A martyr (Greek: μάρτυς, ''mártys'', "witness"; stem μάρτυρ-, ''mártyr-'') is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.

Meaning

In its original meaning, the word martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible. The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g. Josephus) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies.

During the early Christian centuries, the term acquired the extended meaning of a believer who is called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endures suffering and/or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called ''martyrdom''.

The early Christians who first began to use the term ''martyr'' in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion. The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypical martyr.

The word ''martyr'' is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the following table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms.

+ Common features of stereotypical martyrdoms
2.	Opposition
3.	Foreseeable risk
4.	Courage and Commitment
5.	Death
6.	Audience response

Judaism

Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of ''Kiddush Hashem'', meaning "sanctification of God's name" through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees recount numerous martyrdoms suffered by Jews resisting Hellenizing (adoption of Greek ideas or customs of a Hellenistic civilization) by their Seleucid overlords, being executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath, circumcising their boys or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods. According to W. H. C. Frend: “Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom” and it was this “Jewish psychology of martyrdom” that inspired Christian martyrdom.

Christianity

In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek ''martys'' in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, usually written or verbal. In particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows. However over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word ''martyr'' developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the witnesses follow the example of Jesus in offering up their lives for truth.

The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention. Analyses of the Gospel passion narratives have lead many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have also concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus' death as a martyrdom. In light of such conclusions, some have argued that the Christians of the first few centuries would have interpreted the crucifixion of Jesus as a martyrdom.

In the context of church history, from the time of the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire, it developed that a martyr was one who was killed for maintaining a religious belief, ''knowing'' that this will almost certainly result in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death). This definition of ''martyr'' is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith. The first Christian witness to be killed for his testimony was Saint Stephen (whose name means "crown"), and those who suffer martyrdom are said to have been "crowned."

Some Christians view death in sectarian persecution, as well as religious persecution, as martyrdom. In Christian history, Foxe's Book of Martyrs recounts religious persecutions during the Protestant Reformation; Yet even more modern day accounts of martyrdom for Christ exist, shown in books such as Jesus Freaks (book)

Islam

In Arabic, a martyr is termed ''shahid'',''شهيد'' not ''شاهد'' . ''Shaheed'' appears in the Quran in a variety of contexts, including witnessing to righteousness (Quran 2:143), witnessing a financial transaction (Quran 2:282) and being killed, even in an accident as long as it doesn't happen with the intention to commit a sin, when they are believed to remain alive making them witnesses over worldly events without taking part in them anymore (Quran 3:140). The word also appears with these various meanings in the ''hadith'', the sayings of Muhammad.

Hinduism

Despite the promotion of ''ahimsa'' (non-violence) within Santana Dharma, there is also the concept of righteous (''dharma''), where violence is used as a last resort after all other means have failed. Examples of this include in the Mahabharata. Upon completion of their exile, the Pandavas were refused the return of their portion of the kingdom by their cousin Duruyodhana; and following which all means of peace talks by Krishna, Vidura and Sanjaya failed.

During the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts e.g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior and fight.

Martyrdom in war or battle is seen as highly noble in Hinduism, i.e. in the ancient times the teachings were that if a man were to die the death of a Kshatriya on the battlefield he would attain ''moksha'' (emancipation of the soul), which is evident in the Bhagavad Gita where Krishna states, "Either being slain you will attain the heavenly worlds or by gaining victory you will enjoy the earthly kingdom; therefore O Arjuna, rise up and fight.".

Bahá'í faith

In the Bahá'í Faith, a martyr is one who sacrifices their life serving humanity in the name of God. However, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life, and instead explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to service to humanity.

Sikhism

Martyrdom (called ''shaheed'' in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept in Sikhism and represents an important institution of the faith. The Sikh Gurus are the biggest examples of martyrs in Punjab. They fought for the Sikh religion with the Muslims in which their lives were taken away. Bhagat Singh and Udam Singh were martyrs when India was fighting for Independence.

Chinese culture

Martyrdom was extensively promoted by the Tongmenghui and the Kuomintang party in modern China, revolutionaries who died fighting against the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution and throughout the Republic of China period, furthering the cause of the revolution, were recognized as martyrs.

Some historic famous martyrs

Hussein ibn Ali, Son of Ali, Battle Of Karbala

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Indian political and ideological leader

Jesus, Son of Mary, and Christian Leader

Martin Luther King, Jr., African American Civil Rights activist

Martin Luther of Germany, religious rights activist

Nelson Mandela, Opposed apartheid in South Africa

Socrates

Ten Martyrs of Judaism

See also

[[Image:Allepeymartyrscolumn.JPG|thumb|right|A communist "martyrs column" in Alappuzha, Kerala, India]]

Martyr complex

Martyrology

Perpetua and Felicity

Religious persecution

Religious views on suicide

References

"Martyrs", ''Catholic Encyclopedia''

Foster, Claude R. Jr. (1995). ''Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle: a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany: A Sourcebook on the German Church Struggle''. Westchester, PA: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University. ISBN 978-1-887732-01-7

External links

''Fox's Book of Martyrs'' – 16th century classic book, accounts of martyrdoms

"Martyrdom from the perspective of sociology". ''Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion''.

Category:Greek loanwords Category:Religious terminology

ar:شهيد az:Şəhid br:Merzher bg:Мъченик ca:Màrtir cs:Mučedník cy:Merthyr da:Martyr de:Märtyrer et:Märter es:Mártir eo:Martiro fa:شهید fr:Martyr fy:Martelder xal:Генүләч ko:순교 hr:Mučenik io:Martiro id:Syahid is:Píslarvottur it:Martire (generico) he:מרטיר sw:Mfiadini la:Martyr hu:Vértanú mk:Маченик ml:രക്തസാക്ഷി nl:Martelaar ja:殉教 no:Martyr nn:Martyr nds:Merteler pl:Męczennik pt:Mártir ro:Martir rm:Martir ru:Мученик sco:Mairtyr simple:Martyr sk:Mučeník sl:Mučenec ckb:شەھید sh:Mučenik fi:Marttyyri sv:Martyr tr:Şehit uk:Мученик zh:殉教

Coordinates	29°57′53″N90°4′14″N
name	David Gale
birth date	December, 1921
birth place	New York City, New York
death date	March 7, 2008
death place	Berkeley, California
residence	United States
nationality	American
field	Mathematics, economics
work institution	University of California, Berkeley, 1966- Brown University, 1950-65 Rand Corporation, 1957-8 Princeton University 1949-50
alma mater	Princeton UniversityUniversity of Michigan Swarthmore College
doctoral advisor	Albert W. Tucker
known for	Gale Transformlinear programmingconvex analysis Chomp Bridg-It Gale–Shapley algorithmRamsey Problem
prizes	John von Neumann Theory Prize Pirelli Internetional Award
footnotes	}}

David Gale (December 13, 1921 – March 7, 2008) was a distinguished American mathematician and economist. He was a Professor Emeritus at University of California, Berkeley, affiliated with departments of Mathematics, Economics, and Industrial Engineering and Operations Research. He has contributed to the fields of mathematical economics, game theory, and convex analysis.

Gale earned his Ph.D. in Mathematics at Princeton University in 1949. He taught at Brown University from 1950 to 1965 and then joined the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley.

Gale lived in Berkeley, CA and Paris, France with his partner Sandra Gilbert, renowned feminist literary scholar and poet. He has three daughters and two grandsons.

Contribution

Gale's contributions to mathematical economics include an early proof of the existence of competitive equilibrium, his solution of the n-dimensional Ramsey problem, in the theory of optimal economic growth.

Gale and Stewart initiated the study of infinite games with perfect information. This work led to fundamental contributions to mathematical logic.

Gale is the inventor of the game of Bridg-It (also known as "Game of Gale") and Chomp.

Gale played a fundamental role in the development of the theory of linear programming and linear inequalities. His classic 1960 book ''The Theory of Linear Economic Models'' continues to be a standard reference for this area.

The eponymous Gale Transform is an involution on sets of points in projective space. The concept is important in optimization, coding theory, and algebraic geometry.

Gale's paper with Lloyd Shapley on the stable marriage problem provides the first formal statement and proof of a problem that has far-reaching implications in many matching markets and is currently being applied in New York and Boston public school systems in assigning students to schools.

Gale wrote a Mathematical Entertainments column for the Mathematical Intelligencer from 1991 through 1997. The book ''Tracking the Automatic Ant'' collects these columns.

In 2004 Gale developed MathSite, a pedagogic website that uses interactive exhibits to illustrate important mathematical ideas. MathSite won the 2007 Pirelli Internetional Award for Science Communication in Mathematics.

Awards and honors

Procter Fellow, Princeton University, 1948

Fulbright Research Fellowship, 1953–54

Guggenheim Fellow, 1962–63, 1981

Fellow, Econometric Society, 1965

Miller Professor, 1971–72

Fellow, Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences, 1975–76

Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1978

Lester Ford Prize, 1979–80

John von Neumann Theory Prize, 1980

Member, National Academy of Sciences, 1983

Pirelli Internetional Award Science Communication of Mathematics, 2007

Selected publications

Infinite games with perfect information (with F.M. Stewart). ''Annals of Mathematics'' 28 (1953), pp. 245–266.

The law of supply and demand. ''Mathematica Scandinavica'' 3 (1955), pp. 33–44.

Neighboring vertices on a convex polyhedron, in “''Linear Inequalities and Related Systems''” (H.W. Kuhn and A.W. Tucker, eds.), ''Annals of Math. Studies'' 38, 255–263, Princeton Univ. Press, 1956.

''The theory of linear economic models''. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.

College admissions and the stability of marriage (with L.S. Shapley). ''American Mathematical Monthly'' 69 (1962), pp. 9–15.

A note on global instability of competitive equilibrium.'' Naval Research Logistics Quarterly'' 10 (1963), pp. 81–87.

The Jacobian matrix and global univalence of mappings (with H. Nikaido). ''Mathematische Annalen'' 2 (1965), pp. 81–93.

On optimal development in a multi-sector economy. ''The Review of Economic Studies'' 34 (1967), pp. 1–18.

Pure exchange equilibrium of dynamic economic models. ''Journal of Economic Theory'' 6 (1973), pp. 12–26.

A curious nim-type game. ''American Mathematical Monthly'' 81(1974), pp. 876–879.

The game of Hex and the Brouwer fixed-point theorem. ''American Mathematical Monthly'' 86(1979), pp. 818–827.

The strategy structure of two-sided matching markets (with G. Demange). ''Econometrica'' 53, no. 4 (1985), pp. 873–888.

''Tracking the automatic ant. And other mathematical explorations. A collection of Mathematical Entertainments columns from The Mathematical Intelligencer.'' Springer-Verlag, New York, 1998, pp. xii + 241.

See also

Gale evenness condition

Notes

Citation of von Neumann Theory Prize on David Gale’s work

Mathematician, puzzle lover David Gale has died

David Gale, Who Created Marriage Algorithm, Is Dead at 86 by Jeremy Pearce, The New York Times

External links

MathSite

Mathematical Genealogy Project

Category:American economists Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:American mathematicians Category:20th-century mathematicians Category:John von Neumann Theory Prize winners Category:1921 births Category:2008 deaths Category:Game theorists Category:Fellows of the Econometric Society Category:Combinatorial game theorists Category:Guggenheim Fellows

de:David Gale (Ökonom) ht:David Gale ja:デイヴィッド・ゲール pl:David Gale sk:David Gale

Theotokos (, transliterated Theotókos) is the Greek title of Mary, the mother of Jesus used especially in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches. Its literal English translations include ''God-bearer'' and ''the one who gives birth to God''. Less literal translations include Mother of God. Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and some Protestants use the title Mother of God more often than Theotokos. The Council of Ephesus decreed in 431 that Mary is Theotokos because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human.

Etymology and translation

Theotokos is a compound of two Greek words, Θεός ''God'' and τόκος ''parturition, childbirth''. Literally, this translates as ''God-bearer'' or ''the one who gives birth to God''; historian Jaroslav Pelikan translated it more precisely as "the one who gives birth to the one who is God". However, since many English-speaking Orthodox find this literal translation awkward, in liturgical use, ''Theotokos'' is often left untranslated, or paraphrased as ''Mother of God''. The latter title is the literal translation of a distinct title in Greek, Μήτηρ του Θεού (translit. ''Mētēr tou Theou''). ''Mother of God'' also accurately translates the Greek words Θεομήτωρ (translit. ''Theomētor''; also spelled Θεομήτηρ, translit. ''Theomētēr'') and Μητρόθεος (translit. ''Mētrotheos''), which are found in patristic and liturgical texts, e.g.

Λαβομένη η Θεοτόκος των εκ του αχράντου και παναμώμου αυτής θυσιαστηρίου σαρκωθέντα ζωοποιόν και ανέκφραστον άνθρακα ως λαβίδι ... επί τούτοις παρουσιασάμενος ο δίκαιος και τη προτροπή είξας της διακονησαμένης Θεώ προς ανθρώπους Θεομήτορος ... περιφανώς ιερά θεομήτωρ εξετέλει.

In many traditions, ''Theotokos'' was translated from the Greek into the local liturgical language:

! Language	! Translation(s)	! Transliteration
	والدة الاله	''Wālidat Alelah''
	Աստուածածին	''Astvadzatzin''
Bulgarian, Church Slavonic, Macedonian, Russian	Богородица	''Bogoroditsa''
		''Ti.Theotokós''
	ღვთისმშობელი	''Ghvtismshobeli''
Latin	''Deipara'' ''Dei genetrix'' ''Mater Dei''
	''Născătoare de Dumnezeu'' ''Maica Domnului''
	Богородица / Bogorodica Мајка Божија / Majka Božija	''Bogoroditza'' ''Mayka Bozhia''
	ܝܳܠܕܰܬ ܐܰܠܳܗܳܐ	''Yoldath Aloho''
	Богородиця Мати Божа	''Bohorodytsia'' ''Maty Bozha''
	Bogurodzica Matka Boska	''Bogurodsitsa'' ''Matka Boska''
	Bohorodička Matka Božia	''Bohorodichka'' ''Matka Bozhia''

Translation of the phrase ''mother of God''

Mother of God

The English term ''Mother of God'' is mostly used as an imprecise translation of ''Theotokos'', and frequently requires explanation. The other principal use of ''Mother of God'' has been as the precise and literal translation of Μήτηρ Θεού, a Greek term which has an established usage of its own in traditional Christian theological writing, hymnography, and iconography. In an abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ it often is found on Eastern icons (see illustration above), where it is used to identify Mary.

A hymn normally sung as part of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom includes both titles in close proximity, in both cases referring to Mary, showing that the titles are not synonymous: "It is truly fitting to call you blessed, the ''Theotokos,'' ever-blessed and wholly pure and the ''Mother of our God'' (...", emphasis added.) The difference between the two terms is that the former, ''Theotokos'' explicitly refers to physical childbearing, while the latter, ''Mother of God'', describes a family relationship but not necessarily physical childbearing.

Within the Christian tradition, ''Mother of God'' has not been understood, nor been intended to be understood, as referring to Mary as Mother of God ''from eternity'' — that is, as Mother of God the Father — but only with reference to the birth of Jesus, that is, the Incarnation. This limitation in the meaning of ''Mother of God'' must be understood by the person employing the term. To make it explicit, it is sometimes translated ''Mother of God Incarnate''.

However, those reading or hearing the English phrase ''Mother of God'' as a translation of a Greek text cannot — unless they know the Greek text in question, or obtain additional information — know whether the phrase is a literal translation of Μήτηρ Θεού or an imprecise rendering of Θεοτόκος or one its Latin equivalents or equivalents in other languages.

Theology

Theotokos specifically excludes the understanding of Mary as Mother of God in the eternal sense. Christians believe that God is the cause of all, with neither origin nor source, and is therefore without a mother or father, or any relation except for what is homoousian to Him: only the persons of the Holy Trinity. He is ontologically separate from all other beings, as Creator to creation. This stands in contrast to classical Greco-Roman religion in particular, where a number of goddesses appear as the physical mothers of other divinities which were considered gods in their own right (cf. polytheism).

On the other hand, most Christians believe God the Son is begotten of God the Father "from all eternity" (see Trinity and Nicene Creed), but is born "in time" of Mary. ''Theotokos'' thus refers to the Incarnation, when the Second Person of the Holy Trinity took on human nature in addition to his pre-existing divine nature, this being made possible through the cooperation of Mary.

Since mainstream Christians understand Jesus Christ as both fully God and fully human, they call Mary ''Theotokos'' to affirm the fullness of God's incarnation. The Council of Ephesus decreed, in opposition to those who denied Mary the title ''Theotokos'' ("the one who gives birth to God") but called her ''Christotokos'' ("the one who gives birth to Christ"), that Mary ''is'' ''Theotokos'' because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. (Some Protestants still insist that Mary cannot be truly ''Theotokos'', but only ''Christotokos''.) Cyril of Alexandria wrote, "I am amazed that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called ''Theotokos'' or not. For if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is the holy Virgin who gave [Him] birth, not [''Theotokos'']?" (Epistle 1, to the monks of Egypt; PG 77:13B). Thus the significance of ''Theotokos'' lies more in what it says about Jesus than any declaration about Mary.

Within the Orthodox doctrinal teaching on the economy of salvation, Mary's identity, role, and status as ''Theotokos'' is acknowledged as indispensable, and is for this reason formally defined as official dogma. The only other Mariological teaching so defined is that of her virginity. Both of these teachings have a bearing on the identity of Jesus Christ. By contrast, certain other Marian beliefs which do not bear directly on the doctrine concerning the person of Jesus (for example, her sinlessness, the circumstances surrounding her conception and birth, her Presentation in the Temple, her continuing virginity following the birth of Jesus, and her death), which are taught and believed by the Orthodox Church (being expressed in the Church's liturgy and patristic writings), are nonetheless not formally defined by the Church, and belief in them is not a precondition for baptism.

Use of Theotokos in the early Christian Church

Many Fathers of the early Christian Church used the title ''Theotokos'' for Mary since at least the third century AD.

Origen (d. 254) is often cited as the earliest author to use ''Theotokos'' for Mary (Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 7.32 citing Origen's Commentary on Romans) but the text upon which this assertion is based may not be genuine.

Dionysius of Alexandria used ''Theotokos'' in about 250, in an epistle to Paul of Samosata.

Athanasius of Alexandria in 330, Gregory the Theologian in 370, John Chrysostom in 400, and Augustine all used ''Theotokos''.

Theodoret wrote in 436 that calling the Virgin Mary ''Theotokos'' is an apostolic tradition.

Third Ecumenical Council

The use of ''Theotokos'' was formally affirmed at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. The competing view, advocated by Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople, was that Mary should be called ''Christotokos'', meaning "Birth-giver of Christ," to restrict her role to the mother of Christ's humanity only and not his divine nature.

Nestorius' opponents, led by Cyril of Alexandria, viewed this as dividing Jesus into two distinct persons, the human who was Son of Mary, and the divine who was not. To them, this was unacceptable since by destroying the perfect union of the divine and human natures in Christ, it sabotaged the fullness of the Incarnation and, by extension, the salvation of humanity. The council accepted Cyril's reasoning, affirmed the title ''Theotokos'' for Mary, and anathematised Nestorius' view as heresy. (See Nestorianism)

In letters to Nestorius which were afterwards included among the council documents, Cyril explained his doctrine. He noted that "the holy fathers... have ventured to call the holy Virgin ''[T]heotokos'', not as though the nature of the [W]ord or his divinity received the beginning of their existence from the holy Virgin, but because from her was born his holy body, rationally endowed with a soul, with which [body] the [W]ord was united according to the hypostasis, and is said to have been begotten according to the flesh" (Cyril's second letter to Nestorius).

Explaining his rejection of Nestorius' preferred title for Mary (''Christotokos''), Cyril wrote: "Confessing the Word to be united with the flesh according to the hypostasis, we worship one Son and Lord, Jesus Christ. We do not divide him into parts and separate man and God as though they were united with each other [only] through a unity of dignity and authority... nor do we name separately Christ the Word from God, and in similar fashion, separately, another Christ from the woman, but we know only one Christ, the Word from God the Father with his own flesh... But we do not say that the Word from God dwelt as in an ordinary human born of the holy virgin... we understand that, when he became flesh, not in the same way as he is said to dwell among the saints do we distinguish the manner of the indwelling; but he was united by nature and not turned into flesh... There is, then, one Christ and Son and Lord, not with the sort of conjunction that a human being might have with God as in a unity of dignity or authority; for equality of honor does not unite natures. For Peter and John were equal to each other in honor, both of them being apostles and holy disciples, but the two were not one. Nor do we understand the manner of conjunction to be one of juxtaposition, for this is insufficient in regard to natural union.... Rather we reject the term 'conjunction' as being inadequate to express the union... [T]he holy virgin gave birth in the flesh to God united with the flesh according to hypostasis, for that reason we call her ''Theotokos''... If anyone does not confess that Emmanuel is, in truth, God, and therefore that the holy virgin is ''Theotokos'' (for she bore in a fleshly manner the Word from God become flesh), let him be anathema." (Cyril's third letter to Nestorius)

Hymns

''Theotokos'' in often used in hymns to Mary in the Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholic and Oriental Orthodox churches. The most common is ''Axion Estin'' (''It is truly meet''), which is used in nearly every service.

Other examples include ''Beneath thy compassion'' dating from the third century, the ''Hail Mary'' in its Eastern form, and ''All creation rejoices'', which replaces ''Axion Estin'' at the Divine Liturgy on the Sundays of Great Lent.

Solemnity

In the Roman Catholic Church, the solemnity of Mary as Mother of God (Theotokos) is celebrated on 1 January, on the same day as the Octave of Christmas. Her maternity was celebrated on 11 October in pre-1970 versions of the General Roman Calendar, which some traditional Catholics still observe.

This solemnity comes from around 500 AD and was originally celebrated in the Eastern Churches.

Icons

See also

Eleusa icon

Hymns to Mary

List of Theotokos of St. Theodore icons

Notes

References

Cyril of Alexandria, ''On the Unity of Christ'', John Anthony McGuckin, trans. ISBN 0-88141-133-7

McGuckin, John Anthony, ''St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy'' (1994, and reprinted 2004) ISBN 0-88141-259-7 A full description of the events of Third Ecumenical Council and the people and issues involved.

Saint John of Shanghai and San Francisco,""The Orthodox Veneration of Mary, The Birth Giver of God"(2004, Sixth Printing, Third Edition). ISBN 0-938635-68-9

Ware, Bishop Kallistos, "The Orthodox Way" (1979, Revised Edition, 1995, and reprinted 1999). ISBN 0-913836-58-3

External links

Theotokos article on the ''Orthodox Wiki''

Resources on the Theotokos

Study of the Mother of the Lord the All-Holly Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary by St. Nectarios (in Greek)

Category:Marian dogmas Category:Titles of Mary Category:Eastern Orthodoxy Category:Eastern Orthodox theology Category:Eastern Catholicism Category:Oriental Orthodoxy Category:Eastern Orthodox icons Category:Christology Category:Feminist theology Category:Greek loanwords Category:Ancient Christian controversies Category:Christian terms

ar:ثيوتوكس ca:Mare de Déu cs:Theotokos de:Gottesgebärerin el:Θεοτόκος es:Theotokos eo:Sankta Maria fr:Théotokos ko:테오토코스 hr:Bogorodica id:Theotokos it:Theotókos sw:Mama wa Mungu lb:Muttergottes hu:Theotokosz nl:Theotokos ja:神の母 nn:Guds mor pl:Matka Boża pt:Theotokos ro:Theotokos ru:Богоматеринство sl:Marija Božja mati sh:Bogorodica (titula) fi:Jumalansynnyttäjä sv:Guds moder tr:Theotokos

Coordinates	29°57′53″N90°4′14″N
Name	David Sylvian |image DavidSylvianNov82.JPG
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	David Alan Batt
Born	February 23, 1958
Origin	Beckenham, Kent, England
Instruments	Voice, guitars, keyboards
Genre	New Wave, art rock, ambient, electronic, avant-garde, jazz, alternative rock, classical
Years active	1974–present
Label	Virgin Records Samadhisound
Associated acts	JapanNine HorsesRobert FrippRain Tree Crow
Website	David Sylvian.com
Past members	}}

David Sylvian (born David Alan Batt, 23 February 1958) is an English singer-songwriter and musician who came to prominence in the late 1970s as the lead vocalist and main songwriter in the group Japan. His subsequent solo work is described by critic Jason Ankeny as "a far-ranging and esoteric career that encompassed not only solo projects but also a series of fascinating collaborative efforts." Sylvian's solo work has been influenced by a variety of musical styles and genres, including jazz, avant-garde, ambient, electronic, and progressive rock.

Biography

Early years

Sylvian was born in Beckenham, Kent, the son of a plasterer and a housewife. He was educated at Catford Boys' School, Catford, South East London leaving at 16. As a youth, he listened to glam rock artists such as David Bowie and Roxy Music.

1970s-Early 1980s: Japan

The band Japan, whose other members included bassist Mick Karn, guitarist Rob Dean, keyboardist Richard Barbieri and Sylvian's brother Steve Jansen as drummer, began as a group of friends. As youngsters they played music as a means of escape, playing Sylvian's two-chord numbers – sometimes with Karn as the front man, sometimes with Sylvian at the fore.

They christened themselves Japan in 1974, signed a recording contract with Hansa, and became an alternative glam rock outfit in the mould of David Bowie, T.Rex, and The New York Dolls. Over a period of a few years their music became more sophisticated, drawing initially on the art rock stylings of Roxy Music. Their visual image also evolved and the band was tagged with the New Romantic label. Indeed, it could be argued that Japan was at the forefront of the entire New Romantic movement, even though the band never associated itself with it. Noting their distinction from the New Romantics, Sylvian stated: "I don't like to be associated with them. The attitudes are so very different." Of Japan's fashion sense, Sylvian said: "For them [New Romantics], fancy dress is a costume. But ours is a way of life. We look and dress this way every day."

Japan recorded five studio albums between March 1978 and November 1981. In 1980, the band signed with Virgin Records, where Sylvian remained as a recording artist for the next twenty years. The band suffered from personal and creative clashes, particularly between Sylvian and Karn, with tensions springing from Sylvian's relationship with Yuka Fujii, a photographer, artist and designer, and Karn's former girlfriend. Fujii quickly became an influential figure in Sylvian's life. She was the first person to introduce Sylvian seriously to jazz, which in turn inspired him to follow musical avenues not otherwise open to him. She also encouraged Sylvian to incorporate spiritual discipline into his daily routine. Throughout his solo career, Fujii maintained a large role in the design of artwork for his albums.

1980s–1990s: Solo career

In 1982, Sylvian released his first collaborative effort with Ryuichi Sakamoto, entitled "Bamboo Houses/Bamboo Music". He also worked with Sakamoto on the UK Top 20 song "Forbidden Colours" for the 1983 Nagisa Oshima film ''Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence''.

Sylvian's debut solo album, ''Brilliant Trees'' (1984), met with critical acclaim. The album included contributions from Ryuichi Sakamoto, trumpeter Jon Hassell, and former Can bassist Holger Czukay. It featured the UK Top 20 single ''Red Guitar''.

In 1985, Sylvian released an instrumental mini-album ''Alchemy: An Index of Possibilities'', in collaboration with Jansen, Hassell and Czukay, a recording that, when re-released in 2003, included the addition of Sylvian's Steel Cathedrals, the soundtrack to his video release of the same name.

The next release was the ambitious two-record set ''Gone to Earth'' (1986), which further flouted conventional and commercial wisdom by featuring one record of atmospheric vocal tracks and a second record consisting of ambient instrumentals. The album contained significant contributions from noted guitarists Bill Nelson of Be-Bop Deluxe and Robert Fripp of King Crimson.

''Secrets of the Beehive'' (1987) made greater use of acoustic instruments and was musically oriented towards sombre, emotive ballads laced with shimmering string arrangements by Ryuichi Sakamoto and Brian Gascoigne. The album yielded one of Sylvian's most well-received songs, "Orpheus," and was later supported by his first solo tour, 1988's 'In Praise of Shamans.'

Never one to conform to commercial expectations, Sylvian then collaborated with Holger Czukay. ''Plight and Premonition'', issued in 1988, and ''Flux and Mutability'', recorded and released the following year, also included contributions from Can members Jaki Liebezeit and Michael Karoli.

Virgin decided to close out the 1980s with the release of ''Weatherbox'', an elaborate boxed-set compilation consisting of Sylvian's four previous solo albums.

In 1990, Sylvian collaborated with artists Russell Mills and Ian Walton on the elaborate multi-media installation using sculpture, sound and light titled ''Ember Glance – The Permanence of Memory''. The exhibition was staged at the temporary museum 'Space FGO-Soko' on Tokyo Bay, Shinagawa, Tokyo.

1990s: Rain Tree Crow

Also in 1990, Sylvian reunited with the former members of Japan for a new project. Unlike their past work, Sylvian decided to use methods of improvisation like those he explored in his work with Holger Czukay.

Ingrid Chavez, an artist signed to Prince's Paisley Park Records, sent Sylvian a copy of her first album. He liked what he heard and thought her voice would fit well with some material that both Ryuichi Sakamoto and he were working on for a new Sakamoto release. Chavez and Sylvian quickly developed a bond and decided to travel together throughout the UK and the USA, where they eventually settled after marrying in 1992.

1993: With Robert Fripp

In the early 1990s, guitarist Robert Fripp invited Sylvian to join a new version of progressive rock stalwarts King Crimson. Sylvian declined the invitation, but he and Fripp recorded the album ''The First Day'' released in July 1993. Something of a departure for Sylvian, the album melded Sylvian's philosophical lyrics to funk workouts and aggressive rock stylings very much in the mould of Fripp's King Crimson. To capitalise on the album's success, the musicians went back out on the road in the autumn of 1993. A live recording, called ''Damage'' and released in 1994, was culled from the final shows of the tour.

Sylvian and Fripp's final collaboration was the installation ''Redemption – Approaching Silence''. The exhibition was held at the P3 Art and Environment centre in Shinjuku, Tokyo, and ran from 30 August to 18 September 1994. The accompanying music was composed by Sylvian, with text written and recited by Fripp.

In the late summer of 1995, Sylvian undertook a one-man solo tour which he called 'Slow Fire – A Personal Retrospective.'

A period of relative musical inactivity followed, during which Sylvian and Ingrid Chavez moved from Minnesota to the Napa Valley. Chavez had given birth to two daughters, Ameera-Daya (born 1993) and Isobel (born 1997), and pursued her interest in photography and music.

2000s: Recent work

In 1999, Sylvian released ''Dead Bees on a Cake'', his first solo album proper since ''Secrets of the Beehive'' twelve years earlier. The disc gathered together the most eclectic influences of all his recordings, ranging from soul music to jazz fusion to blues to Eastern-inflected spiritual chants, and most of the songs' lyrics reflected the now 41-year-old Sylvian's inner peace resulting from his marriage, family, and beliefs. Guest musicians included long-time friend Ryuichi Sakamoto, classically-trained tabla player Talvin Singh, avant-garde guitarist Marc Ribot, jazz trumpeter Kenny Wheeler, and contemporary jazz guitarist Bill Frisell. In 2010 Sylvian said, "Since the early ’80s I’ve been interested in deconstructing the familiar forms of popular song, in retaining the structure but removing the pillars of support. My work continually returns to this question: how much of the framework can you remove while still being able to identify what is, after all, a familiar form?"

Following ''Dead Bees'', Sylvian released a pair of compilation albums through Virgin, a two-disc retrospective, ''Everything and Nothing'', and an instrumental collection, ''Camphor''. Both albums contained previously released material, some remixes, and several new or previously unreleased tracks which Sylvian finished especially for the projects.

Sylvian parted ways with Virgin and launched his own independent label, Samadhi Sound. He released the album ''Blemish''. A fusion of styles, including jazz and electronica, the tour enabled Sylvian to perform music from the Nine Horses project, as well as various selections from his back catalogue. Blemish included contributions from Christian Fennesz and Derek Bailey. Sylvian used a different approach with this album. He has said about his process, "With Blemish I started each day in the studio with a very simple improvisation on guitar. Once recorded, I’d listen back and use cues from the improv—the dynamic and so on—to dictate the structure of the piece. I’d write lyrics and melody on the spot, and would follow that up with the recording of the vocal itself."

A new solo album entitled ''Manafon'' was released on 14 September 2009 in two editions – a regular CD/digipak edition and a twin boxset deluxe edition with two books that include the CD and a DVD featuring the film 'Amplified Gesture'. Manafon features contributions from leading figures in electroacoustic improvisation such as saxophonist Evan Parker, multi-instrumentalist Otomo Yoshihide, laptop + guitarist Christian Fennesz, Polwechsel's double bassist Werner Dafeldecker and cellist Michael Moser, sinewaves specialist Sachiko M and AMM alumni guitarist Keith Rowe, percussionist Eddie Prévost and pianist John Tilbury. In 2010 talked about ''Manafon'', and said:

"What happened with ''Manafon'' was that the work abandoned me. As I was writing and developing the material, the spirit holding all these disparate elements together just left me. I sat stunned for a moment and then realised: It’s over; this is as far as it goes…In a sense, I’d been steadily working my way toward Manafon since I was a young man listening to Stockhausen and dabbling in deconstructing the pop song. Having said that, I don’t think we only develop as artists practising in our chosen fields. For me that meant an exploration of intuitive states via meditation and other related disciplines which, the more I witnessed free-improv players at work, appeared to be crucially important to enable a being there in the moment, a sustained alertness and receptivity."

In 2010 Sylvian released a compilation disc of his collaborative works with musicians over the last 10 years – ''Sleepwalkers'' includes songs with Ryuichi Sakamoto, Tweaker, Nine Horses, Steve Jansen, Christian Fennesz and Arve Henriksen. Also included are a few new songs such as Sleepwalkers which is co-written with drummer Martin Brandlmayr of Radian (band) and Polwechsel.

In 2011, the double disc ''Died in the Wool'' was released as variations on the 2009 release ''Manafon''. With the addition of 6 new pieces, including collaborations with acclaimed composer Dai Fujikura, producers Jan Bang and Erik Honoré and a stellar roster of contemporary musicians and improvisers. For the first time, a stereo mix of the audio installation “when we return you won’t recognise us,” is available on CD. "when we return you won't recognise us" pairs a group of star improvisers—John Butcher, Arve Henriksen, Günter Müller, Toshimaru Nakamura, and Eddie Prévost —with a string sextet directed by Fujikura.

Discography

;Japan

''Adolescent Sex'' (1978)

''Obscure Alternatives'' (1978)

''Quiet Life'' (1979)

''Gentlemen Take Polaroids'' (1980)

''Tin Drum'' (1981)

''Rain Tree Crow'' same line-up as Japan (1991)

;Solo albums

''Brilliant Trees'' (1984)

''Alchemy: An Index of Possibilities'' (1985)

''Gone to Earth'' (1986)

''Secrets of the Beehive'' (1987)

''Dead Bees on a Cake'' (1999)

''Blemish'' (2003)

''When Loud Weather Buffeted Naoshima'' (2007)

''Manafon'' (2009)

;Collaborations

''Plight & Premonition'' (1988)

''Flux and Mutability'' (1989)

''Ember Glance: The Permanence of Memory'' (1991)

''The First Day'' (1993)

''Darshan (The Road To Graceland)'' (1993)

''World Citizen'' (EP) (2003)

''Snow Borne Sorrow'' as Nine Horses (2005)

''Money for All'' as Nine Horses (2007)

''Died in the Wool: Manafon Variations'' (UK chart peak: #147) (2011)

;Compilations

''Weatherbox'' (1989)

''Approaching Silence'' (1999)

''Everything and Nothing'' (2000)

''Camphor'' (2002)

''Sleepwalkers'' (2010)

;Remixes

''The Good Son vs. The Only Daughter'' (2003)

;Live albums

''Damage: Live'' (1994)

;Contributions ''This is an incomplete list.''

"Good Night" on ''Ai Ga Nakucha Ne'' by Akiko Yano (1982)

"Forbidden Colours" on ''Merry Christmas Mr Lawrence'' soundtrack by Ryuichi Sakamoto (1983)

"Some Small Hope" on ''Hope In A Darkened Heart'' by Virginia Astley (1986)

"Buoy" and "When Love Walks In" on ''Dreams Of Reason Produce Monsters'' by Mick Karn (1987)

"Heartbeat (Returning To The Womb)" and "Cloud #9" on ''Heartbeat'' by Ryuichi Sakamoto (1991)

"To A Reason" and "Victim Of Stars" on ''Sahara Blue'' by Hector Zazou (1992)

"Come Morning", "The Golden Way" and "Maya" on ''Marco Polo'' by Nicola Alesini & Pier Luigi Andreoni (1995)

"Ti Ho Aspettato (I Have Waited For You)" on ''L'Albero Pazzo'' by Andrea Chimenti (1995)

"How Safe Is Deep?" on ''Undark:Strange Familiar'' by Russell Mills (1996)

"Salvation" on ''Discord'' by Ryuichi Sakamoto (1998)

"Rooms Of Sixteen Shimmers" on ''Pearl And Umbra'' by Russell Mills (1999)

"Forbidden Colours" on ''Cinemage'' by Ryuichi Sakamoto (2000)

"Zero Landmine" on ''Zero Landmine'' by No More Landmine featuring Ryuichi Sakamoto and Various Artists (2001)

"Sugarfuel" on ''Bold'' by Readymade FC (2001)

"Linoleum" on ''The Attraction to All Things Uncertain'' by Tweaker (2001)

"World Citizen (I Won't Be Disappointed)" on ''Chasm'' by Ryuichi Sakamoto (2004)

"Transit" on ''Venice'' by Fennesz (2004)

"Pure Genius" on ''2 a.m. Wakeup Call'' by Tweaker (2004)

"Late Night Shopping (remix)" by Fennesz (2004)

"Exit/Delete" on ''Coieda'' by Takagi Masakatsu (2004)

"Messenger" on ''Equus'' by Blonde Redhead (2004)

"For The Love Of Life (Ending Theme Full Version)" on "Monster – Original Soundtrack" (2004)

"The Librarian" on ''Out In The Sticks'' by Burnt Friedman & Jaki Liebezeit (2005)

"A Fire In The Forest" (Remix) on ''Babilonia'' by Readymade FC (2005)

"Angels" on ''Crime Scenes'' by Punkt (2006)

"Playground Martyrs" and "Ballad Of A Deadman" on ''Slope'' by Steve Jansen (2007)

"Honor Wishes" and "No Question" on ''To Survive'' by Joan As Police Woman (2008)

"Before And Afterlife" and "Thermal" on ''Cartography'' by Arve Henriksen (2008)

"Jacqueline" on The Believer -The 2009 Music Issue- (2009)

"Modern Interior" at kizunaworld.org – David Sylvian & Jan Bang (2011)

References

External links

David Sylvian.com – The official David Sylvian website.

Manafon – The micro website of 2009's LP Manafon

Died In The Wool – The micro website of 2011's double disc Died In The Wool / Manafon Variations

Category:1958 births Category:Living people Category:Virgin Records artists Category:English male singers Category:English rock musicians Category:People from Beckenham Category:Japan (band) members

cs:David Sylvian de:David Sylvian es:David Sylvian fr:David Sylvian it:David Sylvian nl:David Sylvian ja:デヴィッド・シルヴィアン pl:David Sylvian ru:Силвиан, Дэвид sr:Дејвид Силвијан sv:David Sylvian

Coordinates	29°57′53″N90°4′14″N
Name	Steve Jansen
Background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
Birth name	Stephen Batt
Birth date	December 01, 1959
Origin	England
Instrument	DrumsKeyboards
Genre	Avant-garde
Years active	1974 –
Label	Samadhi Sound
Associated acts	JapanNine HorsesRain Tree Crow
Website	Steve Jansen.com
Past members	}}

Steve Jansen (born Stephen Batt, 1 December 1959, in Beckenham, Kent, England) is an English drummer, percussionist, singer and composer. He was educated at Catford Boys' School, Catford, South East London, where he failed academically, leaving at 16.

He is best known as a founding member of the group Japan, along with his brother David Sylvian (vocals, guitars and keyboards), Mick Karn (bass guitar), Richard Barbieri (keyboards), and Rob Dean (guitar).

After Japan broke up in 1982, Jansen recorded with bandmate Richard Barbieri under the name The Dolphin Brothers, with Jansen handling lead vocals as well as drums and percussion.

In 1991, Jansen, Barbieri, and Karn formed Medium Productions as a venue for releasing their own music, as well as releases by other artists.

Jansen has worked extensively as a session musician and in collaboration with a wide range of international artists, such as Yukihiro Takahashi and Italian singer-songwriter Alice. His most recent project is Nine Horses with David Sylvian and Burnt Friedman, which has given birth to one album and one extended play CD released through Sylvian's record label Samadhisound.

Jansen played drums and percussion on tour with Sylvian through the latter half of 2007. Jansen's first solo album, entitled ''Slope'', was released on 15 January 2008.

Jansen has recently indicated that he is currently working on new compositions, which may result in either his second solo release or possibly a future Nine Horses' product.

External links

Steve Jansen's web site

SamadhiSound site

Overview of Steve Jansen's recorded material

Category:1959 births Category:Living people Category:English drummers Category:English male singers Category:People from Beckenham Category:Japan (band) members

es:Steve Jansen it:Steve Jansen ja:スティーヴ・ジャンセン pt:Steve Jansen