Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law". http://www.t.hosei.ac.jp/~hhirano/academia/leibniz.htm. Retrieved March 10, 2010.
- ^ Mandelbrot (1977), 419. Quoted in Hirano (1997).
- ^ Ariew and Garber 117, Loemker §46, W II.5. On Leibniz and physics, see the chapter by Garber in Jolley (1995) and Wilson (1989).
- ^ See Ariew and Garber 155–86, Loemker §§53–55, W II.6–7a)
- ^ On Leibniz and biology, see Loemker (1969a: VIII).
- ^ On Leibniz and psychology, see Loemker (1969a: IX).
- ^ Aiton (1985), 107–114, 136
- ^ Davis (2000) discusses Leibniz's prophetic role in the emergence of calculating machines and of formal languages.
- ^ See Couturat (1901): 473–78.
- ^ Couturat (1901), 115
- ^ The Reality Club: Wake Up Call for Europe Tech
- ^ On Leibniz’s projects for scientific societies, see Couturat (1901), App. IV.
- ^ See, for example, Ariew and Garber 19, 94, 111, 193; Riley 1988; Loemker §§2, 7, 20, 29, 44, 59, 62, 65; W I.1, IV.1–3
- ^ See (in order of difficulty) Jolley (2005: chpt. 7), Gregory Brown's chapter in Jolley (1995), Hostler (1975), and Riley (1996).
- ^ Loemker: 59, fn 16. Translation revised.
- ^ Loemker: 58, fn 9
- ^ a b c Mungello, David E. (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". Philosophy East and West 21 (1): 3–22. DOI:10.2307/1397760.
- ^ On Leibniz, the I Ching, and binary numbers, see Aiton (1985: 245–48). Leibniz's writings on Chinese civilization are collected and translated in Cook and Rosemont (1994), and discussed in Perkins (2004).
- ^ Later translated as Loemker 267 and Woolhouse and Francks 30
- ^ Vasilyev, 1993
- ^ Russell, 1900
- ^ Jolley, 217–19
- ^ "Letters from and to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz within the collection of manuscript papers of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 2008-05-16. http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=22464&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. Retrieved 2009-12-15.
- ^ "Bahlsen products FAQ". http://www.bahlsen.de/root_bahlsen_anim/index.php.
- ^ 1695 letter to Vincent Placcius in Gerhardt.
- ^ a b www.leibniz-edition.de. See photograph there.
References[link]
Primary literature[link]
- Alexander, H G (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956.
- Ariew, R & D Garber, 1989. Leibniz: Philosophical Essays. Hackett.
- Arthur, Richard, 2001. The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem, 1672–1686. Yale University Press.
- Cohen, Claudine and Wakefield, Andre, 2008. Protogaea. University of Chicago Press.
- Cook, Daniel, and Rosemont, Henry Jr., 1994. Leibniz: Writings on China. Open Court.
- Loemker, Leroy, 1969 (1956). Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters. Reidel.
- Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, 1996 (1981). Leibniz: New Essays on Human Understanding. Cambridge University Press.
- Riley, Patrick, 1988. Leibniz: Political Writings. Cambridge University Press.
- Sleigh, Robert C., Look, Brandon, and Stam, James, 2005. Confessio Philosophi: Papers Concerning the Problem of Evil, 1671–1678. Yale University Press.
- Strickland, Lloyd, 2006. The Shorter Leibniz Texts: A Collection of New Translations. Continuum.
- Ward, A. W. Leibniz as a Politician (lecture, 1911)
- Wiener, Philip, 1951. Leibniz: Selections. Scribner.
- Woolhouse, R.S., and Francks, R., 1998. Leibniz: Philosophical Texts. Oxford University Press.
Secondary literature[link]
- Adams, Robert Merrihew. Lebniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist. New York: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994.
- Aiton, Eric J., 1985. Leibniz: A Biography. Hilger (UK).
- Antognazza, M.R.(2008) Leibniz: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge Univ. Press.
- Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192821478. LC 87-28148. http://books.google.com/books?id=uSykSbXklWEC&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved 31 December 2009.
- Albeck-Gidron, Rachel, The Century of the Monads: Leibniz's Metaphysics and 20th-Century Modernity, Bar-Ilan University Press.
- Bos, H. J. M. (1974) "Differentials, higher-order differentials and the derivative in the Leibnizian calculus," Arch. History Exact Sci. 14: 1—90.
- Couturat, Louis, 1901. La Logique de Leibniz. Paris: Felix Alcan.
- Davis, Martin, 2000. The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing. WW Norton.
- Deleuze, Gilles, 1993. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque. University of Minnesota Press.
- Du Bois-Reymond, Paul, 18nn. "Leibnizian Thoughts in Modern Science".
- Finster, Reinhard & Gerd van den Heuvel. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. 4. Auflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2000 (Rowohlts Monographien, 50481), ISBN 3-499-50481-2.
- Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 1997. The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences. W W Norton.
- Hall, A. R., 1980. Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz. Cambridge University Press.
- Heidegger, Martin, 1983. The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic. Indiana University Press.
- Hirano, Hideaki, 1997. "Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law." Unpublished.
- Hostler, J., 1975. Leibniz's Moral Philosophy. UK: Duckworth.
- Jolley, Nicholas, ed., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge University Press.
- LeClerc, Ivor, ed., 1973. The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World. Vanderbilt University Press.
- Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1957 (1936) "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his The Great Chain of Being. Harvard University Press: 144–82. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor Books.
- Mandelbrot, Benoît, 1977. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman.
- Mackie, John Milton; Guhrauer, Gottschalk Eduard, 1845. Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz. Gould, Kendall and Lincoln.
- Mates, Benson, 1986. The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language. Oxford University Press.
- Mercer, Christia, 2001. Leibniz's metaphysics: Its Origins and Development. Cambridge University Press.
- Morris, Simon Conway, 2003. Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe. Cambridge University Press.
- Perkins, Franklin, 2004. Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light. Cambridge University Press.
- Rensoli, Lourdes, 2002. El problema antropologico en la concepcion filosofica de G. W. Leibniz. Leibnitius Politechnicus. Universidad Politecnica de Valencia.
- Riley, Patrick, 1996. Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise. Harvard University Press.
- Rutherford, Donald, 1998. Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature. Cambridge University Press.
- Struik, D. J., 1969. A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800. Harvard University Press.
- Ward, P. D., and Brownlee, D., 2000. Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Springer Verlag.
- Wilson, Catherine, 1989. 'Leibniz's Metaphysics. Princeton University Press.
- Zalta, E. N., 2000. "A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts", Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy 3: 137–183.
- Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc..
External links[link]
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- An extensive bibliography
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Leibniz" – Douglas Burnham.
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Articles on Leibniz.
- O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz.html .
- George MacDonald Ross, Leibniz, Originally published: Oxford University Press (Past Masters) 1984; Electronic edition: Leeds Electronic Text Centre July 2000
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Works by Gottfried Leibniz at Project Gutenberg
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz at the Open Directory Project
- translations by Jonathan Bennett, of the New Essays, the exchanges with Bayle, Arnauld and Clarke, and about 15 shorter works.
- Leibnitiana – Gregory Brown.
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Texts and Translations, compiled by Donald Rutherford, UCSD
- Leibniz-translations.com Scroll down for many Leibniz links.
- Leibniz Prize.
- Philosophical Works of Leibniz translated by G.M. Duncan
- Leibnitiana, links and resources compiled by Gregory Brown, University of Houston.
- Leibnizian Resources, many links organized by Markku Roinila, University of Helsinki.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm |
| Alternative names | Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm; Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von; von Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm |
| Short description | German philoospher |
| Date of birth | 1646-7-1 |
| Place of birth | Leipzig, Germany |
| Date of death | 1716-11-14 |
| Place of death | Hanover, Germany |
http://wn.com/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Sir Isaac Newton | |
|---|---|
 Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46) |
|
| Born | (1642-12-25)25 December 1642 [NS: 4 January 1643][1] Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth Lincolnshire, England |
| Died | 20 March 1727(1727-03-20) (aged 84) [NS: 31 March 1727][1] Kensington, Middlesex, England |
| Residence | England |
| Nationality | English |
| Fields | Physics, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, alchemy, Christian theology |
| Institutions | University of Cambridge Royal Society Royal Mint |
| Alma mater | Trinity College, Cambridge |
| Academic advisors | Isaac Barrow[2] Benjamin Pulleyn[3][4] |
| Notable students | Roger Cotes William Whiston |
| Known for | Newtonian mechanics Universal gravitation Infinitesimal calculus Optics Binomial series Newton's method Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica |
| Influences | Henry More[5] Polish Brethren[6] |
| Influenced | Nicolas Fatio de Duillier John Keill |
Signature |
|
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727])[1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."[7] His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
The Principia is generally considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written, due, independently, to the specific physical laws the work successfully described, and for the style of the work, which assisted in setting standards for scientific publication down to the present time. Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope[8] and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the study of power series. Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.[9] Newton, although an unorthodox Christian, was deeply religious, and wrote more on Biblical hermeneutics and occult studies than on science and mathematics. Newton secretly rejected Trinitarianism, and feared being accused of refusing holy orders.[10]
Contents |
Life[link]
Early life[link]
Main article: Early life of Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton was born on what is retroactively considered 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[11] Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[12] Newton never married.
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham (where his alleged signature can still be seen upon a library window sill).[1][citation needed] He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He hated farming.[13] Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.[14] The Cambridge psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen considers it "fairly certain" that Newton had Asperger syndrome.[15]
In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge as a sizar – a sort of work-study role.[16] At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers, such as Descartes, and astronomers such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became infinitesimal calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,[17] Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,[18] optics and the law of gravitation. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.[19] Fellows were required to become ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific deadline for ordination and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigious Lucasian Chair. For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II (see "Middle years" section below).
Middle years[link]
Mathematics[link]
Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".[20] His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.[21] The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as:[22]
Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things.
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus. Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus independently, although with very different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a suggestion, however, fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself (published 1687) and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the motion of bodies in orbit"), of 1684. The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But his work extensively uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities: in the Principia itself Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'[23] and explained why he put his expositions in this form,[24] remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles'.
Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[25] and "lequel est presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time.[26] His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684[27] and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".[28]
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.[29] He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.[30] In 1693 the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated, and the book was never completed.
Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. The Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.[31]
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series.
He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow's recommendation. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford was required to become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.[32]
Optics[link]
From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.[34] During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light.[35] Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy. [36] .
He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour.[37]
From this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using a mirror as the objective to bypass that problem.[38] Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope,[38] involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668[39] he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.[40] Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,[41] which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.[42]
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of ‘fits’ that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns, and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."[43] Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.[5] This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.)
In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[44] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query).
In an article entitled "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers[45] it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes, via diagrams, the use of multiple-prism arrays. Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.[45]
Mechanics and gravitation[link]
Further information: Writing of Principia Mathematica
In 1679, Newton returned to his work on (celestial) mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.[41] Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.[46] After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about 9 sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.[47] This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia.
The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that enabled many of the advances of the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years, and are still the underpinnings of the non-relativistic technologies of the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation.
In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis by 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of the spheroidal figure of the Earth, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the solar system – developed in a somewhat modern way, because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the solar system.[48] For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line" (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest).[49]
Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[50] Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression Hypotheses non fingo).
With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[51] He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship. This abruptly ended in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown.[52]
Later life[link]
Main article: Later life of Isaac Newton
In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the Universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works – The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) – were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above).
Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.[53]
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower (and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.[54][55] These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 in the "Law of Queen Anne" Newton moved the Pound Sterling de facto from the silver standard to the gold standard by setting the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in favour of gold. This caused silver sterling coin to be melted and shipped out of Britain. Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.[56]
In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.[58] Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Sir Francis Bacon.
Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her husband, until his death in 1727.[59] His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[60] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle,"[61] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.
Newton died in his sleep in London on 31 March 1727 [OS: 20 March 1726],[1] and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Newton, a bachelor, had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.[62]
After death[link]
Fame[link]
French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[63] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:
Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said "Let Newton be" and all was light.
Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.[64]
Two writers think that the above quote, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than – or in addition to – a statement of modesty.[65][66] On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants published among others by 17th-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.
In a later memoir, Newton wrote:
I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.[67]
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.[68] Newton remains influential to today's scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.[69] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of today's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever;" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[70]
Commemorations[link]
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent. The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[71] The Latin inscription on the base translates as:
Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7. — Translation from G.L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–4.[71]
From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.[72]
A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History.
In popular culture[link]
Main article: Isaac Newton in popular culture
Religious views[link]
Main article: Isaac Newton's religious views
According to most scholars, Newton was a monotheist who believed in biblical prophecies but was Antitrinitarian.[6][73] 'In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin'.[74] Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs."[6] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.[6] In an age notable for its religious intolerance, there are few public expressions of Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to receive holy orders and his refusal, on his death bed, to receive the sacrament when it was offered to him.[6]
In a view disputed by Snobelen,[6] T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Arian view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans and most Protestants.[75] Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."[76]
Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.[77] He also tried unsuccessfully to find hidden messages within the Bible.
Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[78] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[79] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[80] Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work "Celestial Mechanics" had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don't require periodic divine intervention.[81]
Effect on religious thought[link]
Newton and Robert Boyle's mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[82] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[83] and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.[84] Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.[85] These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed people to pursue their own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect themselves with their own rational powers.[86]
Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[87][88][89] His spokesman, Clarke, rejected Leibniz' theodicy which cleared God from the responsibility for l'origine du mal by making God removed from participation in his creation, since as Clarke pointed out, such a deity would be a king in name only, and but one step away from atheism.[90] But the unforeseen theological consequence of the success of Newton's system over the next century was to reinforce the deist position advocated by Leibniz.[91] The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.[92]
End of the world[link]
See also: Isaac Newton's occult studies and eschatology
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."[93]
Enlightenment philosophers[link]
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors — Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally — as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[94]
It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[95] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
Counterfeiters[link]
As warden of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during The Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon's being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convicting the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult. However, Newton proved to be equal to the task.[96] Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.[97] For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties - there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton's personal first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time.[98] Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.[99]
One of Newton's cases as the King's attorney was against William Chaloner.[100] Chaloner's schemes included setting up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turning in the hapless conspirators whom he had entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins.[101] Newton put Chaloner on trial for counterfeiting and had him sent to Newgate Prison in September 1697. But Chaloner had friends in high places, who helped him secure an acquittal and his release.[100] Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at Tyburn gallows.[102]
Laws of motion[link]
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Main article: Newton's laws of motion
The famous three laws of motion (stated in modernised form): Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. The meaning of this law is the existence of reference frames (called inertial frames) where objects not acted upon by forces move in uniform motion (in particular, they may be at rest).
Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{F} , on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec{p} , with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec F = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec p}{\mathrm{\mathrm{d}}t} \, = \, \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t} (m \vec v) \, = \, \vec v \, \frac{\mathrm{d}m}{\mathrm{d}t} + m \, \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec v}{\mathrm{d}t} \,.
If applied to an object with constant mass (dm/dt = 0), the first term vanishes, and by substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic form
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \vec F = m \, \vec a \ .
The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed in order to change an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the newton, named in Newton's honour.
Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two ice skaters pushing against each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the recoil of a firearm, in which the force propelling the bullet is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil).
Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law applies both to a planet and to a falling stone.
The vector nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the Sun would need a forward force to keep it moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the Sun. Even many decades after the publication of the Principia, this counterintuitive idea was not universally accepted, and many scientists preferred Descartes' theory of vortices.[103]
Apple incident[link]
Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree, at the Cambridge University Botanic Garden and the Instituto Balseiro library garden
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[104] Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment,[105] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account, published in 1752, has been made available by the Royal Society)[106] do in fact confirm the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[107]
... We went into the garden, & drank tea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths centre, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the centre. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."
John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[108]
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.
In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[109] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree [110] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale[111] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[112]
Writings[link]
See also: Writing of Principia Mathematica
- Method of Fluxions (1671)
- Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[113]
- De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)
- Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
- Opticks (1704)
- Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25)
- Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
- The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728)
- Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
- An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)
See also[link]
 |
Book: Isaac Newton |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d e During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian or 'Old Style' in Britain and parts of northern Europe (Protestant) and eastern Europe, and the Gregorian or 'New Style', in use in Roman Catholic Europe and elsewhere. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus Newton was born on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 by the Julian calendar, but on 4 January 1643 by the Gregorian. By the time he died, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, prior to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in the UK in 1752, the English new year began (for legal and some other civil purposes) on 25 March ('Lady Day', i.e. the feast of the Annunciation: sometimes called 'Annunciation Style') rather than on 1 January (sometimes called 'Circumcision Style'). Unless otherwise noted, the remainder of the dates in this article follow the Julian Calendar.
- ^ Mordechai Feingold, Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007; accessed 24 February 2009; explained further in Mordechai Feingold " Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation"; Isis, Vol. 84, No. 2 (June, 1993), pp. 310–338
- ^ Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Newton, Isaac, n.4
- ^ Gjersten, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- ^ a b Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 530–1. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.
- ^ a b c d e f [page needed]Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite" (PDF). British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381–419. DOI:10.1017/S0007087499003751. http://www.isaac-newton.org/heretic.pdf.
- ^ Burt, Daniel S. (2001). The biography book: a reader's guide to nonfiction, fictional, and film biographies of more than 500 of the most fascinating individuals of all time. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 315. ISBN 1-57356-256-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=jpFrgSAaKAUC. , Extract of page 315
- ^ "The Early Period (1608–1672)". James R. Graham's Home Page. http://etoile.berkeley.edu/~jrg/TelescopeHistory/Early_Period.html. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
- ^ Błaszczyk, Piotr; Katz, Mikhail; Sherry, David (2012), "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking", Foundations of Science, arXiv:1202.4153, DOI:10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8
- ^ Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution. Oxford University Press. p. 74. ISBN 0-19-509224-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=O61ypNXvNkUC&pg=PA74.
- ^ Cohen, I.B. (1970). Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11, p.43. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons
- ^ This claim was made Dr. Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Dr. Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late 18th century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declares that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general." Charles Hutton "A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1795/6) II p.100.
- ^ Westfall 1994, pp 16–19
- ^ White 1997, p. 22
- ^ James, Ioan (January 2003). "Singular scientists". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (1): 36–39. DOI:10.1258/jrsm.96.1.36. PMC 539373. PMID 12519805. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=539373.
- ^ Michael White, Isaac Newton (1999) page 46
- ^ ed. Michael Hoskins (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy, p. 159. Cambridge University Press
- ^ Newton, Isaac. "Waste Book". Cambridge University Digital Library. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004/. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
- ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (1922–1958). "Newton, Isaac". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ W W Rouse Ball (1908), "A short account of the history of mathematics", at page 319.
- ^ D T Whiteside (ed.), The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton (Volume 1), (Cambridge University Press, 1967), part 7 "The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions", at page 400, in 2008 reprint.
- ^ D Gjertsen (1986), "The Newton handbook", (London (Routledge & Kegan Paul) 1986), at page 149.
- ^ Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, at page 41.
- ^ Newton, 'Principia', 1729 English translation, at page 54.
- ^ Clifford Truesdell, Essays in the History of Mechanics (Berlin, 1968), at p.99.
- ^ In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's Analyse des Infiniment Petits (Paris, 1696).
- ^ Starting with De motu corporum in gyrum, see also (Latin) Theorem 1.
- ^ D T Whiteside (1970), "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica" in Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol.1, pages 116–138, especially at pages 119–120.
- ^ Stewart 2009, p.107
- ^ Westfall 1980, pp 538–539
- ^ Ball 1908, p. 356ff
- ^ White 1997, p. 151
- ^ King, Henry C (2003). ''The History of the Telescope'' By Henry C. King, Page 74. Google Books. ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6. http://books.google.com/?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&dq=history+of+the+telescope&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
- ^ Newton, Isaac. "Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat". Cambridge University Digital Library. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
- ^ Ball 1908, p. 324
- ^ William R. Newman, “Newton’s Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry,” in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283-307. A free access online version of this article can be found at the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project
- ^ Ball 1908, p. 325
- ^ a b White 1997, p170
- ^ Hall, Alfred Rupert (1996). '''Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought''', by Alfred Rupert Hall, page 67. Google Books. ISBN 978-0-521-56669-8. http://books.google.com/?id=32IDpTdthm4C&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=newton+reflecting+telescope++1668+letter+1669&q=newton%20reflecting%20telescope%20%201668%20letter%201669. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
- ^ White 1997, p168
- ^ a b See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 1676–1687' ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document #235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.
- ^ Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007
- ^ Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. MacMillan St. Martin's Press. pp. 363–4.
- ^ Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982). "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter". Isis 73 (4): 523. DOI:10.1086/353114. quoting Opticks
- ^ a b Duarte, F. J. (2000). "Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers". Optics and Photonics News 11 (5): 24–25. Bibcode 2000OptPN..11...24D. DOI:10.1364/OPN.11.5.000024. http://www.opticsjournal.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf.
- ^ R S Westfall, 'Never at Rest', 1980, at pages 391–2.
- ^ D T Whiteside (ed.), 'Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton', vol.6, 1684–1691, Cambridge University Press 1974, at page 30.
- ^ See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pages 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989) The General History of Astronomy, Volume, 2A', at page 233.
- ^ Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's Principia, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) at pages 232–233.
- ^ Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54
- ^ Westfall 1980. Chapter 11.
- ^ Westfall 1980. pp 493–497 on the friendship with Fatio, pp 531–540 on Newton's breakdown.
- ^ White 1997, p. 232
- ^ "[Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter?]". Science Friday. June 5, 2009. NPR.
- ^ Thomas Levenson (2009). Newton and the counterfeiter : the unknown detective career of the world's greatest scientist. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-101278-7. OCLC 276340857.
- ^ White 1997, p.317
- ^ Gerard Michon. "Coat of arms of Isaac Newton". Numericana.com. http://www.numericana.com/arms/index.htm#newton. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
- ^ "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." Westfall 1994 p.245
- ^ Yonge, Charlotte M. (1898). "Cranbury and Brambridge". John Keble's Parishes – Chapter 6. www.online-literature.com. http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
- ^ Westfall 1980, p. 44.
- ^ Westfall 1980, p. 595
- ^ "Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)". Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
- ^ Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx.
- ^ Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in Jean-Pierre Maury (1992) Newton: Understanding the Cosmos, New Horizons
- ^ John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 1543–2001, p 164.
- ^ White 1997, p187.
- ^ Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. Ch. 27)
- ^ "Einstein's Heroes: Imagining the World through the Language of Mathematics", by Robyn Arianrhod UQP, reviewed by Jane Gleeson-White, 10 November 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald
- ^ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of Royal Society scientists and the public". The Royal Society. http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=1324&terms=Newton+beats+Einstein+in+polls+of+scientists+and+the+public.
- ^ "Opinion poll. Einstein voted "greatest physicist ever" by leading physicists; Newton runner-up". BBC News. 1999-11-29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm. Retrieved 2012-01-17.
- ^ a b "Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton". Westminster Abbey. http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton. Retrieved 13 November 2009.
- ^ "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide". Bank of England. http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm. Retrieved 27 August 2009.
- ^ Avery Cardinal Dulles. The Deist Minimum. January 2005.
- ^ [page needed]Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47737-9.
- ^ Pfizenmaier, T.C. (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1): 57–80.
- ^ Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media. ISBN 0-915134-95-0.
- ^ John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, pp. 382–402 after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely.
- ^ Newton to Richard Bentley 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (1959–77), vol 3, p. 233.
- ^ Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31.
- ^ H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 11.
- ^ Neil Degrasse Tyson (November 2005). "The Perimeter of Ignorance". Natural History Magazine. http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance.
- ^ Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720. Cornell University Press. pp. 37, 44. ISBN 0-85527-066-7.
- ^ Westfall, Richard S. (1958). Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-208-00843-8.
- ^ Haakonssen, Knud. "The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick ed.. Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-521-56060-8.
- ^ Frankel, Charles (1948). The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment. New York: King's Crown Press. p. 1.
- ^ Germain, Gilbert G.. A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology. p. 28. ISBN 0-7914-1319-5.
- ^ Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.
- ^ A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65.
- ^ Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.
- ^ H. G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, Manchester University Press, 1998, p. 14.
- ^ Westfall, 1958 p201.
- ^ Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.
- ^ "Papers Show Isaac Newton's Religious Side, Predict Date of Apocalypse". Associated Press. 19 June 2007. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070813033620/http://www.christianpost.com/article/20070619/28049_Papers_Show_Isaac_Newton%27s_Religious_Side,_Predict_Date_of_Apocalypse.htm. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
- ^ Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p2.
- ^ "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 1543–2001, p 241
- ^ White 1997, p. 259
- ^ White 1997, p. 267
- ^ Newton, Isaac. "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica". Cambridge University Digital Library. pp. 265–266. http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
- ^ Westfall 2007, p.73
- ^ a b White 1997, p 269
- ^ Westfall 1994, p 229
- ^ Westfall 1980, pp. 571–5
- ^ Ball 1908, p. 337
- ^ White 1997, p. 86
- ^ Scott Berkun (27 August 2010). The Myths of Innovation. O'Reilly Media, Inc.. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4493-8962-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&pg=PA4. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
- ^ Newton's apple: The real story. New Scientist. 18 January 2010. http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php. Retrieved 10 May 2010
- ^ Hamblyn, Richard (2011). "Newtonian Apples: William Stukeley". The Art of Science. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-0415-2.
- ^ Conduitt, John. "Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge". Newtonproject. Imperial College London. http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
- ^ I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2002) p. 6
- ^ Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths, page 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011). ISBN 978-0-8229-4407-2
- ^ "Brogdale — Home of the National Fruit Collection". Brogdale.org. http://www.brogdale.org/. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
- ^ "From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree". http://www.brogdale.org.uk/image1.php?varietyid=1089. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
- ^ Newton's alchemical works transcribed and online at Indiana University. Retrieved 11 January 2007.
References[link]
- Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-20630-0.
- Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-02-905190-8. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics
- Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature 182 (4629): 149–152. Bibcode 1958Natur.182..149C. DOI:10.1038/182149a0.
- Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 18 (2): 136–145. DOI:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017.
- Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-547-33604-6.
- Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-55742-5.
- Westfall, Richard S. (1980, 1998). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-27435-4.
- Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921355-9.
- Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47737-9.
- White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN 1-85702-416-8.
Further reading[link]
- Andrade, E. N. De C. (1950). Isaac Newton. New York: Chanticleer Press. ISBN 0-8414-3014-4.
- Bardi, Jason Socrates. The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time. 2006. 277 pp. excerpt and text search
- Bechler, Zev (1991). Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-1054-3. .
- Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000). 256 pp. excerpt and text search ISBN 0-684-84392-7
- Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy. MIT Press, 2001. 354 pp. excerpt and text search
- Casini, P. (1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 42 (1): 35–52. DOI:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006. ISSN 0035–9149. JSTOR 531368.
- Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530070-X. See this site for excerpt and text search.
- Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-02-905190-8.
- Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online
- Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22964-2.
- Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
- Dampier, William C.; Dampier, M. (1959). Readings in the Literature of Science. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-486-42805-2.
- de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G.D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972).
- Dobbs, B. J. T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0279-2.
- Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-42233-1.
- Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions 186: 291–297.
- Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
- Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-00189-X. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
- Koyré, A. (1965). Newtonian Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8.
- Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California (1999)
- Pemberton, H. (1728). A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy. London: S. Palmer.
- Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.. ISBN 0-486-25346-5.
- Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147–9; "Discoveries" pp. 150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946).
- Simmons, J. (1996). The Giant Book of Scientists – The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time. Sydney: The Book Company.
- Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A. H. White; originally published in 1752)
- Westfall, R. S. (1971). Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century. London: Macdonald. ISBN 0-444-19611-0.
Religion[link]
- Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
- Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), 342pp . Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
- Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" British Journal for the History of Science 34: 417–438. in JSTOR, argues that his calculus had a theological basis
- Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp. 169–208 in JSTOR
- Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite". British Journal for the History of Science 32 (4): 381–419. DOI:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR 4027945.
- Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (January 1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas 58 (1): 57–80. JSTOR 3653988.
- Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries. (1996) 214pp, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp 77–93 on Newton excerpt and text search,
Primary sources[link]
- Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999). 974 pp.
- Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.
- Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672. Cambridge U. Press, 1984. 627 pp.
- Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition
- Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.
- Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press. (1934).
- Whiteside, D. T. (1967–82). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07740-0. – 8 volumes
- Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77)
- Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), online edition
- Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton, 1850. – Google Books
- Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse.
- Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson.
External links[link]
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- Newton's Scholar Google profile
- ScienceWorld biography by Eric Weisstein
- Dictionary of Scientific Biography
- The Newton Project
- The Newton Project – Canada
- Rebuttal of Newton's astrology (via archive.org)
- Newton's Religious Views Reconsidered
- Newton's Royal Mint Reports
- Newton's Dark Secrets NOVA TV programme
- from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- Isaac Newton, by George Smith
- Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, by George Smith
- Newton's Philosophy, by Andrew Janiak
- Newton's views on space, time, and motion, by Robert Rynasiewicz
- Newton's Castle Educational material
- The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Research on his Alchemical writings
- FMA Live! Program for teaching Newton's laws to kids
- Newton's religious position
- The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia
- Kandaswamy, Anand M. The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context
- Newton's First ODE – A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series
- O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Isaac Newton", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html .
- Isaac Newton at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- The Mind of Isaac Newton Images, audio, animations and interactive segments
- Enlightening Science Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion
- Newton biography (University of St Andrews)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Newton, Sir Isaac". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - and see at s:Author:Isaac Newton for the following works about him:
- “Newton, Sir Isaac” in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John William Cousin, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910.
- “Newton, Isaac,” in Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith, Elder, & Co., (1885-1900)
- Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's life by William Stukeley, 1752
Writings by him[link]
- Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project
- The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel - the collection of all his religious writings
- Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg
- Newton's Principia – read and search
- Descartes, Space, and Body and A New Theory of Light and Colour, modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett
- Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light, full text on archive.org
- Newton Papers, Cambridge Digital Library
- and see at s:Author:Isaac Newton for the following works by him:
- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
- Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light
- Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John
- New Theory About Light and Colour
- An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture
| Parliament of England | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Robert Brady |
Member of Parliament for Cambridge University 1689–1690 With: Robert Sawyer |
Succeeded by Edward Finch |
| Preceded by Anthony Hammond |
Member of Parliament for Cambridge University 1701–1702 With: Henry Boyle |
Succeeded by Arthur Annesley |
| Government offices | ||
| Preceded by Thomas Neale |
Master of the Mint 1700–1727 |
Succeeded by John Conduitt |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Newton, Isaac |
| Alternative names | Newton, Sir Isaac |
| Short description | English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer |
| Date of birth | (1643-01-04)4 January 1643 |
| Place of birth | Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England |
| Date of death | 31 March 1727(1727-03-31) |
| Place of death | Kensington, London, England |
http://wn.com/Isaac_Newton
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Jacques Bouveresse (born August 20, 1940 in Épenoy, Doubs) is a philosopher who has written on subjects including Ludwig Wittgenstein, Robert Musil, Karl Kraus, philosophy of science, epistemology, philosophy of mathematics and analytical philosophy. Bouveresse has been called "an avis rara among the better known French philosophers in his championing of critical standards of thought."[1]
He is now Emeritus Professor at the Collège de France where until 2010 he held the chair of philosophy of language and epistemology. His disciple Claudine Tiercelin was appointed to a chair of metaphysics and philosophy of knowledge upon his retirement.
Contents |
Education and career[link]
Born on 20 August 1940 in Épenoy in the Doubs département of France into a farming family, Jacques Bouveresse completed his secondary education at the seminary of Besançon. He spent two years of preparation for the baccalauréat in philosophy and scholastic theology at Faverney in Haute-Saône. He followed his preparatory literary classes at the Lycée Lakanal in Sceaux, and in 1961 entered the École normale supérieure in Paris.
He presented his doctoral thesis in philosophy on Wittgenstein, entitled "Le mythe de l'intériorité. Expérience, signification et langage privé chez Wittgenstein" .
Beginning with his earliest works, he has consistently constructed his own philosophical and intellectual path, without following the normal routes and modes of academia. In 1976, Wittgenstein was practically unknown in France, as were Musil and the logic and analytical philosophy which he had begun to study in the 1960s. These two last domains notably propelled him towards the lectures of Jules Vuillemin and Gilles Gaston Granger, who at the time were practically alone in occupying themselves with these problems, and with whom he has maintained a lasting friendship.
Academic career :
- 1966-1969 : Assistant to the Section de Philosophie of the Sorbonne (teaching logic)
- 1969-1971 : Maître-Assistant to the UER de Philosophie of the Université Paris I
- 1971-1975 : Attached to the CNRS
- 1975-1979 : Maître de Conférences at the Université Paris I
- 1979-1983 : Professor at the University of Geneva
- 1983-1995 : Professor at the University of Paris
- From 1995 : Professor at the Collège de France in the chair of philosophie du langage et de la connaissance.
Works[link]
Bouveresse`s philosophy is a continuation of the intellectual and philosophical tradition of central Europe (Brentano, Boltzmann, Helmholtz, Frege, the Vienna Circle, Kurt Gödel). His philosophical programme is in nearly all respects similar to the one conducted by many present day Analytic Philosophers.
The thought of Robert Musil[link]
Jacques Bouveresse is interested in the thought of the early 20th-century Austrian writer Robert Musil (who wrote a thesis on philosophy) famous for his novel The Man Without Qualities, as well as the aversion/fascination with which Paul Valéry regarded philosophy.
Incompleteness and philosophy[link]
Apart from his work on Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jacques Bouveresse is interested in the incompleteness theorems of Kurt Gödel and their philosophical consequences. It is on this account that he has attacked, in a popular work Prodiges et vertiges de l'analogie, the use made of these theorems by Régis Debray. Bouveresse denounces the literary distortion of a scientific concept for the purpose of a thesis. This distortion, according to him, has no other purpose than to overwhelm a readership which lacks the training necessary to comprehend such complex theorems. Bouveresse's reproach to Debray is not that he uses a scientific concept for the purpose of an analogy, but that he uses such a difficult to understand theorem in the attempt to provide an absolute justification in the form of the classic sophism of the argument from authority.
According to Bouveresse, the incompleteness of a formal system which applies to certain mathematical systems in no way implies the incompleteness of sociology, which is not a formal system.
Bibliography[link]
(Unless stated otherwise, published by Éditions de Minuit)
- 1969 : La philosophie des sciences, du positivisme logique in Histoire de la philosophie, vol. 4. Ed. François Châtelet
- 1971 : La parole malheureuse. De l'Alchimie linguistique à la grammaire philosophique
- 1973 : Wittgenstein : la rime et la raison, science, éthique et esthétique
- 1976 : Le mythe de l'intériorité. Expérience, signification et langage privé chez Wittgenstein
- 1984 : Le philosophe chez les autophages
- 1984 : Rationalité et cynisme
- 1987 : La force de la règle, Wittgenstein et l'invention de la nécessité
- 1988 : Le pays des possibles, Wittgenstein, les mathématiques et le monde réel
- 1991 : Philosophie, mythologie et pseudo-science, Wittgenstein lecteur de Freud Editions de l'éclat
- 1991 : Herméneutique et linguistique, suivi de Wittgenstein et la philosophie du langage Editions de l'éclat
- 1993 : L'homme probable, Robert Musil, le hasard, la moyenne et l'escargot de l'Histoire, Editions de l'Eclat
- 1994 : 'Wittgenstein', in Michel Meyer, La philosophie anglo-saxonne, PUF
- 1995 : Langage, perception et réalité, vol.1, la perception et le jugement, Editions Jacqueline Chambon
- 1996 : La demande philosophique. Que veut la philosophie et que peut-on vouloir d'elle ?, Editions de l'Eclat
- 1997 : Dire et ne rien dire, l'illogisme, l'impossibilité et le non-sens, Editions Jacqueline Chambon
- 1998 : Le Philosophe et le réel. Entretiens avec Jean-Jacques Rosat, Hachette
- 1999 : Prodiges et vertiges de l'analogie. De l'abus des belles-lettres dans la pensée, Editions Liber-Raisons d'agir
- 2000 : Essais I - Wittgenstein, la modernité, le progrès et le déclin , Agone
- 2001 : Essais II - L'Epoque, la mode, la morale, la satire, Agone
- 2001 : Schmock ou le triomphe du journalisme, La grande bataille de Karl Kraus, Seuil
- 2003 : Essais III : Wittgentstein ou les sortilèges du langage , Agone
- 2001 : La voix de l'âme et les chemins de l'esprit , Seuil, coll Liber
- 2004 : Bourdieu savant & politique, Agone
- 2004 : Langage, perception et réalité, tome 2, Physique, phénoménologie et grammaire, Ed. Jacqueline Chambon
- 2004 : Essais IV - Pourquoi pas des philosophes, Agone
- 2005: Robert Musil. L'homme probable, le hasard, la moyenne et l'escargot de l'histoire, (new edition of 1993 above), Editions de l'éclat
- 2006 : Essais V - Descartes, Leibniz, Kant, Agone
References[link]
- ^ Merquior, JG (1991). Foucault. London: FontanaPress. p. 154. ISBN 0-00-686226-8.
External links[link]
- Qu'appellent-ils « penser »? Bouveresse on the affaire Sokal and its consequences.
- Entretien paru dans l'Humanité (January 2004).
- Interview about Que peut-on faire de la religion? (December 2012).
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Bouveresse, Jacques |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1940-08-20 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Jacques_Bouveresse
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Bouveresse
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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