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Constitutional monarchy (or limited monarchy) is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified, or blended constitution. This form of government differs from absolute monarchy in which an absolute monarch serves as the source of power in the state and is not legally bound by any constitution and has the powers to regulate his or her respective government.

Most constitutional monarchies employ a parliamentary system in which the monarch may have strictly ceremonial duties or may have reserve powers, depending on the constitution. Under most modern constitutional monarchies there is also a prime minister who is the head of government and exercises effective political power. There also exist today several federal constitutional monarchies. In these countries, each subdivision has a distinct government and head of government, but all subdivisions share a monarch who is head of state of the federation as a united whole.

Contemporary constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms, Belgium, Bhutan, Bahrain, Cambodia, Denmark, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Lesotho, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Monaco, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Swaziland, Sweden, and Thailand.

The latest country that was completely transformed from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional democratic monarchy is Bhutan.

Constitutional and absolute monarchy[link]

Constitutional monarchy in the European tradition[link]

In Britain, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 led to a constitutional monarchy restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, although limits on the power of the monarch ('a limited monarchy') are much older than that (see Magna Carta). With the Hanoverian accession in Britain onwards, monarchs saw their powers pass further to their ministers, and Royal neutrality in politics became cemented from around the start of the reign of Queen Victoria (though she had her personal favorites) and enlargements to the franchise. Today, the role is by convention effectively ceremonial.^[1] Instead, the British Parliament and the Government - chiefly in the office of Prime Minister - exercise their powers under 'Royal (or Crown) Prerogative': on behalf of the Monarch and through powers still formally possessed by the Monarch.^[2][3] No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen.^[4]

Constitutional monarchy occurred first in continental Europe, briefly in the early years of the French revolution, but much more widely afterwards. Napoleon Bonaparte is considered the first monarch proclaiming himself as an embodiment of the nation, rather than as a divinely-appointed ruler; this interpretation of monarchy is germane to continental constitutional monarchies. G.W.F. Hegel, in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820), gave it a philosophical justification that concurred with evolving contemporary political theory and the Protestant Christian view of natural law. Hegel's forecast of a constitutional monarch with very limited powers whose function is to embody the national character and provide constitutional continuity in times of emergency was reflected in the development of constitutional monarchies in Europe and Japan. His forecast of the form of government suitable to the modern world may be seen as prophetic: the largely ceremonial offices of president in some modern parliamentary democracies in Europe and e.g. Israel can be perceived as elected or appointed versions of Hegel's constitutional monarch; the Russian and French presidents, with their stronger powers, may also be regarded in Hegelian terms as wielding powers suitable to the embodiment of the national will.^{[citation needed]}

Modern constitutional monarchy[link]

As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was quite a powerful figure, head of the executive branch even though his or her power was limited by the constitution and the elected parliament. Some of the framers of the US Constitution may have conceived of the president as being an elected constitutional monarch, as the term was understood in their time, following Montesquieu's account of the separation of powers.^[5]

The present concept of constitutional monarchy developed in the United Kingdom, where it was the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the prime minister, who had become those who exercised power, with the monarchs voluntarily ceding it and contenting themselves with the titular position. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, while still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of "servants of the people" to reflect the new, egalitarian view. In the course of France's July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled "King of the French" rather than "King of France".

Following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. In the kind of constitutional monarchy established under the Constitution of the German Empire which Bismarck inspired, the Kaiser retained considerable actual executive power, and the Prime Minister needed no parliamentary vote of confidence and ruled solely by the imperial mandate. However, this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germany's defeat in the First World War. Later on, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a "constitutional monarchy" of a kind, in the sense that there was a king as the titular head of state while actual power was held by Benito Mussolini under a constitution. This eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain.

In present terms, the difference between a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy and one that is a republic is sometimes considered more one of detail than of substance. In both cases, the titular head of state - monarch or president - serves the traditional role of embodying and representing the nation, while the actual governing is carried out by a cabinet composed predominantly of elected Members of Parliament. In some cases, constitutional monarchies have been dubbed "crowned republics".^[6]

However, there are three important factors that set aside monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament. These are the issue of Royal Prerogative where the reigning monarch may continue to exercise power under certain very limited circumstances, Sovereign Immunity where they are considered to have done no wrong under the law, and may avoid both taxation and planning permission for example, and considerable ceremonial power where the executive, judiciary, police and armed forces owe allegiance to the Crown.

Today constitutional monarchies are mostly associated with Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein, and Sweden. However, the two most populous constitutional monarchies in the world are in Asia: Japan and Thailand. In such cases it is the prime minister who holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the King or Queen (or other monarch, such as a Grand Duke, in the case of Luxembourg, or Prince in the case of Monaco and Liechtenstein) retains only residual (but not always minor) powers. The powers of the monarch differ between countries. In the Netherlands, Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the Monarch formally appoints a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election, while in Norway the King chairs special meetings of the cabinet.

In nearly all cases, the monarch is still the nominal chief executive, but is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet. Only a few monarchies (most notably Japan and Sweden) have amended their constitutions so that the monarch is no longer even the nominal chief executive.

The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the world today are the sixteen Commonwealth realms under Elizabeth II.^[7] Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and her Governors-General in the Commonwealth realms hold significant "reserve" or "prerogative" powers, to be wielded in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crises usually to uphold parliamentary government. An instance of a Governor General exercising his power was during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, when the Australian Prime Minister of the time, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed by the Governor-General. The Australian senate had threatened to block the Government's budget by refusing to pass the associated appropriation bills. On 11 November 1975, Whitlam intended to call a half-Senate election in an attempt to break the deadlock. When he went to seek the Governor-General's approval of the election, the Governor-General instead dismissed him as Prime Minister, and shortly thereafter installed leader of the opposition Malcolm Fraser in his place. Acting quickly before all parliamentarians became aware of the change of government, Fraser and his allies were able to secure passage of the appropriation bills, and the Governor-General dissolved Parliament for a double dissolution election. Fraser and his government were returned with a massive majority. This led to much speculation among Whitlam's supporters as to whether this use of the Governor-General's reserve powers was appropriate, and whether Australia should become a republic. Among supporters of constitutional monarchy however, the experience confirmed the value of the monarchy as a source of checks and balances against elected politicians who might seek powers in excess of those conferred by their respective constitutions, and ultimately as a safeguard against dictatorship.

In Thailand's constitutional monarchy, the monarch is recognized as the Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, Upholder of the Buddhist Religion, and Defender of the Faith. The current King, Bhumibol Adulyadej, is the longest reigning current monarch in the world and in all of Thailand's history.^[8] Bhumibol has reigned through several political changes in the Thai government. He has played an influential role in each incident, often acting as mediator between disputing political opponents. (See Bhumibol's role in Thai Politics.) While the monarch retains some powers from the constitution, most particular is lèse majesté which protects the image and ability of the monarch to play a role in politics and carries modest criminal penalties for violators. Generally, the Thai people are reverent of Bhumibol. Much of his social influence comes from that and the fact that the royal family is often involved in socio-economic improvement efforts.

In both the United Kingdom and elsewhere, a common debate centres around when it is appropriate for a monarch to use his or her political powers. When a monarch does act, political controversy can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is seen to be compromised in favour of a partisan goal, while some political scientists champion the idea of an "interventionist monarch" as a check against possible illegal action by politicians. There are currently 44 monarchies, and most of them are constitutional monarchies.

• 

  Constitutional monarchies with representative parliamentary systems are shown in green. Other constitutional monarchies are shown in light green.

List of current reigning monarchies[link]

The following is a list of reigning monarchies. Except where noted, monarch selection is hereditary as directed by the state's constitution.

State	Last constitution established	Type of monarchy	Monarch selection
Antigua and Barbuda	1981	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Andorra	1993	Co-Principality	Selection of Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and election of French President
Australia	1901	Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy.	Hereditary succession.
The Bahamas	1973	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Barbados	1966	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Bahrain	2002	Kingdom
Belgium	1831	Kingdom; popular monarchy[9]
Belize	1981	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Bhutan	2007	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Cambodia	1993	Kingdom	Chosen by throne council
Canada	1867 (last updated 1982)	Constitutional Monarchy and Federal Parliamentary Democracy.	Hereditary succession.
Denmark	1953
Greenland	2009	Parliamentary Democracy and Constitutional Monarchy.	Hereditary succession.
Grenada	1974	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Jamaica	1962	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Japan	1946	Empire	Hereditary succession
Jordan	1952	Kingdom
Kuwait	1962	Emirate	Hereditary succession, with directed approval of the House of Al-Sabah and majority of National Assembly
Lesotho	1993	Kingdom	Hereditary succession directed approval of College of Chiefs[citation needed]
Liechtenstein	1862	Principality
Luxembourg	1868	Grand duchy
Malaysia	1957	Elective monarchy; Federal monarchy	Selected from nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay states
Monaco	1911	Principality
Morocco	1666	Kingdom
Netherlands	1815	Kingdom
Norway	1814	Kingdom
New Zealand	1907	Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy.	Hereditary succession.
Papua New Guinea	1975	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Saint Kitts and Nevis	1983	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Saint Lucia	1979	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	1979	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Solomon Islands	1978	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
Spain	1978	Kingdom
Swaziland	1968	Kingdom; Mixture of absolute and constitutional monarchy	Hereditary succession
Sweden	1974	Kingdom	Switched from semi-constitutional monarchy to constitutional monarchy
Thailand	2007	Kingdom
Tonga	1970	Kingdom
Tuvalu	1978	Kingdom	Hereditary succession.
United Arab Emirates	1971	Federal Union of Emirate Elective monarchy	President elected by the seven absolute monarchs constituting the Federal Supreme Council
United Kingdom	1688	Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy.	Hereditary succession.

Former monarchies[link]

• The Chinese Empire - last Imperial Chinese rule was by the Qing Dynasty 清朝 1644–1912 - During its reign, the Qing Dynasty became highly integrated with Chinese culture. However, its military power weakened during the 19th century, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. The Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution, when the Empress Dowager Longyu abdicated on behalf of the last emperor, Puyi, on February 12, 1912.
• The Korean Empire (Korean: 대한제국, Hanja: 大韓帝國) from 1897 to 1910 - was an empire of Korea that succeeded the Joseon Dynasty that ruled the nation over the past 500 years. On August 22, 1910, the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan with the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty, beginning a 35-year period of Korea under Japanese rule.
• The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed after the Union of Lublin in 1569 and lasting until the final partition of the state in 1795, operated much like many modern European constitutional monarchies (into which it was officially changed by the establishment of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls "the first constitution of its kind in Europe"^[10]). The legislators of the unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as a republic under the presidency of the King. Poland-Lithuania also followed the principle of "Rex regnat et non gubernat", had a bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern United Kingdom. The King was elected, and had the duty of maintaining the people's rights.
• The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was a brief period in the history of Corsica (1794–1796) when the island broke with Revolutionary France and sought military protection from Great Britain. Corsica became an independent kingdom under George III of England, but with its own elected parliament and a written constitution guaranteeing local autonomy and democratic rights.
• France, several times during the 19th century. Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in what was ostensibly a constitutional monarchy, though modern historians often class his reign as a military dictatorship. The Bourbon Restoration (under Louis XVIII and Charles X), the July Monarchy (under Louis-Philippe), and the Second Empire (under Napoleon III) were also constitutional monarchies, although the power of the monarch varied considerably between them.
• The German Empire from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German Empire.
• Prior to the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Iran was a constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, which had been originally established during the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1906.
• Portugal between 1822-1823, 1826-1828 and finally from 1834 until 1910, when Manuel II was overthrown by a military coup.
• Kingdom of Serbia, until 1918, when it merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into the unitary Yugoslav Kingdom, that was led by the Serbian dynasty of Karadjordjevic
• Mexico was twice an Empire. First from July 21, 1822, to March 19, 1823, with Agustín de Iturbide serving as emperor. Then, with the help of the Austrian and Spanish crowns, Napoleon III of France installed Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico. This attempt to create a European-style monarchy lasted three years, from 1864 to 1867.
• Brazil from 1815 (United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves) until 1822, with the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of Brazil by Pedro I of Brazil. The empire ended in 1889, when Pedro II was deposed by a military coup.
• Hawaiʻi was a constitutional monarchy from the unification of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and the Hawaiʻi (or the "Big Island") in 1810 until the overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893 by conspirators from United States.
• The Grand Principality of Finland was a constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, was simultaneously an autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia.
• The Kingdom of Laos was a constitutional monarchy until 1975, when Sisavang Vatthana was forced to abdicate by the communist, the Pathet Lao.
• The Kingdom of Hungary. In 1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary. In the interwar period (1920–1944) Hungary remained a constitutional monarchy without a reigning monarch.
• Montenegro until 1918 when it merged with Serbia and other areas to form Yugoslavia.
• Yugoslavia until 1945 when Peter II was deposed by the communist government.
• Kingdom of Romania until 1947 when Michael I was forced to abdicate at gunpoint by the communists.
• Kingdom of Bulgaria until 1946 when Tsar Simeon was deposed by the communist assembly.
• Greece until 1967 when Constantine II was deposed by the military government. The decision was formalised by a plebiscite in 05/04/1974.
• Italy until June 2, 1946, when a referendum proclaimed the end of the Kingdom and the beginning of the Republic.
• Many Commonwealth republics were constitutional monarchies for some period after their independence.
• Nepal until May 28, 2008, when King Gyanendra was deposed, and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was declared.
• Iceland The Act of Union, a 1 December 1918 agreement with Denmark, established Iceland as a sovereign kingdom united with Denmark under a common king. Iceland abolished the monarchy and became a republic on 17 June 1944 after the Icelandic constitutional referendum, 24 May 1944.
• Kingdom of Mysore

Other situations[link]

• Andorra is the only monarchy where the head of state is vested jointly in two individuals: co-princes (Bishop of Urgell, President of France)
• Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein are the only countries with a reigning Prince.
• Japan is the only country with a reigning Emperor.
• Luxembourg is the only country with a reigning Grand Duke.

See also[link]

• Figurehead
• Australian Monarchist League

Notes[link]

References[link]

This includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2007)

• G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Allen W. Wood, ed., H.B. Nisbet, trans.) Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-34438-7 (originally published as Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, Philosophie des Rechts, 1820).
• John Locke, Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration. (Ian Shapiro, ed., with essays by John Dunn, Ruth W. Grant and Ian Shapiro.) New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003 (Two Treatises first pub. 1690). ISBN 0-300-10017-5.

Professor Adam Tomkins is a British legal scholar and John Millar Professor of Public Law at the School of Law of the University of Glasgow.

Tomkins was educated at the University of East Anglia (LL.B.) and the London School of Economics (LL.M.).^[1] He taught at the School of Law of King’s College London between 1991 and 2000 and became a fellow at St Catherine's College, Oxford in 2000, before being elected to the John Millar Chair of Law at Glasgow in 2003.^[1][2] His research interests lie in constitutional theory and history, British, EU and comparative constitutional law, and republicanism.^[2]

Professor Tomkins has published seven books^[1] in the areas of constitutional, administrative and European Union law, including two, Public Law (2003) and British Government and the Constitution (2007, with Colin Turpin), which are amongst the most widely used by law students in the United Kingdom.^[3]

Professor Tomkins is a member of the group, Republic, a British republican organisation advocating the replacement of the monarchy with a democratically-elected head of state,^[4] and has published Our Republican Constitution, a republican re-interpretation of the United Kingdom's constitution^[1] which claims that the constitution is deeply influenced by republican principles, despite its monarchic nature.^[5]

Professor Tomkins has held visiting appointments at the Universities of Toronto, Queensland and New South Wales and the Australian National University, and has lectured throughout the world.^[3] In April 2009, Professor Tomkins became associated with Ampersand, a stable at the Faculty of Advocates, as part of its Ampersand Academics link between practitioners and academics. Professor Douglas Brodie, head of the School of Law at the University of Edinburgh, has also joined this project. In the summer of 2009 he was appointed legal adviser to the House of Lords Constitution Committee.

He is a supporter of Arsenal F.C..^[1]

References[link]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} "oxford INTELLECT: Adam Tomkins". University of Oxford. http://www.oxfordintellect.com/faculty_tomkins.html. Retrieved 2009-05-31. 
2. ^ ^{a b} "University of Glasgow :: School of Law :: Adam Tomkins". University of Glasgow School of Law. http://www.gla.ac.uk/departments/schooloflaw/staff/academic/tomkinsa/. Retrieved 2009-05-31. 
3. ^ ^{a b} "Ampersand Academics - Professor Adam Tomkins". Ampersand Advocates. http://www.ampersandstable.com/academics/adam-tomkins/. Retrieved 2009-05-31. 
4. ^ "Republic: Supporters". Republic. Archived from the original on 31 May 2009. http://www.republic.org.uk/supporters/index.php. Retrieved 2009-05-31. 
5. ^ "eBooks.com - Our Republican Constitution eBook". eBooks.com. http://www.ebooks.com/ebooks/book_display.asp?IID=270763. Retrieved 2009-05-31. 

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