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Hīnayāna (हीनयान) is a Sanskrit and Pāli term literally meaning: the "Inferior Vehicle", "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the "Defective Vehicle". The term appeared around the 1st or 2nd century.

Hīnayāna is contrasted with Mahāyāna, which means the "Great Vehicle." There are a variety of interpretations as to who or what the term "Hīnayāna" refers to. The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century, distinguishes Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as follows:^[1]

Etymology[link]

The word Hīnayāna is formed of hīna (हीन)^[2]: "poor", "inferior","abandoned", "deficient", "defective;" and yāna (यान)^[3]: "vehicle", where "vehicle" means "a way of going to enlightenment". The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary (1921–25) defines hīna in even stronger terms, with a semantic field that includes "poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible," and "despicable."

In the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese languages, the term was translated by Kumārajīva and others as "small vehicle" (小 meaning "small", 乘 meaning "vehicle"), although earlier and more accurate translations of the term also exist. In Mongolian (Baga Holgon) term for Hinayana also means "small" or "lesser" vehicle,^[4] while in Tibetan there are at least two words to designate the term, theg chung (Tibetan: ཐེག་ཆུང་) meaning "small vehicle"^[5], and theg dman (Tibetan: ཐེག་དམན་) meaning "inferior vehicle" or "inferior spiritual approach".^[6]

Origins[link]

According to Jan Nattier, it is most likely that the term Hīnayāna post-dates the term Mahāyāna, and was only added at a later date due to antagonism and conflict between bodhisattvas and śrāvakas. The sequence of terms then began with Bodhisattvayāna, which was given the epithet Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle"). It was only later, after attitudes toward the bodhisattvas and their teachings had become more critical, that the term Hīnayāna was created as a back-formation, contrasting with the already-established term Mahāyāna.^[7] The earliest Mahāyāna texts often use the term Mahāyāna as an epithet and synonym for Bodhisattvayāna, but the term Hīnayāna is comparatively rare in early texts, and is usually not found at all in the earliest translations. Therefore, the often-perceived symmetry between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna can be deceptive, as the terms were not actually coined in relation to one another in the same era.^[8]

According to Paul Williams, "the deep-rooted misconception concerning an unfailing, ubiquitous fierce criticism of the Lesser Vehicle by the [Mahāyāna] is not supported by our texts."^[9] Williams states that while evidence of conflict is present in some cases, there is also substantial evidence demonstrating peaceful coexistence between the two traditions.^[10]

Mahāyāna members of the early Buddhist schools[link]

Although the 18-20 early schools of Buddhism are sometimes loosely classified as Hīnayāna in modern times, this is not necessarily accurate. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.^[11] Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early Buddhist schools, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools.^[12] From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.^[13]

The Chinese Buddhist monk and pilgrim Yijing wrote about relationship between the various "vehicles" and the early Buddhist schools in India. He wrote, "There exist in the West numerous subdivisions of the schools which have different origins, but there are only four principal schools of continuous tradition." These schools are namely the Mahāsaṃghika Nikāya, Sthavira Nikāya, Mūlasarvāstivāda Nikāya, and Saṃmitīya Nikāya.^[14] Explaining their doctrinal affiliations, he then writes, "Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahāyāna or with the Hīnayāna is not determined." That is to say, there was no simple correspondence between a Buddhist school and whether its members learn "Hīnayāna" or "Mahāyāna" teachings.^[15]

To identify entire schools as "Hīnayāna" that contained not only śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, but also Mahāyāna bodhisattvas as well, would be attacking the schools of their fellow Mahāyānists as well as their own. Instead, what is demonstrated in the definition of Hīnayāna given by Yijing, is that the term referred to individuals based on doctrinal differences with the Mahāyāna tradition.^[1]

Hīnayāna as Śrāvakayāna[link]

Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although "the Mahāyāna ... very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier Buddhism as the Hinayāna, the Inferior Way," "the preponderance of this name in the secondary literature is far out of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts." She notes that the term Śrāvakayāna was "the more politically correct and much more usual" term used by Mahāyānists.^[16] Jonathan Silk has argued that the term "Hinayana" was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping of Buddhists.^[17]

Hīnayāna and Theravāda[link]

Views of Chinese pilgrims[link]

In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang describes the concurrent existence of the Mahavihara and the Abhayagiri Vihara in Sri Lanka. He refers to the monks of the Mahavihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (Theras), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras".^[18]

Philosophical differences[link]

Mahayanists were primarily in philosophical dialectic with the Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda, which had by far the most "comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics" of the nikaya schools.^[19] With this in mind it is sometimes argued that the Theravada would not have been considered a "Hinayana" school by Mahayanists because unlike the now-extinct Sarvastivada school, the primary object of Mahayana criticism, the Theravada school does not claim the existence of independent dharmas; in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.^[20][21][22] Some contemporary Theravadin figures have thus indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahayana philosophy found in the Heart Sutra and the Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way.^[23][24]

The Mahayanists were bothered by the substantialist thought of the Sarvastivadins and Sautrantikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.^[25] The Theravadins too refuted the Sarvastivadins and Sautrantikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravada arguments are preserved in the Kathavatthu.^[26]

Opinions of scholars[link]

Most western scholars regard the Theravada school to be one of the Hinayana schools referred to in Mahayana literature, or regard Hinayana as a synonym for Theravada.^{[27][28][29][30][31]} These scholars understand the term to refer to schools of Buddhism that did not accept the teachings of the Mahayana Sutras as authentic teachings of the Buddha.^[28][30] At the same time, scholars have objected to the pejorative connotation of the term Hinayana and some scholars do not use it for any school.^[32]

Opinions of Theravadin Buddhists[link]

Some Theravada Buddhists have opposed the identification of Theravada with Hinayana, as it is seen as more of a derogatory term. As Walpola Rahula noted in his Gems of Buddhist Wisdom:

We must not confuse Hīnayāna with Theravāda because the terms are not synonymous. Theravāda Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century BC when there was no Mahāyāna at all. Hīnayāna sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hīnayāna sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term Hīnayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of Theravāda, Mahayāna and Hīnayāna.

The Theravada school remained a presence on the Indian mainland long after its establishment in Sri Lanka, however. In addition, since the time of Rahula's writing considerable evidence has emerged indicating that Theravadins and Mahayanists interacted extensively in Sri Lanka throughout the first millennium CE, so any suggestion that there was no contact between the two would be incorrect.^[33]

See also[link]

• Early Buddhist Schools
• Buddhist schools
• Nikaya Buddhism
• Mahayana
• Yana
• Theravada
• Lotus Sutra

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Romila Thapar, Early India from the Origins to AD 1300 Penguin, 2001
• Tsongkhapa, The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment, Snowlion, 2000
• Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989
• Andrew Skilton, Concise history of Buddhism. Windhorse, 1999
• Donald Lopez, "The H Word", Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, Fall 1995, pp84–85
• R. S. Cohen, "Discontented Categories: Hinayana and Mahayana in Indian History", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 63(1):1-25, 1995
• Ryukan Kimura, A Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism, Indological Book Corp., 1978
• A Note on the Use of the Word Hinayana_Sharma_EBS_1976
• The Meaning of Hinayana in Northern Ch’an_Zeuschner_EBS_1978

External links[link]

• "Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism" Dr. W. Rahula's article

Oliver Shanti (Born Ulrich Schulz 16 November 1948 in Hamburg), also known as Oliver Serano-Alve, is a New Age musician. Founder of the band Inkarnation which was originally based on meditative music, and later transformed into "Oliver Shanti & Friends". Because of Oliver's unavailability, the rest of the group is continuing with multi-instrumentalist Margot Reisinger (formerly known as Margot Vogl and Margot Shanti), a member of the original staff, as "Existence".

Allegations of child sexual abuse[link]

In 2002, a warrant for his arrest was issued in Germany, with a €3000 reward offered, on suspicion of his having committed child sexual abuse.^[1] Shanti went missing at that time, and was reported^[2] to be living secretly in Germany or its adjacent countries. He was arrested in Lisbon, Portugal, on 29 June 2008,^[3] and charged with 314 cases of child abuse on 20 April 2009.^[4][5] After having attempted suicide during his pre-trial custody,^[6] "Oliver Shanti" was sentenced to six years and 10 months in prison on Friday, December 4, 2009 - after a Munich court convicted him of 76 counts of child sexual abuse.^[7]

Discography[link]

Main:

• 1987 - Licht-Prakash-Light (as Inkarnation)
• 1987 - Frieden-Shanti-Peace (as Inkarnation)
• 1987 - Listening to the Heart
• 1988 - Rainbow Way
• 1988 - Vila Nova Mellow Days (as Oliver Serano-Alve)
• 1989 - Walking on the Sun
• 1990 - Minho Valley Fantasies (as Oliver Serano-Alve)
• 1992 - Vida Para Vida (as Oliver Serano-Alve)
• 1993 - Tai Chi
• 1995 - Well Balanced
• 1996 - Tai Chi Too
• 1997 - Circles of Life: The Best of Oliver Shanti (compilation album including 3 new tracks)
• 1998 - Seven Times Seven
• 2000 - Medicine Power
• 2002 - Alhambra
• 2006 - Man Heaven Earth (compilation album featuring 2 tracks by "Existence" and Dahmani)

Projects:

• 1996 - Buddha and Bonsai Vol. 1
• 1997 - Shaman
• 1997 - Buddha and Bonsai Vol. 2
• 2000 - Buddha and Bonsai Vol. 3
• 2000 - Shaman 2
• 2002 - Buddha and Bonsai Vol. 4
• 2005 - Buddha and Bonsai Vol. 5: The Power of Silence

Thematical compilations:

• Indiens: Sacred Spirits
• Shaman: Red Indian Chill
• before 1997 - Meditative Music of Budo-Gala: The Magic of Martial Arts
• 1997 - Spirit of Budo: The Power of Balance
• 1997 - 10 Years of Sattva Music
• 1999 - Tibetiya (including 3 new tracks by Oliver Shanti)
• 2001 - 15 Years of Sattva Music
• 2001 - Reiki: Brightness Healing

Other:

• 2008 single - Oliver Shanti feat. N.i.M.i - Roo Be Asemoon (Olugu Zamba Remix)
• 2010 single - Oliver Shanti feat. DJ Sunf - The Tree (rmx)

References[link]

1. ^ "Munich - Search for Ulrich Schulz - Arrest warrant for serious child sexual abuse" (PDF). http://www.polizei.bayern.de/content/7/0/1/3/schulz_eng.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-05. ^{[dead link]}
2. ^ "Münchner Polizei jagt spirituellen Serien-Kinderschänder". http://www.merkur-online.de/nachrichten/politik/muenchner-polizei-jagt-spirituellen-serienkinderschaender-138178.html. Retrieved 2011-08-24. 
3. ^ "Alemão detido por pedofilia em Lisboa foi agraciado com Medalha de Mérito da Câmara de Cerveira (in Portuguese)". http://sol.sapo.pt/PaginaInicial/Sociedade/Interior.aspx?content_id=99868. Retrieved 2008-06-29. 
4. ^ "Anklage gegen Musiker Oliver Shanti erhoben". http://www.n24.de/news/newsitem_4990035.html. Retrieved 2009-04-21. 
5. ^ "Klage gegen Oliver Shanti - Sektenguru unter schwerem Verdacht". http://www.sueddeutsche.de/muenchen/7/465595/text/. Retrieved 2009-04-21. 
6. ^ "Angeklagter Sekten-Guru Oliver Shanti überlebt Selbstmordversuch". http://www.welt.de/news/article5094870/Angeklagter-Sekten-Guru-Oliver-Shanti-ueberlebt-Selbstmordversuch.html. Retrieved 2009-12-13. 
7. ^ "Nearly seven years prison for child abuser guru Oliver Shanti". http://www.thelocal.de/national/20091205-23735.html. Retrieved 2009-12-05. 

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Sheng Yen 聖嚴
File:Sheng-yen xinhuanet.jpg
Religion	Chan Buddhism
School	Caodong, Linji
Other name(s)	Changjin (novice name)
Personal
Nationality	Republic of China
Born	December 4, 1930 Shanghai, China
Died	February 3, 2009 Taipei, Taiwan
Senior posting
Title	Chan Master
Religious career
Teacher	Ven. Dongchu, Ven. Ling Yuan

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Sheng Yen (聖嚴; Pinyin: Shèngyán, birth name Zhang Baokang, 張保康) (December 4, 1930 – February 3, 2009) was a Buddhist monk, a religious scholar, and one of the mainstream teachers of Chinese Chan Buddhism. He was the 57th generational descendant of Linji in the Linji (Japanese: Rinzai) School and a 3rd generational descendant of Master Hsu Yun. In the Caodong (Japanese: Sōtō) lineage, Sheng Yen was the 52nd generational descendant of Master Dongshan (807-869), and the direct descendant of Master Dongchu (1908–1977).^[1]

Sheng Yen was the founder of the Dharma Drum Mountain, a Buddhist organization based in Taiwan. During his time in Taiwan, Sheng Yen was well known as one of the progressive Buddhist teachers who sought to teach Buddhism in a modern and Western-influenced world. In Taiwan, he was one of four prominent modern Buddhist masters, along with Masters Hsing Yun, Cheng Yen and Wei Chueh. In 2000 he was one of the keynote speakers in the Millennium World Peace Summit of Religious and Spiritual Leaders held in the United Nations.^[2]

Biography[link]

Born near Shanghai in mainland China, he became a Buddhist monk at the age of 13. In order to escape religious persecution from the People's Republic of China, he went to Taiwan in 1949 by enlisting in a unit of the Nationalist Army out of necessity.^[3] He became a monk again in 1959 and from 1961 to 1968 he trained in solitary retreat in southern Taiwan. He then completed a master's degree (1971) and doctorate (1975) in Buddhist literature at Rissho University in Japan.^[4]

He became abbot of Nong Chan Monastery in Taiwan in 1978 and founder of the Institute of Chung-Hwa Buddhist Culture in New York City in 1979. In 1985, he founded the Institute of Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies in Taipei and the International Cultural and Educational Foundation of Dharma Drum Mountain in 1989.

He taught in the United States starting in 1975, and established Chan Meditation Center in Queens, New York, and its retreat center, Dharma Drum Retreat Center at Pine Bush, New York in 1997. He also visited many countries in Europe, as well as continuing his teaching in several Asian countries, in particular Taiwan. In this way his work helped to bridge East and West and convey the Dharma to the West. He was known as a skillful teacher who helped many of his students to reach enlightenment mostly through meditation.^[5] Sheng Yen gave dharma transmission to several of his lay Western students, such as John Crook. Later on, John Crook who formed the Western Chan Fellowship[2], and several other Western disciples of Master Sheng Yen, such as Simon Child, Max Kalin, and Zarko Andricevi.

Sheng Yen's health was poor in the last couple years of his life, although he still gave lectures in Taiwan. He declined a kidney transplant, stating that he did not expect to live for long, and he would rather save the chance for others who need it.

Death[link]

Sheng Yen died from renal failure on February 3, 2009, while returning from National Taiwan University Hospital in Taipei. In accordance with East Asian age reckoning methods, the Dharma Drum Mountain organization states that Sheng Yen died at the age of 80.^[6] Officially, according to the Western way of reckoning age, Sheng Yen died at the age of 79.

Hours after his death, tributes from eminent Buddhist monks and Taiwanese politicians and celebrities, including President Ma Ying-jeou, Vice President Vincent Siew, DPP Chairwoman Tsai Ing-wen, kung fu star Jet Li, and actress Brigitte Lin, began to pour into Dharma Drum Mountain monastery. As stipulated in his will, Sheng Yen forbade the use of extravagant funeral services, including the construction of memorials or monuments. Sheng Yen received a simple Buddhist ritual attended by the President and dignitaries, and was buried in the Life Memorial Garden near the monastery. His ashes were divided into five sections, with each section filled by the Abbot, senior disciples, President Ma, Vice President Siew, and other laity.^[7][8]

Dharma Heirs[link]

• Venerable Chi Chern
• Venerable Guo Dong
• Venerable Guo Yuan
• Dr John Crook, PhD, DSC
• Dr Simon Child
• Max Kalin
• Zarko Andricevic
• Venerable Huimin
• Venerable Guo Ru
• Venerable Guo Xing
• Venerable Guo Jun
• Venerable Guo Kuang
• Venerable Guo Yi
• Venerable Guo Zhao
• Gilbert Gutierrez

In the Chan lineage of Sheng Yen, a "Dharma Heir" receives the Dharma transmission based on his or her selfless administrative contributions to Dharma Drum Mountain and personal experience of Chan.

Books by Sheng Yen[link]

In alphabetical order of the books' title:

• Sheng Yen, A Journey of Learning and Insight, Dharma Drum Publishing Corp, 2012. ISBN 978-957-598-580-6
• Sheng Yen, Attaining the Way: A Guide to the Practice of Chan Buddhism. Shambhala Publications, 2006. ISBN 978-1-59030-372-6.
• Sheng Yen, Complete Enlightenment - Zen Comments on the Sutra of Complete Enlightenment. Shambhala Publications, 1998. ISBN 978-1-57062-400-1.
• Sheng Yen, Dharma Drum: The Life & Heart of Ch'an Practice. Shambhala Publications, 2006. ISBN 978-1-59030-396-2.
• Sheng Yen, Faith in Mind: A Guide to Chan Practice. Dharma Publishing, 1987. ISBN 978-0-9609854-2-5.
• Sheng Yen, Getting the Buddha Mind: On the Practice of Chan Retreat. North Atlantic Books, 2005. ISBN 978-1-55643-526-3.
• Sheng Yen and Dan Stevenson, Hoofprint of the Ox: Principles of the Chan Buddhist Path As Taught by a Modern Chinese Master. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-515248-4.
• Sheng Yen (ed. John Crook), Illuminating Silence: The Practice of Chinese Zen. Watkins, 2002. ISBN 1-84293-031-1.
• Sheng Yen, Orthodox Chinese Buddhism. Dharma Drum, 2007. ISBN 1-55643-657-2. Online text
• Sheng Yen, Ox-herding at Morgan's Bay. Dharma Drum, 1988. ISBN 0-9609854-3-3.
• Sheng Yen, Setting in Motion the Dharma Wheel. Dharma Drum Publications, 2000. ASIN B001HPIU4K.
• Sheng Yen, Shattering the Great Doubt: The Chan Practice of Huatou. Shambhala, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59030-621-5.
• Sheng Yen, Song of Mind: Wisdom from the Zen Classic Xin Ming. Shambhala, 2004. ISBN 1-59030-140-4.
• Sheng Yen, Subtle Wisdom: Understanding Suffering, Cultivating Compassion Through Ch'an Buddhism. Image, 1999. ISBN 978-0-385-48045-1.
• Sheng Yen, The Infinite Mirror: Commentaries on Two Chan Classics. Shambala, 2006. ISBN 978-1-59030-398-6.
• Sheng Yen, The Method of No-Method: The Chan Practice of Silent Illumination. Shambhala, 2008. ISBN 1-59030-575-2.
• Sheng Yen, The Poetry of Enlightenment: Poems by Ancient Chan Masters. Shambala, 2006. ISBN 978-1-59030-399-3.
• Sheng Yen, The Six Paramitas: Perfections of the Budhisattva path, a commentary. Dharma Drum, 2002. ASIN: B0006S8EYU.
• Sheng Yen, The Sword of Wisdom: A Commentary on the Song of Enlightenment. North Atlantic Books, 2002. ISBN 978-1-55643-428-0.
• Sheng Yen, There Is No Suffering: A Commentary on the Heart Sutra. Dharma Drum, 2002. ISBN 1-55643-385-9.
• Sheng Yen, Thing Pertaining to Bodhi: The Thirty-seven Aids to Enlightenment. Shambhala, 2010. ISBN 978-1-59030-790-8.
• Sheng Yen, Zen Wisdom. North Atlantic Books, 2002. ISBN 978-1-55643-386-3.

Autobiography of Master Sheng Yen:

• Sheng Yen, Footprints in the Snow: The Autobiography of a Chinese Buddhist Monk. Doubleday Religion, 2008. ISBN 978-0-385-51330-2.

See also[link]

• Dharma Drum Mountain
• Dharma Drum Retreat Center
• Nung Chan Monastery
• Western Chan Fellowship
• Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States

References[link]

External links[link]

• Website of Master Sheng Yen
• Biography^{[dead link]} and Autobiography^{[dead link]} of Chan Master Sheng Yen at the website of the Chan Meditation Center in New York
• Dharma Drum Retreat Center in Pinebush, New York
• The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies
• Dharma Drum Mountain in Taiwan
• The Western Chan Fellowship (UK)
• Sheng Yen education foundation