History of the Ottoman Empire
This article is part of a series
Foundation (1299–1402)
Interregnum (1402–1413)
Rise (1413–1453)
Progress and Accelerated Growth (1453–1579)
Diminishing Growth (1579–1683)
Sultanate of Women
Köprülü Era (1656–1703)
Stagnation (1683–1792)
Tulip Era (1718–1730)
Severe Stagnation - Retrogression (1792–1827)
Decline (1827–1908)
Tanzimat Era (1839–1876)
1st Constitutional Era
Dissolution (1908–1918)
2nd Constitutional Era
Occupation and Partitioning (1918–1922)
the Ottoman Empire Portal v t e

The Tanzimât (Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات), meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876^[1]. The Tanzimât reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements and aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire. The reforms attempted to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout the Empire.

Great Mustapha Rashid Pasha
Principal architect of the Tanzimât تنظيمات Hatt-ı Sharif of Gülhane
( The Ottoman Imperial Edict of Reorganization, proclaimed on November 3rd, 1839 )

Origins[link]

Tanzimât emerged from the minds of reformist sultans like Mahmud II and Abdülmecid I as well as prominent reformers who were European educated bureaucrats. They recognized that the old religious and military institutions no longer met the needs of the empire in the modern world. Most of the symbolic changes, such as uniforms, were aimed at changing the mindset of imperial administrators. Many of the reforms were attempts to adopt successful European practices. Changes included universal conscription; educational, institutional and legal reforms; and systematic attempts at eliminating corruption and decriminalizing homosexuality. Tanzimat included the policy of Ottomanism, which was meant to unite all of the different peoples living in Ottoman territories, "Muslim and non-Muslim, Turkish and Greek, Armenian and Jewish, Kurd and Arab". For this purpose, Islamic law was put aside in favour of secular law.^[2] This policy officially began with the Imperial Rescript of the Rose Chamber of 1839, declaring equality before the law for both Muslim and non-Muslim Ottomans.^[3]

Goals[link]

The ambitious project was launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink, and was growing weaker in comparison to the European powers. By getting rid of the millet system, the Ottoman Empire hoped to be able to control all of its citizens. They thought that the Great Powers would accept this as long as reforms were ongoing, leaving them to act as enforcers of these goals.

Reforms[link]

Tanzimât reforms began under Sultan Mahmud II. On November 3, 1839, Sultan Abdülmecid issued an organic statute for the general government of the empire named Hatt-ı Şerif (the Imperial Edict) of Gülhane (the imperial garden where it was first proclaimed). It is also called as Tanzimât (تنظيمات) Fermânı and was followed by a series of edicts enacting the imperial statute of 1839.

In this very important document, the Sultan stated that he wished "to bring the benefits of a good administration to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire through new institutions", and that these institutions would principally refer to:^[4]

• guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property (1839, see Rescript of the Rose Chamber below for details);
• the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840);
• the opening of the first post offices of the empire (1840);
• the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model (1840);
• the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840);
• the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876);
• the reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44);
• the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844);
• the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted);
• the first national identity cards (officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents, 1844);
• the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857);
• the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847);
• the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848);
• the establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850);
• the Commerce and Trade Code (1850);
• the establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851);
• the establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851);
• the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853);
• the establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855);
• the so-called "Hatt-ı Hümayun of 1856" (called Islahat meaning improvement) promising full legal equality for citizens of all religions (1856);
• the abolition of the capitulation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856);
• non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856);
• various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce;
• the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railway networks (1856);
• the replacement of guilds with factories;
• the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganized as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)^[5] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866);^[6]
• the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi (1857);
• the permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857);
• the decriminalization of homosexuality (1858);
• the establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859);
• the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others.^[4]
• the so-called "Nationality Law of 1869" creating a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious or ethnic divisions (1869).

Rescript of the Rose Chamber of 1839[link]

The Rescript of the Rose Chamber was the first major reform in the Tanzimat reforms under the government of sultan Abdulmecid and a crucial event in the movement towards secularization. It abolished tax farming. It also created salaried tax collectors with a bureaucratic system. This reflects the centralizing effects of the Tanzimat reforms. Additionally, the Rescript of the Rose Chamber forced military conscription on districts based on their population size. Furthermore, it guaranteed the life and property for all subjects, including non Muslims. This put an end to the kul system, which allowed the ruler's servants to be executed or have their property confiscated at his desire.

The most significant clause of the Rose Chamber is that it enforced the rule of law for all, including non-Muslims. Non-Muslims in the Empire had many grievances and were treated as second class citizens and exploited by corrupt officials. These reforms sought to establish legal and social equality for all Ottoman citizens. The reforms eliminated the millet system in the Ottoman Empire. The millet system created religiously based communities that operated autonomously, so people were organized into societies, often receiving privileges, based on the church they followed. This clause terminated the privileges of these communities and constructed a society where all followed the same law.

The new reforms called for an almost complete reconstruction of public life in the Ottoman Empire. Under the reconstruction, a system of state schools was established to produce government clerics. Ottomans were encouraged to enroll. Each province was organized so that each governor would have an advisory council and specified duties in order to better serve the territory. The new reforms also called for a modern financial system with a central bank, treasury bonds and a decimal currency. Finally, the reforms implemented the expansion of roads, canals and rail lines for better communication and transportation.

The Rescript of the Rose Chamber also represented a move towards Westernization. It mirrored the liberal ideals of the French Revolution, which glorified humanity and individual rights. The Rescript was imagined as the savior of the Ottoman Empire by imposing modernizing and nationalizing forces. European powers were asked to oversee its enforcement in case the sultan reneged. This move towards western ideals was also an effort to keep Europe out of the Ottoman Empire. By conforming to their standards, the Ottoman Empire hoped to appease Europe enough to keep them out of Ottoman affairs and avoid European control.

The reaction to the Rescript was not entirely positive. Christians in the Balkans refused to support the reforms because they wanted an autonomy that became more difficult to achieve under centralized power. In fact, its adoption spurred some provinces to seek independence by rebelling. It took strong British backing in maintaining Ottoman territory to ensure that the reforms were instated. Although the Rescript of the Rose Chamber and the Tanzimat provided strong guidelines for society, it was not a constitution. It did not replace the authority of the sultan.

Effects[link]

Turkish post card from 1895 about the Kanûn-ı Esâsî of November 23, 1876, with the sultan Abdülhamid II, the Grand Vizier, the millets and Turkey receiving freedom. The flying angel shows the motto, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

Overall, Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. The system was ultimately undone by negotiations with the Great Powers following the Crimean War. As part of the Charter of 1856, European powers demanded a much stronger sovereignty for ethnic communities within the empire, differing from the Ottomans who envisioned equality meaning identical treatment under the law for all citizens. This served to strengthen the Christian middle class, increasing their economic and political power.

Muslims, on the other hand, received none of these benefits and were ultimately left worse off by the reforms. This led to anti-Western sentiment in a radicalized population, evidenced by the rise of groups like the Young Ottomans.

The reforms peaked in 1876 with the implementation of an Ottoman constitution checking the autocratic powers of the Sultan. The details of this period are covered under the First Constitutional Era. Although the new Sultan Abdülhamid II signed the first constitution, he quickly turned against it.

State institutions were reorganized; laws were updated according to the needs of the changing world; modern education, clothing, architecture, arts, and lifestyle were encouraged.

Religious Freedom[link]

The Reform Edict of 1856 was intended to carry out the promises of the Tanzimat. The Edict is very specific about the status of non-Muslims, making it possible "to see it as the outcome of a period of religious restlessness that followed the Edict of 1839." Officially, part of Tanzimat was to make the state intolerable to forced conversion to Islam, and the execution of apostates from Islam was made illegal. Despite the official position of the state in the midst of Tanzimat reforms, this tolerance of non-Muslims seems to have been seriously curtailed, at least until the Reform Edict of 1856.

In fact, there was constant pressure on non-Muslims to convert to Islam, and the danger of execution for apostates remained real. Thus, Tanzimat, at least at first, failed to actively promote freedom to practice one's religion without harassment. In fact, for the "Ottoman ruling elite, 'freedom of religion' meant 'freedom to defend their religion.'"^[7]

In Lebanon, the Tanzimat reforms were intended to return to the tradition of equality for all subjects before the law. However, the Sublime Porte assumed that the underlying hierarchical social order would remain unchanged. Instead, the upheavals of reform would allow for different understandings of the goals of Tanzimat. The elites in Mount Lebanon, in fact, interpreted the Tanzimat far differently from one another. As a result, "European and Ottoman officials engaged in a contest to win the loyalty of the local inhabitants — the French by claiming to protect the Maronites; the British, the Druze; and the Ottomans by proclaiming the sultan's benevolence toward all his religiously equal subjects."^[8]

In Palestine, land reforms, especially the change in land ownership structure via the Ottoman Land Law of 1858, allowed Russian Jews to buy land in Palestine, thus enabling them to immigrate there under the first Aliya. In order to boost its tax base, the Ottomans required Arabs in Palestine, as elsewhere, to register their lands for the first time. Since many fellahin wished to avoid paying taxes to the ailing regime and also were illiterate, many local mukhtars were able to collectively register village lands under their own name. Thus, they were able to later claim ownership and to sell the local peasants' lands out from under their feet to the new Jewish immigrants, as they themselves relocated permanently to Syria or Turkey.^[9]

In Armenia, the Armenian National Constitution (Turkish: "Nizâmnâme−i Millet−i Ermeniyân") of 1863 was approved by the Ottoman government. The "Code of Regulations" consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia and defined the powers of the Armenian Patriarch under the Ottoman Millet System and the newly formed "Armenian National Assembly".^[10]

See also[link]

• Decline of the Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman military reform efforts
• Tanzimât (تنظيمات) Fermânı (3 November 1839)
• Islâhat Fermânı ( Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûn-u, ‏ خط همايون‎) (18 February 1856)

Notes[link]

Literature[link]

• Edward Shepherd Creasy, History of Ottoman Turks; From the beginning of their empire to the present time, London, Richard Bentley (1854); (1878).
• Maurizio Costanza, La Mezzaluna sul filo - La riforma ottomana di Mahmûd II, Marcianum Press, Venezia, 2010
• Nora Lafi, "The Ottoman Municipal Reforms between Old Regime and Modernity: Towards a New Interpretative Paradigm", Istanbul, 2007

http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/14/62/10/PDF/LafiEminonuOttomanReforms.pdf

• LAFI (Nora), Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes. Genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie (1795–1911), Paris: L'Harmattan, (2002).
• LAFI (Nora), Municipalités méditerranéennes. Les réformes municipales ottomanes au miroir d'une histoire comparée, Berlin: K. Schwarz, (2005).

Further reading[link]

• Gelvin, James L. (2008). The Modern Middle East: A History (Second Edition ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532759-5. 
• Hussain, Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular reforms in the Ottoman Empire]", Faith Matters 2011

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Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi (Urdu: اﺸﺘﻴﺎﻖ حسين قریشی;November 3, 1903— January 22, 1981; popularly known as I.H. Qureshi), SP, HI, was a Pakistani historian, scholar, writer and a professor a political history at the Karachi University.

An early activist of Pakistan Movement, Qureshi served as the Member of Parliament for the Pakistan Parliament, serving as the minister-secretary at the Ministry of Education (MoEd), and deputy-secretary at the Ministry of States and Frontier Regions. However, he resigned from his government appointments and joined the academic faculty at the Columbia University as a professor of Soviet history. But soon, he returned to Pakistan and founded the National Language Authority (MLA) in 1970s. Later, Qureshi joined the faculty of history at the University of Karachi where he remained there the remainder of his life. Qureshi is also credited for editing a four-volume series on history of Pakistan.^[1]

Life[link]

Ishtiaq was born on November 20, 1903 in a noble family of Patiali, District Etah, a town in Uttar Pradesh, British India. He did matriculation in 1916, and joined MAO College Aligarh. At this time, he took active part in Khilafat movement. He did graduation and M.A. in History from St. Stephen's College, Delhi with distinction. In 1927, he got M.A. in Persian. He served as Lecturer in History at St. Stephen's College from 1928 to 1944. Between 1937-40, he studied at Cambridge University for a PhD degree. The topic of his thesis was Administration of Sultanate of Delhi. During this period, he also briefly joined the Pakistan National Movement founded by Choudhary Rahmat Ali.^[2]

After returning from England, he joined Delhi University where he was appointed Professor of History, and subsequently, the Dean of the Faculty of Arts. He also served as Acting Vice Chancellor of the Delhi University. In 1947, during the Partition riots, when the Muslim students of the St Stephen's College had to be evacuated to the Purana Qila, Dr Qureshi's library was completely burnt down by the mobs.^[3]

Career in Pakistan[link]

After suffering from riots, he migrated to Pakistan in 1948. There, he continued his academic and political career, and served as a member of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. In 1949, he was appointed Professor of History at the University of the Punjab, Lahore. He also joined the Government of Pakistan as Minister of Refugee Rehabilitation, and later as Minister of Education. Later on, he joined the Columbia University, New York where he wrote his famous book, the Muslim Community of the Subcontinent, as a story of the trials and tribulations of the Muslims in the subcontinent.^[4] On his return, he played a pivotal role in the establishment of the University of Karachi. He died on January 22, 1981 in Karachi.

Memberships[link]

He was:

• Member of the Indian as well as Pakistan Historical Records Commissions,
• Member of the Councils of the Indian and the Pakistan Institute of International Affairs,
• Member of the Executive Committees of the Indian History Conference and Pakistan History Society.
• Vice-President of the Pakistan History Society
• President of Pakistan Political Science Association.
• General President of Pakistan History conference as well as Pakistan Political Science conference.
• Director of the Central Institute of Islamic Research,
• Founding member of Urdu Language Authority Muqtadra Quami Zaban, and
• Vice-Chancellor of the University of Karachi (1961).

Political activities[link]

• Elected to the Constituent Assembly of India, and then to the
• Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
• Between 1949-1954, he remained deputy minister, then minister of state and finally as minister with cabinet rank in Government of Pakistan.

Honours[link]

• In recognition of his services he was decorated with the order of Sitara-e-Pakistan (Star of Pakistan).
• On November 20, 2001, Pakistan Post issued a commemorative postage in his name^[5]
• The annual Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi Memorial Lecture continues to be organised by the History Society of St. Stephen's College

Work[link]

His books on the history of Muslim community in the subcontinent as well as other publications on the Pakistan Movement, Administration of the Mughul Empire, role of religious scholars in politics, brought him into the category of the distinguished historians of subcontinent. After retirement he associated with writing and research.

English titles[link]

• Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (1942)
• Ulema in Politics
• Akbar, the Architect of Mughal Empire
• Education in Pakistan
• The Administration of Mughal Empire
• Struggle for Pakistan
• The Muslim community of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, 610-1947: a brief historical analysis. Gravenhage, Mouton. 1962
• A Short History of Pakistan (General Editor)
• The Religion of Peace (1930)

Urdu titles[link]

• But Tarash
• Band Lifafa
• Katt Putlian
• Gunha ki Diwar
• Mitthai ki Tokri
• Moalim Aswad
• Mullah Aala
• Nafrat ka Beej
• Hamzaad
• Neem Shab
• Naqsh-e-Akhir

See also[link]

• University of Karachi
• National Language Authority

References[link]

External links[link]

• Profile at OPF
• Profile at Pakistan Post Website