Bikaner बिकाणो
—  city  —
Laxmi Niwas Palace, Bikaner
Bikaner
Coordinates: 28°01′00″N 73°18′43″E / 28.0166667°N 73.31194°E / 28.0166667; 73.31194Coordinates: 28°01′00″N 73°18′43″E / 28.0166667°N 73.31194°E / 28.0166667; 73.31194
Country	India
State	Rajasthan
District	Bikaner
Area
• Total	270 km2 (100 sq mi)
Elevation	242 m (794 ft)
Population (2008)
• Total	723,982
• Density	1,960/km2 (5,100/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Hindi
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
PIN	3340XX
Telephone code	+91 151
Vehicle registration	RJ-07

Bikaner ( pronunciation (help·info)) is a District in the northwest of the state of Rajasthan in northern India. It is located 330 kilometres (205 mi) northwest of the state capital, Jaipur. Bikaner city is the administrative headquarters of Bikaner District and Bikaner division. It was formerly the capital of the princely state of Bikaner. The city was founded by Rao Bika. Bikaner.^[1][2][3] in 1486 and from its small origins it has developed into the fifth largest city in Rajasthan. The Ganges Canal, completed in 1928, and the Indira Gandhi Canal, completed in 1987, have allowed the farming of crops such as mustard, cotton, groundnuts, wheat and vegetables. Other industries include wool production and the mining of Gypsum, plaster of Paris and bentonite.

Bikaner is famous for sweets and snacks (or namkeens in Hindi).

History[link]

Prior to the mid 15th century, the region that is now Bikaner was a barren wilderness called Jangladesh.^[4] In 1488 Rao Bika established the city of Bikaner. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur and conquered the largely arid country in the north of Rajasthan. As the second son of Joda he had no chance of inheriting Jodhpur from his father or the title of Maharaja. He therefore decided to build his own kingdom in what is now the state of Bikaner in the area of Jungladesh. Though it was in the Thar Desert, Bikaner was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast as it had adequate spring water. Bika’s name was attached to the city he built and to the state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. Bika built a fort in 1478, which is now in ruins, and a hundred years later a new fort was built about 1.5 km from the city centre, known as the Junagarh Fort.^[5][6][7]

Around a century after Rao Bika founded Bikaner, the state's fortunes flourished under the sixth Raja, Rai Singhji, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, Rai Singh accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high rank as an army general at the court of the Emperor Akbar and his son the Emperor Jahangir. Rai Singh's successful military exploits, which involved winning half of Mewar kingdom for the Empire, won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was given the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain which has an average elevation of 760 feet (230 m). He was an expert in arts and architecture, and the knowledge he acquired during his visits abroad is amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built at the Junagarh fort.^[5][7][8]

Karan Singh, who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669 to 1698, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter, a royal dwelling for women and children. He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh, who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace).

During the 18th century, there was internecine war between the rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other thakurs, which was put down by British troops.^[7]

Following Gaj Singh, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and lavishly decorated the audience hall (see illustration) with glass and lively paintwork. Under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, during Surat Singh's reign, Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British, after which the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily in refurbishing Junagarh fort.^[9]

Left: Lalgarh palace built (Indo-Saracenic style) by Ganga Singh in the name of his father, presently a heritage hotel and also residence of the Royal family. Right: Ganga Singh as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet

Dungar Singh, who reigned from 1872 to 1887, built the Badal Mahal, the 'weather palace', so named in view of a painting of clouds and falling rain, a rare event in arid Bikaner.

Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943, was the best-known of the Rajasthan princes and was a favourite of the British Governors-General. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India, served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented India at the Imperial Conferences during the First World War and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audiences in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. He also built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner. He named the building Lalgarh Palace in honour of his father and moved his main residence there from Junagarh fort in 1902. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as Bikaner's ruler is now a museum.^[7][9][10]

Ganga Singh's son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded his state to the Union of India in 1949 and died in 1950.^[6] The royal family still lives in a suite in the Lalbagh Palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.^[7][9]

Geography[link]

Sand dunes in Bikaner, Rajasthan

Transport[link]

The internal transport system in Bikaner consists of autorickshaws and city buses. Bikaner is connected to some of major Indian cities via broad gauge railway. The city has direct rail connections to Delhi, Mumbai, Kanpur, Agra, Jalandhar, Baroda, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Guwahati, Jaipur, Surat, Jalandhar, Thiruvananthapuram, Chandigarh, Jammu, and Ahmedabad. However, there is no rail connectivity for other major Indian cities like Chennai, Indore, Jhansi, Ranchi, Bhopal, Gwalior, Jabalpur, and Puri. Bikaner is well served with roads and is linked directly to Delhi, Jaipur, Agra, Ludhiana, Bhatinda, Ambala, Ahmedabad, Haridwar, Jodhpur, Indore and many other cities. National highways 11, 15, and 89 meet at Bikaner. There is a under construction domestic airport at nal 14 km from city which will start its flights for Delhi and Jaipur in late 2012

Climate[link]

Bikaner is situated in the middle of the Thar desert with very little rainfall and extreme temperatures. In summer, temperatures can exceed 50 °C and during the winter it may dip to freezing point.

The climate in Bikaner is characterised by extreme variations in temperature. In the summer season it is very hot when the temperatures lie in the range of 28–48.5 °C (82–119 °F). In the winter, it is fairly cold with temperatures lying in the range of 5–23.2 °C (41–74 °F).^[11] Annual Rainfall is in the range of 260–440 millimetres (10–17 in).^[11][12]

Art & Culture[link]

Princely flag of Bikaner

Bikaner is famous for -:

1) Its camel research farm (NRCC). 2) Its "Bikaneri Bhujia. 3) Its wool production. 4) Its sweets. 5) PATA culture ( Wooden made big square size table which is laid upon the streets where localites sit at their leisure )

Bikaneri Bhujia is a spicy snack made from moth dal, spices and edible oil. Bikaner is also known for its handicrafts and leather articles, for its palaces and for having Asia's biggest camel farm.

The city is also known for its intricately carved Jharokas. These red sandstone stone jalis (screens) are found on the windows of the Junagarh fort, temples and havelis (mansions of Northern India). Jalis would be used for ventilation and for women to watch the world while remaining hidden.

The red sandstone for these stone window screens was supplied by the nearby village of Dulmera.

Usta & Chadhwa Art[link]

Bikaner was and is the centre for Usta Art, a generic term for the Manoti-Naqqashi (embossed and unembossed floral and geometric patterned objects layered with gold) media produced by Usta family master artistans of Bikaner. The Usta artists and artisans also controlled all production of the Bikaner School "miniature" paintings using translucent and opaque vegetable and mineral watercolours from the late-16th to late-19th Century. Famous painters of the Bikaner School were Hamid Rukn-ud-din, Ahmad, Nathu ji, Nure, Rahim, Isa, Iso, Sahab-ud-din, Rehim ji,Murad, and Abdul Shakoor.

Fairs and festivals[link]

• International Camel Festival, Ladera Dunes, 25 km away from Bikaner City.
• Karni Mata fair, Deshnoke, Bikaner
• Gangaur
• Kapil Muni fair
• Punarasar Fair : This fair is held at punarasar village of Bikaner. The village is named after lord Hanuman who is considered the god of power, knowledge, health and wealth. Hindus of Bikaner and its adjoining cities head towards this holy village twice (Sarad purnima & Bhaadava) in a year and celebrate this pious occasion with lot of offerings to Punarasar baba. Devotees who approach this holy occasion (following the path between hamlets) are served with food and refreshment by the gathering of another devotees. This fair is considered must visit among local public of Bikaner hence a very long queue (more than 5 km) of devotees is witnessed at this occasion before the temple. Punarasar temple is situated closer to highway leads to Jaipur that's why this highway is known as Punarasar highway too!
• Kodamdesar Mela :- Kodamdesar mela is celebrated in the village of Kodamdesar 20 km far from bikaner where the temple of lord bhairoon is situated. This temple have no roof for covering the statue of bhairoon nath. Chura and Surdashani purohit are the casts who have utmost faith upon kodamdesar bahiroon.
• Kolayat Mela
• Siyana Bhairoon mela : This fair is known for the utmost celebration by Hindu casts Ojha, Bhadani, chhangani and derasri. Devotees from this community along with others reach siyana village of bikaner by cart, buses, car, bike and on feet. Siyana village is known for the temple of lord bhiroon who is believed to bless all amenities to his devotees they prayed for.
• Camel festival: each January the state government organises a camel festival with camel races, various cultural events and a fire dance performed by the Sidh people.
• Aksaye Tritya or "AKKHA TEEJ": the foundation day of Bikaner. This was the day when Rao Bika laid the foundation of the new empire. Every year on this day people from across the social spectrum enjoy themselves by flying kites or "CHANDA". They also enjoy a special meal, such as "Khichra and Imlani".
• Paryushan: The biggest festival of Jain community is celebrated with utmost fervour and dedication in the city in the Bhadrapad month of Hindu calendar. The temples are lavishly decorated. Spiritual ceremonies and fasting are seen everywhere in the city.
• Kartik Poornima: The Jain community takes out a huge procession on this day consisting of paintings, palki of tirthankar and musical bands. It traverses all the areas inhabited by Jains. Local bhajan mandalis or Spiritual Bands perform with great excitement on this occasion. This festivity is unparalleled in India.
• Rammat : Rammat is a marwadi word which stands for "PLAY". Rammat is performed in adjoining days of Holi at Bhattron ka chowk, Barah Guwar, Bisso ka chowk etc. local actors portray the role of ancient legends like Dhola Marwaani, Amarsingh Rathod . Rammat starts in midnight and get finished in the dawn with the pray of goddess . Localite take delight to participate in the chorus and spread different color over the crowd present there . Rammat of Harsh & Vyas attract huge crowd owing to its distinctive nature of water play. Both community member of harsh & Vyas get themselves loaded there area with water tank and they hit each other with water with help of leather made jug . The one who loose water early face the defeat ! However it is a fixed game since inception of this game vyas are declared the winner that too cordially, then also huge crowd turn up at the site and cheer their favorite team with full of passion .
• Pata : Pata is a wooden made giant sized square shaped couch on which people sit and chat. Pata was formed with intention to bring people together and discuss different issues on the daily basis. Nowadays Patas have become spot of pure entertainment and gossip

Attractions in Bikaner and nearby[link]

Junagarh Fort, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India

Junagarh Fort[link]

The fort was built by Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner who reigned from 1571 to 1612. Rai Singh had conquered part of Marwar and had been granted territory in Gujurat and Burhanpur by the Mughal emperor Akbar as a reward for his services as military commander. This, as well as funding from Jodhpur, enabled him to build the fort. Rai Singh held high rank in the imperial courts of both Akbar and his successor, Jehangir. During his imperial service he travelled extensively, giving him an appreciation of art and architecture. These ideas have been incorporated meticulously into the architectural style of Junagarh Fort.

Laxmi Niwas Palace[link]

Laxmi Niwas Palace

The Laxmi Niwas Palace is a former residential palace of the king of the former Bikaner state, Maharajah Ganga Singh in Bikaner in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It was designed by the British architect, Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob in the year 1902. The style of architecture is Indo-Saracenic. It is now a luxury hotel owned by Golden Triangle Fort & Palace P. Ltd. The magnificent structure in red sandstone is one of the most popular destinations for tourists in Bikaner.^[13]

Lalgarh Palace[link]

Lalgarh Palace

Lalgarh Palace was built between 1902 and 1926 according to Rajput, Mughal and European architectural styles. The building was commissioned by Maharaja Ganga Singh (1889–1925) in memory of his father Maharaja Lall Singh and was designed by the British architect, Sir Swinton Jacob. It is coated in red sandstone and has several grand halls, lounges, cupolas and pavilions. The building features magnificent pillars, elaborate fireplaces, Italian colonnades and intricate latticework and filigree work. The palace houses the Shri Sadul Museum as well as a large and important collection of Sanskrit manuscripts, the Anup Sanskrit Library. Though the Bikaner Royal Family still live in the palace, part of the building has been converted into a Heritage hotel operated by the Royal family of Bikaner.^{[citation needed]}

Maru Nayak Ji[link]

Constructed in 1486, Moolnayakji was the first Vaishnav Temple built in Bikaner. It was the principal seat of the Vaishanv sect. The first of the Bhagavad Katha Vachaks of the Rattani Vyas clan of Bikaner Shri Rattoji Vyas gave the Bhagavad Updesh to the king, Rao Bika and his aide Salloji Rathi. This practice is carried on till date. The presiding deity is Lord Moolnayak Krishna.

Bhandasar Jain Temple

Laxmi Nath Temple[link]

Laxmi Nath Temple is one of the oldest temples in Bikaner. The foundation of the city was laid here in 1488 by Rao Bikaji. The temple was erected during the reign of Rao Lunkaran and was added to by Maharaja Ganga Singh.

Bhandasar Jain Temple[link]

Out of the 27 beautiful Jain temples adorning the landscape of Bikaner city, this temple dedicated to the fifth Tirthankara, Sumatinath, is considered to be the most beautiful and also the highest. This temple was built by a Jain merchant, Bhanda Shah. The foundation of this temple was filled by pure ghee and dry coconuts.

This temple is mainly famous for wall paintings and usta art. The temple is built of red sandstone and is divided in three floors. One can see the skyline of Bikaner by climbing to the topmost floor of this temple.

Mukam Temple[link]

Mukam is a pilgrimage near Nokha for Bishnoi community. Bishnois are known for their kind nature.

Kolayat[link]

Kolayat is a famous pilgrimage spot with a temple dedicated to Kapila who, according to his devotees, sat in meditation near the lake. One week before Pushkar Festival and till one week later this lake is more interesting if you like to see Sadhus. Pushkar will have some Sadhus but Kolayat will have many hundreds.

Karni Mata Temple[link]

The world famous shrine of Karni Mata can be found in the town of Deshnoke 30 km south from Bikaner on the road to Jodhpur. Karni Mata is worshiped as an incarnation of Goddess Durga.

This temple is famous for rats which can be seen everywhere in the temple.

Shiv Bari Temple[link]

Built from red sandstone by Dungar Singh in the late 19th century, the temple is surrounded by a wall with battlements. It has a four faced black marble statue of Shiva and a bronze Nandi facing the Shiva Lingam. There are also two large reservoirs of water known as bawaris. The temple attracts thousands of visitors during Shravan (August) especially on Mondays.

Camel Festival[link]

The Bikaner Camel Festival is an event organized by the Department of Tourism, Art and Culture, of Bikaner, Government of Rajasthan. It takes place every year in the month of January. At this festival the "ships of the desert" are seen at their best. Some spectacular and unusual camel performances like camel races, camel dances, and the bumpy, neck shaking camel rides take place at this event.

• The Bikaner Camel Festival starts with a procession of bedecked camels from the Junagarh fort. The camels are decorated in typical Rajasthani attires, colorful bridles and saddles.
• The festival takes place over two days.
• Camel dance performances also take place. Competitions take place for the best decorated camel, fur cutting design, camel milking and the best camel hair cut. The camels display splendid footwork and dance gracefully to the direction of their drivers.
• Tea and sweets made of camels' milk are available during the festival.
• On the second day of the festival the fleetest camels of the region take part in races. The competition is fierce as the best camels compete for the prizes, which is of great honor. Thousands of excited tourists join the local population to watch the events and cheer on their favorites.
• On both evenings the festival ends with a performance by the renowned folk singers and dancers of Rajasthan. The jubilant dances swirling the ghagras, the awe inspiring fire dances and many other interesting and enthusiastic performances entertain visitors. In the grand finale a magnificent display of fireworks takes place which illuminate the desert city of Bikaner.
• The Bikaner camel festival has a historical significance. The camels were very important when there were no motor vehicles. At that time the camels were an important part of the transport in the city of Bikaner.

Event listing for Camel Festival 2011 can be found at bikanermarket bikaner Market

Other attractions[link]

• Nagnechi Ji Temple
• Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum
• Astrology :- Bikaner is blessed with prominient astrologers of India, few are Rajendra vyas ( Mammu Maharaj), Late Acharya raj, Mr Ashok thanvi etc.
• Camel Research Farm, Bikaner
• Horse Research Farm, Bikaner
• Rajasthan State Archives
• Soor Sagar
• Public Park and Zoo
• Raj Ratan Bihari Park and Rasik Shiromani Temple
• Lakshminath Ji Temple
• Bhandasar Jain Temple
• Vaidehi Global Trust
• Vaishno Dham
• Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum
• Rampuria Havelis
• Ratan Bihari Temple
• Historical Gopi Nath Temple, Opp. Government Press
• Devi Kund Sagar.
• Gajner Palace.
• Kalibangan.
• Kolayat.
• MUKAM Nokha
• Goddess Karni Temple, Deshnok (A.K.A. Rat Temple).
• Doda thora
• Laleshwar Mahadev Mandir, Shiv-Bari
• Science Park, Statue Circle, J.N.Vyas Colony
• Nandishwar Mahadev Mandir, Murlidhar Vyas Colony
• Gates and Baris of old Bikaner city (Kote-gate, Goga-gate, Nathusar-gate, Jassusar-gate, Shitala-gate)Bikaner najlepsi

Demographics[link]

According to the 2011 India census,^[14] Bikaner had a population of 2,367,745. Males constituted 53% of the population and females 47%. Bikaner has an average literacy rate of 66%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with male literacy of 74% and female literacy of 57%. 14% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Education in Bikaner[link]

For notable Universities and colleges see List of universities and colleges in Bikaner:

1.Government Engineering College Bikaner

2.Marudhar Engineering College

3.Shri Jain Post Graduate College

4.College of Engineering & Technology

5.Manda Institute of Technology

6.B.J.S Rampuria College

7.Dungar College

8.Rampuria Institute for Management Studies

9.M.N Institute for Applied Science

10.M.S Girls College

11.Sardar Patel Medical College

12.Basic PG College

13.Elite PG College

14.Binnani Girls College

15.T.M. College for Applied Science

16.Gyan Vidhi College

17.Govt Law College

18.Govt TT College

19.Keen College

20.Govt Polytech. College

21.Govt Polytech. College for Girls

22.Shri Jain Kanya College

23.Rao Tulla Ram Rasterunati Vidhlya NO:-1,2,3 AND 4

Notable Universities :-

1.Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Jaisalmer Road, Bikaner

2.Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,Jaisalmer Road,Bikaner

3.Swami Keshvanand Rajasthan Agricultute University, Ganganagar Road, Bikaner

4.Bikaner Technical University,Bikaner,(Proposed)

For notable English medium Schools see List of schools in Bikaner, Rajasthan.

1.K.V. No. 1 (on Jaipur road)

2.K.V. No. 2 (inside Army campus)

3.K.V. No. 3 Nal Bikaner (inside Air Force Station Nal Bikaner).

4.Seth Tolaram Bafna Academy,Gangashahar,Nokha Road

5.Sophia Senior Secondary School,Jaipur Road

6.Bikaner Boys School

7.Delhi Public School,Bikaner

8.Dayanand Public School.

9.Rashtra Sahayak Vidhyalaya,J.N Vyas colony

10.St.N.N R.S.V, Pawan Puri South Extension

11.CENTRAL ACADEMY SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL {Sadul Ganj}

12.Teresa Children Academy Sr. Sec. School (K.K Colony Bikaner)

13.Bal Bari, Gangashahar

14.Aadarsh Vidhya Mandir, JNV Colony & Gangashahar

15.St. vivekanand sr. sec. school

Connectivity[link]

Bikaner is well connected by road, rail and air links to the rest of the country.^[15]

Bikaner has an airport named Nal Airport, which is 17 kilometres (11 mi) away from the city centre and is still not fully functional. It is basically an Airport station. However, airports at Jodhpur (254 kilometres (158 mi)) and Sanganer Airport at Jaipur (352 kilometres (219 mi)) within Rajasthan provide the link.

Bikaner is served by two railway stations namely Bikaner Junction (BKN)^[16] and Lalgarh Railway Station (LGH).^[17] These two stations connect Bikaner with other cities and towns in Rajasthan and with the major cities in North India.

There is very good network of city roads also where all modes of vehicular transport communications operate.

References[link]

• Patnaik, Naveen. (1990). A Desert Kingdom: The Rajputs of Bikaner. George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., London.

1. ^ http://www.bkn.co.in/History.php
2. ^ http://www.prachinamuseum.org/bikaner.htm
3. ^ http://www.travelgrove.com/travel-guides/India/Bikaner-History-c868406.html
4. ^ "Bikaner". Archived from the original on 2007-08-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20070819181354/http://www.rajasthantourism.gov.in/destinations/bikaner/bikaneroverview.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-08. 
5. ^ ^{a b} Ring, Trudy; Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. p. 129. ISBN 1-884964-04-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA132&dq=Junagarh+Fort#v=onepage&q=Junagarh%20Fort&f=false. Retrieved 2009-12-07. 
6. ^ ^{a b} Ward, Philip (1989). Northern India, Rajasthan, Agra, Delhi: a travel guide. Pelican Publishing Company. pp. 116–119. ISBN 0-88289-753-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=KubCD2jHjEsC&pg=PA116&dq=Junagarh+Fort#v=onepage&q=Junagarh%20Fort&f=false. Retrieved 2009-12-07. 
7. ^ ^{a b c d e} "History". National Informatics centre, Bikaner district. http://bikaner.nic.in/matter_historyn.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-07. 
8. ^ "Junagarh Fort, Bikaner". http://www.realbikaner.com/palace/junagarh/index.html. Retrieved 2009-12-07. 
9. ^ ^{a b c} Ring p.133
10. ^ Ring p.132
11. ^ ^{a b} "Bikaner". http://www.rajasthaninfo.org/bikaner.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-09. 
12. ^ "Climate of Bikaner". http://www.bikanertourism.com/bikaner-travel/climate.html. Retrieved 2009-12-09. 
13. ^ Laxmi Niwas Palace (Bikaner, Rajasthan) - Hotel Reviews - TripAdvisor
14. ^ "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999. Retrieved 2008-11-01. 
15. ^ "Junagarh Fort of Bikaner in Rajasthan, India". http://www.tourismtravelindia.com/rajasthanportal/touristattractions/junagarh.html. Retrieved 2009-12-07. 
16. ^ Indiarailinfo: Bikaner Junction
17. ^ Indiarailinfo: Lalgarh Railway Station

External links[link]

• Bikaner travel guide from Wikitravel
• District Government Site

v t e State of Rajasthan (India) Rajasthan Topics Major cities Jaipur (Capital) Ajmer Bikaner Jodhpur Kota Udaipur Divisions Ajmer Bharatpur Bikaner Jaipur Jodhpur Kota Udaipur Districts Ajmer Alwar Banswara Baran Barmer Bharatpur Bhilwara Bikaner Bundi Chittorgarh Churu Dausa Dholpur Dungarpur Hanumangarh Jaipur Jaisalmer Jalore Jhalawar Jhunjhunu Jodhpur Karauli Kota Nagaur Pali Pratapgarh Rajsamand Sawai Madhopur Sikar Sirohi Sri Ganganagar Tonk Udaipur

Bikaner:city

Karni Mata
Karni Mata Location in Rajasthan
Coordinates:	27°47′26″N 73°20′27″E / 27.79056°N 73.34083°E / 27.79056; 73.34083Coordinates: 27°47′26″N 73°20′27″E / 27.79056°N 73.34083°E / 27.79056; 73.34083
Name
Proper name:	Karni Mata
Location
Country:	India
State:	Rajasthan
Location:	Deshnoke
Architecture and culture
Primary deity:	Durga
Architectural styles:	Rajput
History
Date built: (Current structure)	15th century

Karni Mata (Hindi: करणी माता) ((1387-10-02)2 October 1387 – 23 March 1538(1538-03-23))^[1] was a female Hindu sage born in the Charan caste and is worshiped as the incarnation of the goddess Durga by her followers.^[1] She is an official deity of the royal family of Jodhpur and Bikaner. During her lifetime, she laid the foundation stone of two of the important forts in Rajputana. She lived an ascetic life, and most of the temples dedicated to her were dedicated during her lifetime. A temple dedicated to her during her lifetime differs from others in that it does not contain an image or idol of her but rather contains a foot-print to symbolize her visit to that place. The most famous of her temples is the temple of Deshnoke, which was created following her mysterious disappearance from her home. The temple is famous for its rats, which are treated as sacred and given protection in the temple. This temple is near to Bikaner and Nokha. The second name of Karni mata is (Nari bai). Contrary to some reports, the temple is of the Hindu sect and is not affiliated with the Jainism.

Karni Mata temple, Deshnoke[link]

The Karni Mata temple at Deshnoke, 30 km from Bikaner, in its present form was completed in the early 20th century in the late Mughal style by Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner. The temple was further enhanced by Kundanlal Verma of Hyderabad-based Karni Jewelers in 1999. The huge silver gates to the temple and the marble carvings were also donated by him.^{[citation needed]}

Throughout the year, pilgrims from around India visit to pay religious tribute to Karni Mata at the Deshnoke temple. Outside Rajasthan, she is respected and loved in areas such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Haryana. During Navratri thousands of people travel to the temple by foot. If one of the rats is killed, it must be replaced with one made of solid gold. Sighting a white rat amidst hordes of black rats is considered especially auspicious. ^[2]

The legend[link]

According to a local legend, Karni Mata, the 14th century mystic and an incarnation of Hindu goddess Durga, implored Yama, the god of death, to restore the life of the son of one of her storytellers. Yama refused, and Karni Mata incarnated the dead son and all of the storytellers as a rat, under her protection. ^[2]

Biography[link]

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The temple is also known as the Temple of Rats due to the rats that live inside the temple.

Some of the marble carvings which were donated by Maharaja Ganga Singh.

Karni Mata was born on 2 October 1387 in the village of Suwap in the Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The seventh daughter of Mehoji Charan and his wife Deval Devi, her original name was Ridhubai. According to legend, she earned the honorific name Karni at age six by miraculously curing her aunt. Mata—a term meaning "mother"— was commonly added to the names of those worshipped as mother goddesses. She married Dipoji Charan of the village of Sathika around AD 1415 but did not live a conventional "married life."

Later on she arranged the marriage of her husband with her younger sister Gulab. She lived in her in-laws' village for about two years before leaving with her followers and a herd of cattle to live a nomadic life, camping at sunset. One such camp was made at the village Jangloo, but a servant of Rao Kanha who was ruler of the place, denied them access to water for people and cows. On this, Karni Mata declared her follower Rao Ridmal of Chandasar as new ruler of the village and continued on her journey. When she reached near Deshnok, Rao Kanha himself came to oppose her camping but he died.^{[clarification needed]} Karni mata stopped further wandering and started living there. Her husband Depoji died in AD 1454. Rats became sacred in her temple when Karni Mata's stepson Laxman drowned in a tank he was attempting to drink from.

Legend has it that Karni mata implored Yama, the god of Death; though he at first refused, Yama eventually relented, permitting Laxman and all of Karni mata's male children to be reincarnated as rats.^[3] In AD 1453, she gave her blessing to Rao Jodha of Jodhpur for conquering Ajmer, Merta and Mandor. In 1457, she went to Jodhpur at Rao Jodha's request to lay the cornerstone of the fort at Jodhpur.

Her first temple was constructed in the village of Mathaniya during her lifetime by her follower Amara Charan. In AD 1472, she arranged the marriage of Rao Bika (the fifth son of Rao Jodha) and Rang Kunwar (daughter of Rao Shekha of Pungal) to turn the enmity of the Rathor and Bhatian families into friendship. In 1485, she laid the foundation stone of the fort of Bikaner at the request of Rao Bika. In 1538, Karniji went to visit Maharaja of Jaisalmer. She was travelling back to Deshnok with her stepson Poonjar and a few other followers on 21 March AD 1538. They were near Gadiyala and Girirajsar of Kolayat district in Bikaner district where she asked the caravan to stop for water. She disappeared there, reportedly at the age of 151 years.

White rats[link]

White rat at the temple of Karni Mata

Out of all of the thousands of rats in the temple, there are said to be four or five white rats, which are considered to be especially holy. They are believed to be the manifestations of Karni Mata herself and her four sons. Sighting them is a special blessing and visitors put in extensive efforts to bring them forth, offering prasad, a sweet holy food.^{[citation needed]}

Rats eating prasad in the Karni Mata Temple

References[link]

External links[link]

This article needs additional or more specific categories. Please help out by adding categories to it so that it can be listed with similar articles. (April 2012)

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Karni Mata

• Karni Explanation of Karni (Karniji)
• Read Details about Karni Mata Temple
• National Geographic News: Rats Rule at Indian Temple
• Deshnok Temple A three-minute video news report on Karni Mata, a/k/a the "Bagwati Karniji" temple in Deshnoke, Rajasthan. Accessed 10 August 2007.

H.D. (born Hilda Doolittle; September 10, 1886 – September 27, 1961) was an American poet, novelist and memoirist known for her association with the early 20th century avant-garde Imagist group of poets such as Ezra Pound and Richard Aldington. The Imagist model was based on the idioms, rhythms and clarity of common speech, and freedom to choose subject matter as the writer saw fit. H.D.'s later writing developed on this aesthetic to incorporate a more gynocentric version of modernism.

H.D. was born in Pennsylvania in 1886, and moved to London in 1911 where her publications earned her a central role within the then emerging Imagism movement. A charismatic figure, she was championed by the modernist poet Ezra Pound, who was instrumental in building and furthering her career. From 1916–17, she acted as the literary editor of the Egoist journal, while her poetry appeared in the English Review and the Transatlantic Review. During the First World War, H.D. suffered the death of her brother and the breakup of her marriage to the poet Richard Aldington,^[1] and these events weighed heavily on her later poetry. Glenn Hughes, the authority on Imagism, said of her 'her loneliness cries out from her poems. ^[2] She had a deep interest in Ancient Greek literature, and her poetry often borrowed from Greek mythology and classical poets. Her work is noted for its incorporation of natural scenes and objects, which are often used to emote a particular feeling or mood.

She befriended Sigmund Freud during the 1930s, and became his patient in order to understand and express her bisexuality.^[3] H.D. married once, and undertook a number of heterosexual and lesbian relationships. She was unapologetic about her sexuality, and thus became an icon for both the gay rights and feminist movements when her poems, plays, letters and essays were rediscovered during the 1970s and 1980s. This period saw a wave of feminist literature on the gendering of Modernism and psychoanalytical misogyny, by a generation of writers who saw her as an early icon of the feminist movement.^{[4] [5]}

Career[link]

Early life[link]

Hilda Doolittle was born into the Moravian community in Bethlehem in Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley.^[6] Her father, Charles Doolittle, was professor of astronomy at Lehigh University^[7] and her mother, Helen (Wolle), was a Moravian with a strong interest in music. In 1896, Charles Doolittle was appointed Flower Professor of Astronomy at the University of Pennsylvania, and the family moved to a house in Upper Darby, an affluent Philadelphia suburb. She attended Philadelphia's Friends Central High School, at Fifteenth and Race streets, graduating in 1905. In 1901, she met and befriended Ezra Pound, who was to play a major role both in her private life and her emergence as a writer. In 1905, Pound presented her with a sheaf of love poems under the collective title Hilda's Book.^[8]

That year, Doolittle attended Bryn Mawr College^[9] to study Greek literature, but left after only three terms due to poor grades and the excuse of poor health. While at the college, she met the poets Marianne Moore and William Carlos Williams. Her first published writings, some stories for children, were published in The Comrade, a Philadelphia Presbyterian Church paper, between 1909 and 1913, mostly under the name Edith Gray. In 1907, she became engaged to Pound. Her father disapproved of Pound,^[10] and by the time her father left for Europe in 1908, the engagement had been called off. Around this time, H.D. started a relationship with a young female art student at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Frances Josepha Gregg.^[11] After spending part of 1910 living in Greenwich Village, she sailed to Europe with Gregg and Gregg's mother in 1911. In Europe, H.D. began a more serious career as a writer. Her relationship with Gregg cooled, and she met a writing enthusiast named Brigit Patmore with whom she became involved in an affair. Patmore introduced H.D. to another poet, Richard Aldington.

H.D. Imagiste[link]

Soon after arriving in England, H.D. showed Pound some poems she had written. Pound had already begun to meet with other poets at the Eiffel Tower restaurant in Soho. He was impressed by the closeness of H.D. poems's to the ideas and principles he had been discussing with Aldington, with whom he had shared plans to reform contemporary poetry through free verse, the tanka and the tightness and conciseness of the haiku, and the removal of all unnecessary verbiage. In summer 1912, the three poets declared themselves the "three original Imagists", and set out their principles as:

1. Direct treatment of the 'thing' whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of a metronome.^[12][13]

During a meeting with H.D. in a tea room near the British Museum that year, Pound appended the signature H.D. Imagiste to her poetry, creating a label that was to stick to the poet for most of her writing life.^[14] However H.D. told different versions of this story at various times, and during her career published under a variety of pseudonyms.^[15] That same year, Harriet Monroe started her Poetry magazine and asked Pound to act as foreign editor. In October, he submitted three poems each by H.D. and Aldington under the rubric Imagiste. Aldington's poems were in the November issue of Poetry and her poems "Hermes of the Ways," "Orchard," and "Epigram", in the January 1913 issue. Imagism as a movement was launched with H.D. as its prime exponent.

The early models for the Imagist group were from Japan, and H.D. often visited the exclusive Print Room at the British Museum in the company of Richard Aldington and the curator and poet Laurence Binyon in order to examine Nishiki-e prints that incorporated traditional Japanese verse.^[16][17] However, she also derived her way of making poems from her reading of Classical Greek literature and especially of Sappho,^[18] an interest she shared with Aldington and Pound, each of whom produced versions of the Greek poet's work. In 1915, H.D. and Aldington launched the Poets' Translation Series, pamphlets of translations from Greek and Latin classics. H.D. worked on the plays by Euripides, publishing in 1916 a translation of choruses from Iphigeneia at Aulis, in 1919 a translation of choruses from Iphigeneia at Aulis and Hippolytus, an adaptation of Hippolytus called Hippolytus Temporizes (1927), a translation of choruses from The Bacchae and Hecuba (1931), and Euripides' Ion (1937) a loose translation of Ion.^[19]

She continued her association with the group until the final issue of the Some Imagist Poets anthology in 1917. She and Aldington did most of the editorial work on the 1915 anthology. Her work also appeared in Aldington's Imagist Anthology 1930. All of her poetry up to the end of the 1930s was written in an Imagist mode, utilising spare use of language,^[20] and a classical, austere purity.^[21] This style of writing was not without its critics. In a special Imagist issue of The Egoist magazine in May 1915, the poet and critic Harold Monro called H.D.'s early work "petty poetry", denoting "either poverty of imagination or needlessly excessive restraint".^[22]

Oread, one of her earliest and best-known poems, which was first published in the 1915 anthology, illustrates this early style:

<poem>

    Whirl up, sea—
    Whirl your pointed pines.
    Splash your great pines
    On our rocks.
    Hurl your green over us—
    Cover us with your pools of fir.[23]

</poem>

World War I and after[link]

44 Mecklenburgh Square

Before World War I, H.D. married Aldington in 1913; however, their first and only child, a daughter, was stillborn in 1915. Aldington enlisted in the army. The couple became estranged and Aldington reportedly took a mistress in 1917. H.D. became involved in a close but platonic relationship with D. H. Lawrence. In 1916, her first book, Sea Garden, was published and she was appointed assistant editor of The Egoist, replacing her husband. In 1918, her brother Gilbert was killed in action, and that March she moved into a cottage in Cornwall with the composer Cecil Gray, a friend of Lawrence's. She became pregnant with Gray's child,^[24] however, by the time she realised she was expecting, the relationship had cooled and Gray had returned to live in London.^[25] When Aldington returned from active service he was noticeably traumatised, and he and H.D. later separated.

Close to the end of the war, H.D. met the wealthy English novelist Bryher (Annie Winifred Ellerman). They lived together until 1946, and although both took numerous other partners, Bryher remained her lover for the rest of H.D.'s life. In 1919, H.D. came close to death when she gave birth to her daughter Frances Perdita Aldington—although the father was not Aldington, but Gray—while suffering from war influenza.^[26] During this time, her father, who had never recovered from Gilbert's death, died. In 1919, H.D. wrote one of her few known statements on poetics,^[27] Notes on Thought and Vision, which was unpublished until 1982.^[28] In this, she speaks of poets (herself included) as belonging to a kind of elite group of visionaries with the power to 'turn the whole tide of human thought'.

H.D. and Aldington attempted to salvage their relationship during this time, but he was suffering from the effects of his participation in the war, possibly post-traumatic stress disorder, and they became estranged, living completely separate lives, but not divorcing until 1938. They remained friends, however, for the rest of their lives. From 1920, her relationship with Bryher became closer and the pair travelled in Egypt, Greece and the United States before eventually settling in Switzerland. Bryher entered a marriage of convenience in 1921 with Robert McAlmon, which allowed him to fund his publishing ventures in Paris by utilising some of her personal wealth for his Contact Press.^[29] Both Bryher and H.D. slept with McAlmon during this time. Bryher and McAlmon divorced in 1927.^[30]

Novels, films and psychoanalysis[link]

In the early 1920s, H.D. started to write three projected cycles of novels.^[31] The first of these, Magna Graeca, consists of Palimpsest (1921) and Hedylus (1928). The Magna Graeca novels use their classical settings to explore the poetic vocation, particularly as it applies to women in a patriarchal literary culture. The Madrigal cycle consists of HERmione, Bid Me to Live, Paint It Today and Asphodel, and is largely autobiographical, dealing with the development of the female artist and the conflict between heterosexual and lesbian desire. Kora and Ka and The Usual Star, two novellas from the Borderline cycle, were published in 1933. In this period, she also wrote Pilate's Wife, Mira-Mare, and Nights.

During this period her mother had died and Bryher had divorced her husband, only to marry H.D.'s new male lover, Kenneth Macpherson. H.D., Bryher, and Macpherson lived together and traveled through Europe as what the poet and critic Barbara Guest termed in her biography of H.D. as a 'menagerie of three'.^[32] Bryher and Macpherson adopted H.D.'s daughter, Perdita.^[6] In 1928, H.D. became pregnant but chose to abort the pregnancy in November. Bryher and Macpherson set up the magazine Close Up (to which H.D. regularly contributed) as a medium for intellectual discussion of cinema. In 1927, the small independent film cinema group POOL or Pool Group was established (largely funded with Bryher's inheritance) and was managed by all three.^[33] Only one POOL film survives in its entirety, Borderline (1930), which featured H.D. and Paul Robeson in the lead roles. In common with the Borderline novellas, the film explores extreme psychic states and their relationship to surface reality. As well as acting in this film, H.D. wrote an explanatory pamphlet to accompany it, a piece later published in Close Up.^[34]

In 1933, H.D. traveled to Vienna to undergo analysis with Sigmund Freud.^[35] She had an interest in Freud's theories as far back as 1909, when she read some of his works in the original German.^[36] H.D. was referred by Bryher's psychoanalyst due to her increasing paranoia about the rise of Adolf Hitler which indicated another world war, an idea that H.D. found intolerable. The Great War (World War I) had left her feeling shattered. She had lost her brother in action, while her husband suffered effects of combat experiences, and she believed that the onslaught of the war indirectly caused the death of her child with Aldington: she believed it was her shock at hearing the news about the RMS Lusitania that directly caused her miscarriage.^[37] Writing on the Wall, her memoir about this psychoanalysis, was written concurrently with Trilogy and published in 1944; in 1956 it was republished with Advent, a journal of the analysis, under the title Tribute to Freud.^[38]

World War II and after[link]

H.D. and Bryher spent the duration of World War II in London. During this time, H.D. wrote The Gift, a memoir of her childhood and family life in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, which reflects on people and events in her background that helped shape her as a writer.^[39] The Gift was eventually published in 1960 and 1982.^[40] She also wrote Trilogy, published as The Walls do not Fall (1944), Tribute to the Angels (1945) and The Flowering of the Rod (1946). The opening lines of The Walls do not Fall clearly and immediately signal H.D.'s break with her earlier work:

<poem>

    An incident here and there,
    and rails gone (for guns)
    from your (and my) old town square.[41]

</poem>

After the war, H.D. and Bryher no longer lived together, but remained in contact. H.D. moved to Switzerland where, in the spring of 1946, she suffered a severe mental breakdown which resulted in her staying in a clinic until the autumn of that year. Apart from a number of trips to the States, H.D. spent the rest of her life in Switzerland. In the late 1950s, she underwent more treatment, this time with the psychoanalyst Erich Heydt.^[42] At Heydt's prompting, she wrote End to Torment, a memoir of her relationship with Pound, who allowed the poems of Hilda's Book to be included when the book was published. Doolittle was one of the leading figures in the bohemian culture of London in the early decades of the century. Her later poetry explores traditional epic themes, such as violence and war, from a feminist perspective. H.D. was the first woman to be granted the American Academy of Arts and Letters medal.^[9][9]

Later life and death[link]

During the 1950s, H.D. wrote a considerable amount of poetry, most notably Helen in Egypt (written between 1952–54), an examination from a feminist point of view of a male-centred epic poetry. H.D. used Euripides's play Helen as a starting point for a reinterpretation of the basis of the Trojan War and, by extension, of war itself.^[43] This work has been seen by some critics, including Jeffrey Twitchell-Waas, as H.D.'s response to Pound's Cantos, a work she greatly admired. Other poems from this period include Sagesse, Winter Love and Hermetic Definition. These three were published posthumously with the collective title Hermetic Definition (1972). The poem Hermetic Definition takes as its starting points her love for a man 30 years her junior and the line 'so slow is the rose to open' from Pound's Canto 106. Sagesse, written in bed after H.D. had broken her hip in a fall, serves as a kind of coda to Trilogy, being partly written in the voice of a young female Blitz survivor who finds herself living in fear of the atom bomb. Winter Love was written together with End to Torment and uses as narrator the Homeric figure of Penelope to restate the material of the memoir in poetic form. At one time, H.D. considered appending this poem as a coda to Helen in Egypt.^[44]

H.D. visited the United States in 1960 to collect an American Academy of Arts and Letters medal.^[45] Returning to Switzerland, she suffered a stroke in July 1961 and died a couple of months later in the Klinik Hirslanden in Zürich.^[46] Her ashes were returned to Bethlehem, and were buried in the family plot in the Nisky Hill Cemetery on October 28, 1961. Her epitaph consists of the following lines from her early poem "Let Zeus Record":

<poem>

    So you may say,
    Greek flower; Greek ecstasy
    reclaims forever
    one who died
    following intricate song's
    lost measure.[47]

</poem>

Legacy[link]

The rediscovery of H.D. began in the 1970s, and coincided with the emergence of a feminist criticism that found much to admire in the questioning of gender roles typical of her writings.^[48][5] Specifically, those critics who were challenging the standard view of English-language literary modernism based on the work of such male writers as Pound, Eliot and James Joyce, were able to restore H.D. to a more significant position in the history of that movement. Her writings have served as a model for a number of more recent women poets working in the modernist tradition; including the New York School poet Barbara Guest, the Anglo-American poet Denise Levertov, the Black Mountain poet Hilda Morley and the Language poet Susan Howe.^[49] Her influence is not limited to female poets, and many male writers, including Robert Duncan^[50] and Robert Creeley,^[51] have acknowledged their debt.

Selected works[link]

Poems[link]

Poetry collections[link]

• Sea Garden (1916)
• The God (1917)
• Translations (1920)
• Hymen (1921)
• Heliodora and Other Poems (1924)
• Hippolytus Temporizes (1927)
• Red Roses for Bronze (1932)
• The Walls Do Not Fall (1944)
• Tribute to the Angels (1945)
• Trilogy (1946)
• Flowering of the Rod (1946)
• By Avon River (1949)
• Helen in Egypt, New Directions (1961)
• Hermetic Definition, New Directions (1972)

Prose[link]

• Notes on Thought and Vision (1919)
• Paint it Today (written 1921, published 1992)
• Asphodel (written 1921-22, published 1992)
• Palimpsest (1926)
• Kora and Ka (1930)
• Nights (1935)
• The Hedgehog (1936)
• Tribute to Freud (1956)
• Bid Me to Live (1960)
• End to Torment: A Memoir of Ezra Pound, New Directions (1979)
• HERmione, New Directions (1981)
• The Gift, New Directions (1982)
• Majic Ring (written 1943-44, published 2009)
• The Sword Went Out to Sea (written 1946-47, published 2007)
• White Rose and the Red (written 1948, published 2009)
• The Mystery (written 1948-51, published 2009)

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Blau DuPlessis, Rachel. H.D. The Career of that Struggle. The Harvester Press, 1986. ISBN 0-7108-0548-9
• Chisholm, Dianne. H.D.'s Freudian Poetics: Psychoanalysis in Translation. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992.
• Connor, Rachel. H.D. and the Image. Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7190-6122-9
• Duncan, Robert. The H.D. Book. Edited and with an Introduction by Michael Boughn and Victor Coleman. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-520-26075-7
• Friedman, Susan Stanford. Penelope's Web: Gender, Modernity, and H.D.'s Fiction. New York: Cambridge UP, 1990.
• Friedman, Susan Stanford. Psyche Reborn: The Emergence of H.D.. Indiana University Press, 1981.
• Guest, Barbara. Herself Defined: The Poet H.D. and Her World. Collins, 1985. ISBN 0-385-13129-1
• Jones, Peter (ed.). Imagist Poetry. Penguin, 1972.
• Korg, Jacob. Winter Love: Ezra Pound and H.D.. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003. ISBN 0-299-18390-4
• Hughes, Gertrude Reif. "Making it Really New: Hilda Doolittle, Gwendolyn Brooks, and the Feminist Potential of Modern Poetry". American Quarterly, Volume 42, No. 3, September, 1990. 375-401
• Morris, Adalaide. How to Live / What to Do: H.D.'s Cultural Poetics. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
• Robinson, Janice S. H.D., The life and work of an American poet. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982.
• Taylor, Georgina. H.D. and the public sphere of modernist women writers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Bovier, François. H.D. et le groupe Pool. Lausanne, L’Âge d’homme, 2009. ISBN 2-8251-3850-9
• Harrell, Sarah Grace, H.D.'s incantations: Reading "Trilogy" as an occultist's creed. M.A. diss. The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2010. (118 pages.) AAT 1488037.

External links[link]