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Archaeological Ruins of Mohenjo-daro *
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Country	Pakistan
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii
Reference	138
Region **	Asia-Pacific
Coordinates	27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889Coordinates: 27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889
Inscription history
Inscription	1980 (4th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO

Location of Mohenjo-daro within the Pakistani province of Sindh.

Mohenjo-daro (IPA: [muˑənⁱ dʑoˑ d̪əɽoˑ], Sindhi: موئن جو دڙو, lit. Mound of the Dead), is an archeological site situated in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2600 BC, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major urban settlements, existing at the same time as the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BC, and was not rediscovered until 1922. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.^[1]

Location[link]

Mohenjo-daro is located in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan,^[2] on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres (17 mi) from the town of Larkana. The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding plain, but the flooding of the river has since buried most of the ridge in deposited silt. The site occupies a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. The Indus still flows to the east of the site, but the riverbed of the Ghaggar-Hakra on the western side is now dry.

Rediscovery and excavation[link]

Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BC, and abandoned around 1800 BC. The ruins of the city remained undocumented for over 3,700 years, until their discovery in 1922 by Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India.^[3] He was led to the mound by a Buddhist monk, who reportedly believed it to be a stupa. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of John Marshall, K. N. Dikshit and Ernest Mackay.^[1] Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler.

The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales. After this date, excavations were banned due to weathering damage to the exposed structures, and the only projects allowed at the site since have been salvage excavations, surface surveys and conservation projects. However, in the 1980s, German and Italian survey groups led by Dr. Michael Jansen and Dr. Maurizio Tosi used less invasive archeological techniques, such as architectural documentation, surface surveys and localized probing, to gather further information about Mohenjo-daro.^[1]

Historical significance[link]

Mohenjo-daro was most likely one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization (after Harappa, another important IVC site, which is located in Punjab, Pakistan).^[4] The prehistoric Indus culture gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BC. The civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, but suddenly went into decline around 1900 BC. Indus Civilization settlements spread as far west as the Iranian border, with an outpost in Bactria, and as far south as the Arabian Sea coast of western India in Gujarat. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal. At its height, Mohenjo-daro was the most developed and advanced city in ancient South Asia, displaying remarkably sophisticated engineering and urban planning for its time.^[5]

Architecture and urban infrastructure[link]

Surviving structures at Mohenjo-daro.

Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout based on a street grid of rectilinear buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization. At its peak of development, Mohenjo-daro could have housed around 35,000 residents. The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39 ft) high – is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls.

The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of wealthier inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust), possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.

In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified one large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary". Certain wall-divisions in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grain from the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted the complete lack of evidence for grain at the "granary", which, he argued, might therefore be better termed a "Great Hall" of uncertain function.^[6]

View of the site, showing an ordered urban layout.

Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath. From a colonnaded courtyard, steps lead down to the brick-built pool, which was waterproofed by a lining of bitumen. The pool measures 12m long, 7m wide and 2.4m deep. It may have been used for religious purification. Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex of buildings comprising 78 rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.

Mohenjo-daro had no circuit of city walls, but was otherwise well fortified, with guard towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa, it is postulated that Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites, that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, but the extent and functioning of an administrative center remains unclear.

Mohenjo-daro was successively destroyed and rebuilt at least seven times. Each time, the new cities were built directly on top of the old ones. Flooding by the Indus is thought to have been the cause of destruction.

Notable artifacts[link]

"The Dancing Girl", a bronze statuette.

"The Priest-King", a seated stone sculpture.

Dancing Girl[link]

A bronze statuette dubbed the "Dancing Girl", 10.8 centimetres (4.3 in) high and some 4,500 years old, was found in Mohenjo-daro in 1926. In 1973, British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler described the item as his favorite statuette:

"There is her little Balochi-style face with pouting lips and insolent look in the eyes. She's about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. There's nothing like her, I think, in the world."

John Marshall, another archeologist at Mohenjo-daro, described the figure as "a young girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture, and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs and feet."^[7] The archaeologist Gregory Possehl said of the statuette, "We may not be certain that she was a dancer, but she was good at what she did and she knew it".

Priest-King[link]

In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with unusually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-daro, archeologists dubbed this dignified figure a "Priest-King"; like the Dancing Girl, it has become symbolic of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The bearded sculpture is 17.5 centimetres (6.9 in) tall, and wears a fillet around the head, an armband, and a cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that were originally filled with red pigment. The two ends of the fillet fall along the back, and though the hair is carefully combed towards the back of the head, no bun is present. The flat back of the head may have held a separately carved bun, as is traditional on the other seated figures, or it could have held a more elaborate horn and plumed headdress.

Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace or other head ornament was attached to the sculpture. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicate they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel. The eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip is shaved, and a short combed beard frames the face. The large crack in the face may be due to weathering, or it may be a result of the original firing of this object.

Other artifacts[link]

Numerous other sculptures and figurines have been found in Mohenjo-daro, including seated figures similar to the Priest-King. Other items include copper and stone tools, carved seals, binary weights, gold and jasper jewellery and even children's toys.^[8]

UNESCO status[link]

Preservation work for Mohenjo-daro was suspended in December 1996 after funding from the Pakistani government and international organizations stopped. Site conservation work resumed in April 1997, utilizing funds made available by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The 20-year funding plan provided $10 million to protect the site and standing structures from flooding. In 2011, responsibility for the preservation of the site was transferred to the government of Sindh.^[9]

See also[link]

• Chanhudaro
• Dholavira
• Harappa
• Larkana
• Lothal
• Mehrgarh

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mohenjo-daro

• UNESCO World Heritage Sites
• Harappa.com
  • Harappa geography
• Archaeology.about.com
• HistoryWorld
• Civilizations in Pakistan
• Mohenjo-daro lifestyle

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Qazi Abdul Jaleel
امر جليل
Born	(1936-11-08) November 8, 1936 (age 75) Kazi Mohala, Taluka Rohri, Sukkur Sindh, Pakistan

Introduction[link]

Qazi Abdul Jaleel (Sindhi: قاضي عبدالجليل) (born 1936 in Rohri), popularly known as Amar Jaleel, is a Sindhi fiction writer and a columnist whose columns appears in various Sindhi, Urdu and English-language dailies of Pakistan. He frequently plays with a dark sense of humor in his writings. Has authored 20 books. Recipient of National Award, Pride of Performance (Pakistan), and Akhal Bharat Sindhi Sahat Sabha National Award (India). Life Fellow, Pakistan Academy of Letters. Writes since 1955.^[1]

Early life[link]

Jaleel started writing stories when he was 10 years old. He played for his NJV School and also featured briefly in first class cricket as wicketkeeper-batsman.^{[citation needed]}

Professional career[link]

Amar Jaleel started his career at Radio Pakistan, Karachi before being transferred to Islamabad, where he worked in different positions at radio and educational institutions. Now retired, Jaleel currently resides in Karachi, Sindh, where he spends his leisure time writing articles for various Pakistan newspapers, and is known as a popular columnist for Dawn and The Nation.

Thinking[link]

As a political analyst he has repeatedly returned to one theme: why partition was wrong. Amar Jaleel is a prominent polemicist against the All-India Muslim League.^{[citation needed]}

His articles have found publication in Pakistan's leading newspapers, including the Dawn, which has historical foundations in the Pakistan Movement itself.

Books[link]

He has written hundreds of short stories in Sindhi; he has also written one novel in Sindhi titled Naith Gongey Ghalahyo نيٺ گونگهي ڳالهايو ("Thus Dumb Spoke"). Some of Amar Jaleel's best known books are:

• Indra 'اندرا'
• Sindhu Muhinje Saah Mein''سنڌو منهنجي ساھ ۾
• Dil Jee Duniyaدل جي دنيا
• Jadanh Maa'n Na Hoondus جڏهن مان نه هوندس
• Tareekh Jo Kafan'تاريخ جو ڪفن
• Munhinjo Dus Aasman Khan Puchho'منهنجو ڏس آسمان کان پڇو
• Tiyoon Wujoodٽيون وجود
• Naith Gongey Ghalahyo نيٺ گونگهي ڳالهايو
• Raani Kot jo Khazano رڻي ڪوٽ جو خزانو
• Jeejal Mohanje Mao جيجل منهنجي ماءُ'
• Wisaami Wayo. ' چنڊ وسامي ويو'
• Adab Aen Siyasatادب ۽ سياست'
• Sarad Laash Jo Safar'سرد لاش جو سفر
• Lahndar Sijj Je Laaam 'لهندڙ سج جي لام'
• Sindh Naamo'سنڌ نامو''
• Fida Hussain Phdine, Dhani Bakhash Dhane Aen Phndan Ja Kaalum.فدا حسين ڦودني، ڌڻي بخش ڌني ۽ ڦندڻ جا ڪالم'
• Wichaar, a web portal, has printed a book of Amar Jaleel's selected stories in Punjabi translation. The book's title is Amar Kahanian.

Articles & essays[link]

• To Define Sufism
• A Professor with a Fake Degree
• Wither Sufism
• Enigmatic History in a Nutshell
• Betrayed
• Antithesis of Sufism
• From Nowhere to Enerywhere
• The Evil Within Uus

See also[link]

• Sindhi literature
• Urdu Columns of Amar Jalil

Amar Jaleel's columns in Dawn Magazine 2007[link]

• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070107/dmag2.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070114/dmag2.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070121/dmag3.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070128/dmag2.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070204/dmag4.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070211/dmag2.htm
• http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/070218/dmag2.htm