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The word Sunnah (سنة [ˈsunna], plural سنن sunan [ˈsunan], Arabic) is driven from the root (سن [sa-n-na] Arabic) meaning smooth and easy flow [of water] or direct flow path. The word literally means a clear and well trodden path. In the discussion of the sources of religion, Sunnah denotes the practice of Prophet Muhammad that he taught and practically instituted as a teacher of the sharī‘ah and the best exemplar.^[1] According to Muslim belief, this practice is to be adhered to in fulfilling the divine injunctions, carrying out religious rites and moulding life in accord with the will of God. To institute these practices was, the Qur’ān states, a part of the Prophet’s responsibility as a Messenger of God^{[Quran 3:164][Quran 33:21]}

The sunnah of Muhammad includes his specific words, habits, practices, and silent approvals:^[2] it is significant because it addresses ways of life dealing with friends, family and government.^[2] Recording sunnah was an Arabian tradition and, once people converted to Islam, they brought this custom to their religion.^[3] The sunnah is consulted after referring to the Qur'an, if the issue is not addressed there. The term "Sunni" denotes those who claim to practice these usages, as part of the Ummah.

Etymology[link]

Sunnah (سنة [ˈsunna], plural سنن sunan [ˈsunan]) is an Arabic word that means "habit" or "usual practice".^[4] Sunnis are also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jamā'ah ("people of the tradition and the community (of Muhammad)") or Ahl as-Sunnah for short.

Sunnah and hadith[link]

In the context of biographical records of Muhammad sunnah often stands as synonymous with hadith since most of the personality traits of Muhammad are known from descriptions of him, his sayings and his actions after becoming a prophet at the age of forty. Sunnah, which consists of what Muhammad believed, implied, or tacitly approved, was noted down by his companions in ahadith. Allegiance to the tribal sunnah had been partially replaced by submission to a new universal authority and the sense of brotherhood among Muslims.^[5]

Early Sunni scholars often considered sunnah equivalent to the biography of Mohammed (sira) as the hadith was then poorly validated while contemporary accounts of Muhammad's life were better known. As the hadith came to be better documented and the scholars who validated them gained prestige, the sunnah came often to be known mostly through the hadith, especially as variant or fictional biographies of Muhammad spread.^{[citation needed]}

How far hadith contributes to sunnah is disputed and highly dependent on context.^{[citation needed]} Classical Islam often equates the sunnah with the hadith. Scholars who studied the narrations according to their context (matn) as well as their transmission (isnad) in order to discriminate between them were influential in the development of early Muslim philosophy. In the context of Islamic Law Imam Malik and the Hanafi scholars are assumed to have differentiated between the two: for example Imam Malik is said to have rejected some traditions that reached him because, according to him, they were against the "established practice of the people of Medina".

Sunnah and Islam[link]

Passages in the Qur'an command that the prophet be followed, such as 3:32 "Obey God and His messenger".^[6] For Muslims the imitation of Muhammad helps one to know and be loved by God: one lives in constant remembrance of God.^[2]

Shi'a Muslims do not use the six major hadith collections followed by the Sunni. Instead, their primary collections were written by three authors known as the 'Three Muhammads'.^[7] They are: Kitab al-Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni al-Razi (329 AH), Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih by Muhammad ibn Babuya and Al-Tahdhib and Al-Istibsar both by Shaykh Muhammad Tusi. Unlike Akhbari Twelver Shi'a, Usuli Twelver Shi'a scholars do not believe that everything in the four major books is authentic. In Shia hadith one often finds sermons attributed to Ali in The Four Books or in the Nahj al-Balagha.

Traditional Muslims believe that the sunnah is justified by verses such as "A similar (favour have ye already received) in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in Scripture and Wisdom, and in new knowledge.(2:151)^{[citation needed]} The verse "Verily in the messenger of God you have a good example for him who looks unto God and the Last Day and remembers God much". (33:21), further emphasizes that Muhammad's mission is to teach and exemplify The Qur'an, not just to relate its verses and leave. Muhammad was not to be worshipped or deified but his role was to deliver The Qur'an with comprehensive explanations of how to live according to the Qur'anic guidelines preserved in Sunnah. The teachings of "wisdom" have been declared to be a function of Muhammad along with the teachings of the scripture.^[8]

For a better understanding of "wisdom" (hikmah), one can refer to The Quran itself. For example, verse 4:113 states; "God reveals the Book (i.e. the books of revealed religion, especially The Qur'an) to you, and wisdom, and teaches you that which you did not know. The grace of God towards you has been very great". Verse 2:231 states; "And remember God's grace upon you, and that which He has revealed unto you of Scripture and wisdom whereby He exhorts you". Verse 33:34 states, "And bear in mind which is recited in your houses of the revelations of God and of wisdom".

Some have said that "wisdom" here is simply another name for sunnah. Therefore, along with divine revelation the sunnah was directly taught by God. Modern Sunni scholars are beginning to examine both the sira and the hadith in order to justify modifications to jurisprudence (fiqh). The sunna, in one form or another, would retain its central role in providing a moral example and ethical guidance.

Alternative views on Sunnah[link]

According to the view of some Sufi Muslims who incorporate both the outer and inner reality of Prophet Muhammad, hold the view that the deeper and true Sunnah are the noble characteristics and inner state of Prophet Muhammad. To them the Prophet's attitude, his piety, the quality of his character constitute the truer and deeper aspect of what it means by Sunnah in Islam, rather than the external aspects alone.^[9] They argue that the external customs of the Prophet loses its meaning without the inner attitude and also many Sunnah are simply custom of the Arabs, not something that is unique to Prophet.^[10] and Khuluqin Azim or 'Exalted Character'^[11] in the Quran, real Sunnah cannot be upheld.

According to some scholars, Sunnah predates both the Quran as well as Muhammad, and is actually the tradition of the Prophets of God, specifically the tradition of Abraham. A broad form of Sunnah was already being practised by the Christians, Jews and the Arab descendants of Ismail, when Muhammad reinstituted this practice as an integral part of Islam. Sunnah and Quran both are equally authentic and the former includes worship rituals like Salah, Zakah, Hajj, fasting in Ramadan as well as customs like circumcision^[12]

See also[link]

Islam portal

• Qur'an
• Bid'ah
• Sira
• Sharia
• Fiqh
• Hadith
• Categories of Hadith

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Difference between Hadith and Sunnah
• Musa, Aisha Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008. ISBN 0-230-60535-4.

External links[link]

• The Meaning of "Sunna" in the Qur’an, Qur'anic Studies
• Sunnah and Hadith, Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement

Omar Suleiman
16th Vice President of Egypt
In office 29 January 2011 – 11 February 2011[1]
President	Hosni Mubarak
Preceded by	Hosni Mubarak*
Succeeded by	Sami Hafez Anan (Deputy Leader)
Director of the General Intelligence Directorate
In office 22 January 1993 – 31 January 2011
President	Hosni Mubarak
Preceded by	Nour El Dien Afeefy
Succeeded by	Murad Muwafi
Personal details
Born	(1936-07-02) 2 July 1936 (age 75) Qena, Egypt
Political party	Independent
Alma mater	Egyptian Military Academy Frunze Military Academy Ain Shams University Cairo University
Religion	Sunni Islam
Military service
Allegiance	Egypt
Service/branch	Army
Years of service	1954–present
Rank	Lieutenant General
Battles/wars	North Yemen Civil War[2] Six-Day War[3] October War[3]
*Office vacant from 14 October 1981 – 29 January 2011.

Omar Suleiman (Arabic: عمر سليمان‎, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [ˈʕomɑɾˤ seleˈmæːn]; born 2 July 1936) is a former Egyptian army general, politician, diplomat, and intelligence officer. A leading figure in Egypt's intelligence system beginning in 1986, Suleiman was appointed to the long-vacant Vice Presidency by then-President Hosni Mubarak on 29 January 2011.^[4][5] On 11 February 2011, Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation and ceased being Vice President;^[1] governing power was transferred to the Armed Forces Supreme Council,^[6] of which Suleiman is not a member.^[7] A new head of intelligence services was appointed by the ruling Supreme Council. Suleiman withdrew from the political scene and did not appear in public after announcing Mubarak's resignation.^[8]

Millions of Egyptian citizens^[9] involved in the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 opposed Suleiman or Mubarak remaining in power without elections taking place.^[10][11] Human rights groups tied Suleiman’s career to a regime marked by widespread human rights abuses,^[12][13][14] and asserted that many Egyptians "see Suleiman as Mubarak II."^[12] Torture victims and human rights groups charged that Suleiman oversaw the systematic use of torture on detainees and that in at least one instance he personally tortured a detainee during his career in intelligence.^[15][16][17] In response to the 2011 protests, Suleiman blamed foreign influence and appealed to protestors to go home.^[18]

Early life and education[link]

Suleiman was born in Qena in Upper Egypt. In 1954 at the age of 19, he moved to Cairo to enroll in Egypt's prestigious Military Academy. He received additional military training in the Soviet Union at Moscow's Frunze Military Academy. He participated in both the Six-Day and October wars.^[3] In the mid-1980s, Suleiman earned additional degrees, including a bachelor's degree from Ain Shams University and a master's degree from Cairo University, both in political science. A fluent English speaker,^[19] Suleiman was transferred to military intelligence, where he worked on Egypt-United States relations.

Intelligence career[link]

Torture victims and human rights groups assert Suleiman oversaw the systematic use of torture on detainees and personally tortured a detainee in controversial CIA renditions.^[15][16][17]

Suleiman became deputy head of military intelligence in 1986, and its director in 1991.^[20] In 1993, he became the chief of the Egyptian General Intelligence Service (EGIS). In 1995, he is said to have insisted that President Mubarak ride in an armored car during a visit to Ethiopia. A would-be assassin fired on the vehicle, but Mubarak escaped without injury due to the added precautions.^[21] His name only became known in later years, breaking the tradition of keeping the name of the Egyptian head of Intelligence a secret known only to senior government officials. It was released in the media around 2000.^{[citation needed]}

In his role as Director of EGID, the British newspaper the Daily Telegraph called him "one of the world's most powerful spy chiefs". In 2009, Foreign Policy magazine ranked him as the Middle East's most powerful intelligence chief, ahead of Mossad chief at the time Meir Dagan.^[20][22]

According to diplomatic cables leaked to Wikileaks, Suleiman pledged in 2007 to Yuval Diskin of the Israeli Security Agency (ISA) to "cleanse" Sinai of Palestinian arms smugglers.^[23]

Commentary on disrupting Palestinian elections[link]

Suleiman promised Israel in 2005 that he would prevent Hamas from gaining control over Gaza in the 2006 Palestinian elections, according to a US diplomatic cable. Amos Gilad, head of the Israeli Defense Ministry's Diplomatic-Security Bureau, and Suleiman discussed their common fear of Hamas winning the Palestinian elections set for January 2006. Suleiman asserted to Gilad that there "will be no elections in January. We will take care of it." Suleiman did not elaborate as to how Egypt would stop the Palestinian elections from taking place.^[24] Suleiman was separately quoted as saying Gaza could "go hungry, but not starve."^[25]

The U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv wrote that Suleiman feared Hamas rule in Gaza would bolster the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.^[26] Gilad requested that the U.S. closely hold this information and said he did not know how the Egyptians could prevent the elections from taking place but that the "only people the Palestinians can trust now are the Egyptians."^[27]

CIA "rendition" program[link]

Suleiman was directly implicated in the controversial CIA "rendition" program.^[19][28] Journalist Stephen Grey in his work, Ghost Plane, states that after taking over as intelligence director, Suleiman oversaw an agreement with the US in 1995 that allowed for suspected militants to be secretly transferred to Egypt for questioning.^[29] Although Suleiman's Egyptian Intelligence was required to provide "assurances" that prisoners handed over through this program would not be subjected to torture, at least one CIA officer testified that such assurances from them were unofficially regarded as being as worthless as "a bucket of warm spit".^[19]

Suleiman was accused of complicity in the torture of Al-Qaeda suspects in Egypt,^[30] particularly the case of Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, who was captured and handed over to Suleiman. The information al-Libi gave under torture was cited by US officials in the run-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq as evidence of a connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda. Al-Libi later retracted his confession.^[29]

Political career[link]

Suleiman is seen as a very close and trusted ally of former President Hosni Mubarak, sharing many of his views on key issues such as Iran, Egypt–Israel relations and the United States, and treatment of the Muslim Brotherhood.^[21] Although he was a military man who by law is not a member of Mubarak's National Democratic Party, he preferred suits to military uniforms and is seen as a major link between Egyptian political and military elites.^[21] Due to his role in the regional political scene and the lack of an alternative candidate acceptable to Hosni Mubarak, some speculated that Suleiman would succeed Mubarak as President. In particular, he is seen as the choice of the Egyptian military establishment.^[21] Suleiman denied any intent to run for election to the office.^[31] On 29 January 2011, he was named Vice President of Egypt during the civil unrest,^[32] ending a vacancy in the position that lasted almost 30 years. He was sworn in two days later.^[33]

On 5 February 2011, a senior Egyptian security source denied reports of an assassination attempt on Omar Suleiman, saying there was no truth to them at all. Fox News reported that an unnamed official in the Obama Administration asserted there was an assassination attempt on Suleiman "soon after Suleiman was appointed", and claimed that it took the form of an attack on Suleiman's motorcade.^[34] Wolfgang Ischinger, host of the Munich Security Conference and originator of the incorrect allegations, later said he "was led to believe that we had a confirmed report but in fact we didn't" and also added that the information had come from an "unsubstantiated source."^[35] Later on 24 February 2011, Foreign Minister Ahmed Abul-gheit confirmed that Suleiman had survived an assassination attempt on 4 February, when a group of unidentified men opened fire on Suleiman's car from a stolen ambulance in Cairo.^[36]

According to an interview with the Egyptian ambassador to the United States on 10 February 2011, Omar Suleiman became the de facto President of Egypt after President Mubarak transferred his power to Suleiman.^[37] The following day Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation and governing power was transferred to the Armed Forces Supreme Council.^[6] According to the Egypt State Information Service, Suleiman subsequently ceased holding the office of Vice President.^[1]

On 6 April 2012 Suleiman announced that he will be running for president, after some demonstration. Suleiman accused the Muslim brotherhood of planning the assassination attempt on 5 February. Moreover, he accused them of some threats of "SLAIN if he run for the president" that he had received before running for it. Furthermore, the Brotherhood and some Islamists arranged a huge protest against Suleiman whose popularity has grown dramatically.

Public image and perception[link]

Al Jazeera describes Omar Suleiman as the unelected Vice President of Egypt, éminence grise to President Hosni Mubarak, and point man for Egypt's secret relations with Israel.^[38] Jane Mayer of The New Yorker notes that Suleiman remains controversial because he "has headed the feared Egyptian general intelligence service" and also describes his role in allowing controversial torture methods under US rendition programs which may have generated bad intelligence.^[39]

In turn, Suleiman blamed journalists for the current uprising in Egypt. "I actually blame certain friendly nations who have television channels, they're not friendly at all, who have intensified the youth against the nation and the state," Suleiman said in a TV address. "They have filled in the minds of the youth with wrongdoings, with allegations and this is unacceptable. They should have never done that. They should have never sent this enemy spirit," he said.^[40] The Committee to Protect Journalists replied that "it is stupefying that the government continues to send out thugs and plainclothes police to attack journalists and to ransack media bureaus".^[41] State Department spokesman Philip J. Crowley said "we have traced it to elements close to the government, or the ruling party," and said "I don't know that we have a sense how far up the chain it went."^[42]

Domestic[link]

Millions of Egyptians called for the dissolution of the Mubarak regime and new elections

Bloomberg reported that Suleiman "lacks the support where he now needs it most: the streets of Cairo". “The Egyptians don’t want Mubarak and they don’t want Suleiman,” said Chayma Hassabo, a researcher on Arab political movements at Cedej, a Cairo-based research center.^[43] Al Jazeera wrote Suleiman "does not have a high opinion of Islam in politics, and is not shy about telling Western audiences the lengths he will go to allow his security services to keep the Muslim Brotherhood and their offshoots at bay."^[38]

The young guard in Egypt is opposed to Suleiman running the country without elections taking place. Students, union activists and opposition bloggers within Egypt all remain opposed to Suleiman.^[44] Veteran Egyptian journalist Nadia abou el-Magd said it comes down to the protesters. "They that made revolution and they are in the position to impose their conditions," said el-Magd, who works for the newspaper Al-Ahram and The Associated Press. "They don't see that ... anybody else is in a position to impose their conditions on them."^[45]

In response to the appointment of Omar Suleiman as the new Vice President of Egypt, ElBaradei stated that it was a "hopeless, desperate attempt by Mubarak to stay in power, I think it is loud and clear...that Mubarak has to leave today".^[46]

United States[link]

Diplomatic cables released by Wikileaks suggested Suleiman enjoyed a strong relationship with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). “Our intelligence collaboration with Omar Soliman is now probably the most successful element of the relationship” with Egypt, said a 2006 U.S. diplomatic cable that used an alternative transliteration of his name, which also described Suleiman as Mubarak’s consigliere on foreign policy.^[43]

In an op-ed for AlJazeera, Lisa Hajjar opines that Egyptian-born Australian citizen Mamdouh Habib, "who was innocent of any ties to terror or militancy", was seized from a bus by Pakistani security forces and suspended from a hook and electrocuted repeatedly at American behest. "His fingers were broken and he was hung from metal hooks. At one point, his interrogator slapped him so hard that his blindfold was dislodged, revealing the identity of his tormentor: Suleiman," Haijar asserts. According to Haijar, Suleiman ordered a guard to murder a shackled prisoner in front of Habib, which he did with a vicious karate kick.^[47] After an article of the ordeal appeared in the Washington Post, the American government announced they would not charge Habib and that they would release him to Australia.^[48] Habib said he would sue the Egyptian government for his treatment.^[49] Tom Malinowski of Human Rights Watch asserts "the Americans knew what was going to happen to people who were rendered to Egypt".^[50]

On 12 April, Suleiman announced his intentions to run in the Presidential elections, because he fears Islamist forces would turn Egypt into a religious state and isolate Egypt from the international community.

Middle East[link]

Luis Moreno, a U.S. intelligence analyst, wrote that although he deferred to the Embassy in Cairo for Egyptian succession scenario analysis, "there is no question that Israel is most comfortable with the prospect of" Suleiman. David Hacham stated an Israeli delegation led by Defense Minister Ehud Barak was "shocked by Mubarak's aged appearance and slurred speech," when it met him in Egypt. "Hacham was full of praise for Soliman, however." Hacham added that he sometimes spoke to Suleiman's deputy several times a day via a "hotline."^[51][52] Maha Azzam, a fellow at Chatham House, a London-based international affairs research institute, said “the Israelis are happy with Omar Suleiman, he has been pivotal in the peace process, he’s someone they know and someone they can deal with.”^[43] Avigdor Lieberman, the Deputy Prime Minister of Israel, expressed “his respect and appreciation for Egypt's leading role in the region and his personal respect for Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Minister Suleiman".^[53]

Saudi Arabia, Jordan and the United Arab Emirates each repeatedly pressed the United States not to cut loose the Mubarak regime; for example, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed of Abu Dhabi, whom some believe to be the real strongman of the UAE, emphasized the need for “stability” in Egypt. The New York Times reported these countries "worry that a sudden, chaotic change in Egypt would destabilize the region or, in the Arab nations, even jeopardize their own leaders, many of whom are also autocrats facing restive populations."^[54]

PressTV, an Iranian state-owned news outlet, reported that Egyptians "associate Omar Suleiman, now the Vice President who was sworn in today, with a new puppet of the US government – someone to maintain hegemony here in this region because, as I mentioned, without Egypt you have no control over the Palestinian territory, especially Gaza; and, of course, the Israeli connection is something to note."^[55]

Non-governmental organizations[link]

Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch assert Suleiman’s career moved in lockstep with a regime marked by widespread abuses. “Torture is an endemic problem in Egypt and ending police abuse has been a driving element behind the massive popular demonstrations that swept Egypt over the past week,” Human Rights Watch said in a January report.^[43]

Human Rights Watch further wrote that "Egyptians, particularly those of us calling for an end to Mubarak's three-decade rule, see Suleiman as Mubarak II, especially after the lengthy interview he gave to state television 3 Feb. in which he accused the demonstrators in Tahrir Square of implementing foreign agendas. He did not even bother to veil his threats of retaliation against protesters."^[12] The Committee to Protect Journalists and Freedom House also criticized the Mubarak regime for its violence against protesters and suppression of journalists.^[56][57][58]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Shpiro, Shlomo (2004). "Intelligence Services and Political Transformation in the Middle East". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 17 (4): 575–600. DOI:10.1080/08850600490496407. 
• Sirrs, Owen L. (2010). A History of the Egyptian Intelligence Service: A History of the Mukhabarat, 1910–2009. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-56920-0. 
• Swint, Kerwin (2011). The King Whisperers: Power Behind the Throne from Rasputin to Rove. New York: Union Square Press. pp. 103–108. ISBN 978-1-4027-7201-6. 

External links[link]

• Omar Suleiman collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
• Omar Suleiman collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Pharaohs-in-Waiting, Mary Anne Weaver, The Atlantic, October 2003
• The ongoing Omar vs. Gamal Debate, Josh Stacher, The Arabist, 10 February 2005
• Israel pinning hopes for Hamas deal in Gaza on Egypt intel chief, Yossi Melman, Ha'aretz, 20 January 2009
• Egyptian intelligence chief's Washington agenda, Laura Rozen, Foreign Policy, 21 March 2009
• The list: The Middle East's Most Powerful Spooks, Patrick Devenny, Foreign Policy, 20 July 2009
• Egypt's Next Strongman, Issandr Amrani, 17 August 2009
• Egypt's Succession Crisis: Omar Suleiman and El Baredei Hold Keys to the Presidency, Ikhwanweb.com, 2 April 2010
• 'Who is Omar Suleiman?, Jane Mayer, The New Yorker, 29 January 2011
• Profile: Omar Suleiman, BBC News, 10 February 2011
• "Omar Suleiman, the CIA’s Man in Cairo and Egypt’s Torturer-in-Chief" – video report by Democracy Now!

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