Indiana Bat
Conservation status
Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Chiroptera
Family:	Vespertilionidae
Genus:	Myotis
Species:	M. sodalis
Binomial name
Myotis sodalis Miller & Allen, 1928
Approximate range of the Indiana bat

The Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) is a medium-sized mouse-eared bat native to North America. It lives primarily in eastern and midwestern states and in parts of the south of the United States. The Indiana bat is gray, black, or chestnut in colour and is 1.2–2 inches and weighs 4.5 - 9.5 grams (.16 - .34 oz.). It is similar in appearance to the more common little brown bat but is distinguished by its feet size, toe hair length, pink lips and a keel on the calcar.

Indiana bats live in hardwood forests and hardwood-pine forests. It is common old-growth forest as well as agricultural land like croplands and old fields. Overall, the bats mostly live in forest, crop fields, and grasslands. As an insectivore, the bat will eat both terrestrial and aquatic flying insects like moths, beetles, and mosquitoes and midges.

The Indiana bat is listed as an endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. It has had serious population decline, estimated to be more than 50% over the 10 years, based on direct observation and a decline on its extent of occurrence.^[1]

Description[link]

The length of the Indiana bat's head to the body is from 1.2–2 inches. The animal weighs about 1/4 an ounce. These bats are very difficult to distinguish from other species, especially the more common little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), unless examined closely. The size of the feet, the length of the toe hairs, and the presence of a keel on the calcar are characteristics used to differentiate the Indiana bat from other bats. Indiana bats live an average of 5 to 9 years, but some have reached 12 years of age. It can have fur from black to chestnut with a light gray to cinnamon belly. Unlike other common bats with brown hair and black lips, the Indiana bat has brown hair and pink lips, which is helpful for identification.

Distribution[link]

The Indiana bat spends summer months living throughout the eastern United States. During winter, however, they cluster together and hibernate in only a few caves. Since about 1975, the population of Indiana bats has declined by about 50 percent. Based on a 1985 census of hibernating bats, the Indiana bat population is estimated at about 244,000. About 23% of these bats hibernate in caves in Indiana. The Indiana bat lives in caves only in winter; but, there are few caves that provide the conditions necessary for hibernation. Stable, low temperatures are required to allow the bats to reduce their metabolic rates and conserve fat reserves. These bats hibernate in large, tight clusters which may contain thousands of individuals. Indiana bats feed entirely on night flying insects, and a colony of bats can consume thousands of insects each night. The range of the Indiana bat overlaps with that of the more narrowly-distributed gray bat (Myotis grisescens), also listed as endangered.

Plant communities[link]

Common dominant trees utilized by Indiana bat throughout its range include oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.), eastern cottonwoods (Populus deltoides), locusts (Robinia spp.), and maples (Acer spp.). The understory may include hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), dogwoods (Cornus spp.), fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), sedges (Carex spp.), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), goldenrod (Solidago spp.), poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), and wild grape (Vitis spp.).^[2]

Indiana bats were found in a variety of plant associations in a southern Iowa study. Riparian areas were dominated by eastern cottonwood, hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum). In the forested floodplains, the dominant plants included black walnut (Juglans nigra), silver maple, American elm (Ulmus americana), and eastern cottonwood. In undisturbed upland forest, the most common plants were black oak (Quercus velutina), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), and bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis). Black walnut, American basswood, American elm, and bur oak dominated other upland Indiana bat sites.^[3]

There are at least 29 tree species that Indiana bats use during the summer. The greatest number of tree species are found in the central portion of Indiana bats's range (primarily Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, and Kentucky), but this is likely because the majority of research conducted on the species has occurred in this region. Roost trees from these central states, which are mainly in the oak-hickory cover type, include silver maple, red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), white oak (Q. alba), red oak (Q. rubra), pin oak (Q. palustris), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), post oak (Q. stellata), shingle oak (Q. imbricaria), eastern cottonwood, shagbark hickory, bitternut hickory, mockernut hickory (C. alba), pignut hickory (C. glabra), American elm, slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), white ash (F. americana), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum).^{[2][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]} In southern Michigan and northern Indiana, which are mainly in the oak-hickory and elm-ash-cottonwood cover types, trees utilized as roosts include green, white, and black ash (Fraxinus nigra), silver maple, shagbark hickory, and American elm.^[11] And finally, in the southern areas of the Indiana bat's range (primarily Tennessee, Arkansas, and northern Alabama), which include the oak-hickory and oak-pine cover types, Indiana bats utilize shagbark hickory, white oak, red oak, pitch pine (P. rigida), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), loblolly pine (P. taeda), sweet birch (Betula lenta), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis).^[12][13]

Major life events[link]

Indiana bat

Indiana bats begin to arrive at hibernacula (caves and mines in which they spend the winter) from their summer roosting sites in late August, with most returning in September. Females enter hibernation shortly after arriving at hibernacula, but males remain active until late autumn to breed with females arriving late. Most Indiana bats hibernate from October through April, but many at the northern extent of their range hibernate from September to May. Occasionally, Indiana bats are found hibernating singly, but almost all are found hibernating in dense clusters of 3,230 bats/m² to 5,215 bats/m².^[14]

Spring migration can begin as early as late March, but most Indiana bats do not leave their winter hibernacula until late April to early May. Females emerge from hibernacula first, usually between late March and early May. Most males do not begin to emerge until mid- to late April.^[14][15] Females arrive at summer locations beginning in mid-April. Females form summer nursery colonies of up to 100 adult females during summer.^[9][14] Males typically roost alone or in small bachelor groups during the summer. Many males spend the summer near their winter hibernacula, while others migrate to other areas, similar to areas used by females.^[14]

Females can mate during their 1st fall, but some do not breed until their 2nd year.^[14][16] Males become reproductively active during their 2nd year.^[14] Breeding occurs in and around hibernacula in fall.^[14] During the breeding season, Indiana bats undergo a phenomenon known as swarming. During this activity, large numbers of bats fly in and out of caves from sunset to sunrise.^[14] Swarming mainly occurs during August to September and is thought to be an integral part of mating.^[14] Bats have been observed copulating in caves until early October. During the swarming/breeding period, very few bats are found roosting within the hibernacula during the day. Limited mating may also occur at the end of hibernation.^[14]

Fertilization does not occur until the end of hibernation,^[14][16] and gestation takes approximately 60 days. Parturition occurs in late May to early July.^[14][16] Female Indiana bats typically give birth to one pup.^[14][16] Juveniles are weaned after 25 to 37 days ^[8] and become volant (able to fly) at about the same time.^[14] Most young can fly by early to late July,^[8] but sometimes do not fly until early August.^[16] Humphrey and others ^[8] reported an 8% mortality rate by the time young were weaned. However, they assumed that all females mate in the autumn,^[16] which is not the case, so not all the females would give birth. Thus, mortality of young may be even lower than 8%.

Indiana bats are relatively long lived. One Indiana bat was captured 20 years after being banded as an adult.^[15] Data from other recaptured individuals show that females live at least 14 years 9 months, while males may live for at least 13 years 10 months.^[17]

Habitat[link]

Landscape[link]

Habitat requirements for the Indiana bat are not completely understood. Bottomland and floodplain forests were once thought to be the most important habitats during the summer, but subsequent study has shown that upland forest habitats may be equally important, especially in the southern portions of the species's range.^[2][3][4] Indiana bats are found in hardwood forests throughout most of their range ^[2][8] and mixed hardwood-pine forests in the southeastern United States.^[10][12] Stone and Battle ^[13] found a significantly greater proportion (p<0.05) of old-growth forest (greater than 100 years), more hardwoods, and fewer conifers in stands occupied by Indiana bats than in random stands in Alabama.

In an Illinois study by Gardner and others,^[2] the study area where Indiana bats were found was estimated as approximately 67% agricultural land including cropland and old fields; 30% was upland forest; while 2.2% was floodplain forest. Finally, only 0.1% of the area was covered with water. Kurta and others ^[18] found that in southern Michigan, the general landscape occupied by Indiana bats consisted of open fields and agricultural lands (55%), wetlands and lowland forest (19%), other forested habitats (17%), developed areas (6%), and perennial water sources such as ponds and streams (3%). In southern Illinois, Carter and others ^[5] reported that all roosts were located in bottomland, swamp, and floodplain areas. Miller and others ^[19] determined the predominant habitat types near areas where Indiana bats were captured in Missouri were forest, crop fields, and grasslands. Indiana bats did not show any preference for early successional habitats, such as old fields, shrublands, and early successional forests, showing 71% to 75% of activity occurring in other habitats. Although much of the landscape throughout the distributional range of the Indiana bat is dominated by agricultural lands and other open areas, these areas are typically not utilized by Indiana bats.^[8][20]

Indiana bats typically spend the winter months in caves or mines. However, a few bats have been found hibernating on a dam in northern Michigan. Indiana bats need very specific conditions in order to survive the winter hibernation period, which lasts approximately 6 months. As the microclimate in a hibernaculum fluctuates throughout the winter, Indiana bats sometimes fly to different areas within the hibernaculum to find optimal conditions,^[21] but this does not appear necessary for every hibernaculum. Indiana bats may even switch between nearby hibernacula in search of the most appropriate hibernating conditions.^[15] Indiana bats are generally loyal to specific hibernacula or to the general area near hibernacula that they have occupied previously.^[15] Critical winter habitats of Indiana bats have been designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and include 13 hibernacula distributed across Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia.^[22]

Three types of hibernacula have been designated depending on the amount of use each receives from year to year. Priority One hibernacula are those that consistently have greater than 30,000 Indiana bats hibernating inside each winter. Priority Two hibernacula contain 500 to 30,000 bats, and Priority 3 hibernacula are any with fewer than 500 bats. At least 50% of Indiana bats are thought to hibernate in the 8 Priority One hibernacula, which can be found in Indiana (3 hibernacula), Missouri (3), and Kentucky (2). Estimates of hibernating populations in 2001 suggest that Priority One hibernacula have experienced a 48% decline since 1983. Overall, populations have fallen approximately 57% since 1960 across all hibernacula.^[23]

Site characteristics[link]

Studies have identified at least 29 tree species (see Plant Communities) used by Indiana bats during the summer and during spring and fall migrations. Since so many tree species are utilized as roosts, tree species is likely not a limiting habitat requirement. In addition to trees, Indiana bats have used a Pennsylvania church attic, a utility pole,^[13] and bat boxes ^[24] as roosts. However, use of man-made structures appears to be rare. Roost selection by females may be related to environmental factors, especially weather. Cool temperatures can slow fetal development,^[8] so choosing roosts with appropriate conditions is essential for reproductive success ^[14] and probably influences roost choice.

Two types of day roosts utilized by Indiana bats have been identified as primary and alternate roosts. Primary roosts typically support more than 30 bats at a time ^[19] and are used most often by a maternity colony. Trees that support smaller numbers of Indiana bats from the same maternity colony are designated as alternate roosts. In cases where smaller maternity colonies are present in an area, primary roosts may be defined as those used for more than 2 days at a time by each bat, while alternate roosts are generally used less than 2 consecutive days.^[12] Maternity colonies may use up to 3 primary roosts and up to 33 alternate roosts ^[6][19] in a single season. Reproductively active females frequently switch roosts to find optimal roosting conditions. When switching between day roosts, Indiana bats may travel as little as 23 feet (7 m) or as far as 3.6 miles (5.8 km).^[18] In general, moves are relatively short and typically less than 0.6 mile (1 km).^[25]

Primary roosts are most often found at forest edges or in canopy gaps.^[4][19] Alternate roosts are generally located in a shaded portion of the interior forest and occasionally at the forest edge.^[4] Most roost trees in a Kentucky study occurred in canopy gaps in oak, oak-hickory, oak-pine, and oak-poplar community types.^[9] Roosts found by Kurta and others ^[18] in an elm-ash-maple forest in Michigan were in a woodland/marsh edge, a lowland hardwood forest, small wetlands, a shrub wetland/cornfield edge, and a small woodlot. Around hibernacula in autumn, Indiana bats tended to choose roost trees on upper slopes and ridges that were exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day.^[9]

The preferred amount of canopy cover at the roost is unclear. Many studies have reported the need for low cover, while others have documented use of trees with moderate to high canopy cover, occasionally up to complete canopy closure. Canopy cover ranges from 0% at the forest edge to 100% in the interior of the stand.^[2][4][10] A general trend is that primary roosts are found in low cover, while alternate roosts tend to be more shaded. Few data directly compare the differences between roost types. In Alabama, canopy cover at the roost tended to be low at an average of 35.5%, but at the stand level, canopy cover was higher with a mean of 65.8%.^[13] In a habitat suitability model, Romme and others ^[26] recommended the ideal canopy cover for roosting Indiana bats as 60% to 80%. Actual roost sites in eastern Tennessee were very high in the tree, and Indiana bats were able to exit the roost above the surrounding canopy. Thus, canopy cover measurements taken from the bases of roost trees may overestimate the actual amount of cover required by roosting Indiana bats.^[12]

There are many difference between stands occupied by Indiana bats. A Virginia pine roost was in a stand with a density of only 367 trees/ha ^[27] while in Kentucky, a shagbark hickory roost was in a closed canopy stand with 1,210 trees/ha.^[9] Overall tree density in Great Smoky Mountain National Park was higher around primary roosts than at alternate roosts.^[12] At the landscape level, the basal area for stands with roosts was 30% lower than basal area of random stands in Alabama.^[13] Tree density in southern Iowa varied between different habitats. In a forested floodplain, tree density was lowest at 229 trees/ha, while a riparian strip had the highest tree density at 493 trees/ha.^[3]

The number of roosts used and home range occupied by a maternity colony can vary widely. In Missouri, Callahan and others ^[4] found that the highest density of roosts being used in an oak-hickory stand was 0.25 tree/ha. In Michigan, the number of trees utilized by a colony was 4.6 trees/ha, with as many as 13.2 potential roosts/ha in the green ash-silver maple stand. Clark and others ^[3] estimated that the density of potential roosts in southern Iowa in areas where Indiana bats were caught was 10 to 26/ha in riparian, floodplain, and upland areas dominated by eastern cottonwood-silver maple, oak-hickory, and black walnut-silver maple-American elm, respectively. In Illinois, the suggested optimal number of potential roost trees in an upland oak-hickory habitat was 64/ha; the optimal number for riparian and floodplain forest, dominated by silver maple and eastern cottonwood, was proposed to be 41/ha.^[2] Salyers and others ^[24] suggested a potential roost density of 15 trees/ha was needed, or 30 roosts/ha if artificial roost boxes are erected in a stand with American elm and shagbark hickory. The roosting home range used by any single Indiana bat was as large as 568 hectares in an oak-pine community in Kentucky.^[10] Roosts of 2 maternity colonies in southern Illinois were located in roosting areas estimated at 11.72 hectares and 146.5 hectares and included green ash, American elm, silver maple, pin oak, and shagbark hickory.^[5] The extent of the maternity home range may depend on the availability of suitable roosts in the area.^[28]

Most habitat attributes measured for the Indiana bat were insignificant as well as inconsistent from one location to another. In Missouri, oak-hickory stands with maternity colonies had significantly (p=0.01) more medium trees (12–22 inches (30–57 cm) dbh) and significantly (p=0.01) more large sized trees (>22 inches (57 cm) dbh) than areas where Indiana bats were not found. No other major landscape differences were detected.^[19]

Distances seen between roosts and other habitat features may be influenced by the age, sex, and reproductive condition of the Indiana bats. Distances between roosts and paved roads is greater than the distances between roosts and unpaved roads in some locales, although overlap between the two situations has been documented. In Illinois, most roosts used by adult females and juveniles were about 2,300 feet (700 m) or more from a paved highway, while adult males roosted less than 790 feet (240 m) from the road.^[2][6] In Michigan, roosts were only slightly closer to paved roads: 2,000 feet (600 m) on average for all roosts located.^[11] In general, roosts were located 1,600 feet (500 m) to 2,600 feet (800 m) from unpaved roads in Illinois and Michigan.^[6][11] Roost trees used during autumn in Kentucky were very close to unpaved roads at an average of 160 feet (50 m).^[9]

Roost proximity to water is highly variable and therefore probably not as important as once thought. In Indiana, roost trees were discovered less than 660 feet (200 m) from a creek,^[8] while roosts in another part of Indiana were 1.2 miles (2 km) from the nearest permanent water source.^[6][11] To the other extreme, roosts of a maternity colony from Michigan were all found in a 12-acre (5 ha) wetland that was inundated for most of the year.^[11] In Virginia, foraging areas near a stream were utilized.^[27] Intermittent streams may be located closer to roosts than more permanent sources of water.^[2][11] Ponds, streams, and road ruts appear to be important water sources, especially in upland habitats.^[29]

Foraging habitat[link]

Studies on the foraging needs for Indiana bats are inconclusive. Callahan and others ^[4] reported that bats foraged in a landscape composed of pasture, corn fields, woodlots, and a strip of riparian woodland, although Indiana bat activity was not necessarily recorded in all these habitat types. Murray and Kurta ^[20] made some qualitative assessments of Indiana bat foraging habitat in Michigan: the majority of bats were found foraging in forested wetlands and other woodlands, while 1 bat foraged in an area around a small lake and another in an area with 50% woodland and 50% open fields. Another Indiana bat foraged over a river, while 10 others foraged in areas greater than 0.6 mile (1 km) from the same river.^[20] Bat activity was centered around small canopy gaps or closed forest canopy along small 2nd-order streams in West Virginia. Indiana bats foraged under the dense oak-hickory forest canopy along ridges and hillsides in eastern Missouri, but rarely over streams.^[30] Indiana bats have been detected foraging in upland forest ^[3][9][14] in addition to riparian areas such as floodplain forest edges.^{[3][8][14][31]} Romme and others ^[26] also suggested that foraging habitat would ideally have 50% to 70% canopy closure. Indiana bats rarely utilize open agricultural fields and pastures, upland hedgerows, open water, and deforested creeks for traveling or foraging.^[6][8][20]

Hibernacula[link]

During hibernation, Indiana bats occupy open areas of hibernacula ceilings and generally avoid crevices and other enclosed areas.^[32] Indiana bats were associated with hibernacula that were long (µ=2,817 feet (858 m)), had high ceilings (µ=15 feet (4.5 m)), and had large entrances (µ=104.4 feet² (9.7 m²)). The preferred hibernacula often had multiple entrances promoting airflow. Hibernacula choice may be influenced by the ability of the outside landscape to provide adequate forage upon arrival at the hibernacula as well as the specific microclimate inside. Having forested areas around the hibernacula entrance and low amounts of open farmland may be important factors influencing the suitability of hibernacula.^[32]

Cover requirements[link]

Primary roosts used by Indiana bats are typically snags in canopy gaps and forest edges that receive direct sunlight throughout the day.^[4] Alternate roosts live or dead trees, generally located in the forest interior, that usually receive little or no direct sunlight.^[4][8] Weather, such as very warm temperatures and precipitation, appears to influence the use of interior alternate roost trees over primary roosts, as alternate roosts generally offer more shade and protection during inclement weather and extreme heat.^[4][8][19] However, this preference may fluctuate from season to season. Indiana bats moved to the alternate roost during periods of heavy rain and colder ambient temperatures during fall in Missouri, but chose to roost in the primary snag during inclement weather in the spring. These differences may be attributed to variation in the heat retention capabilities of the trees at different times of the year.^[8] Gumbert and others ^[7] discovered bats from a maternity colony switched roosts more frequently in summer and autumn than they did in spring in an oak-pine forest in Kentucky. Indiana bats exhibit strong fidelity to individual roost trees from year to year if they are still suitable roost sites.^[7][8][33] Many trees are no longer usable after just a few years,^{[2][4][8][11][14][33]} while others may last as long as 20 years.^[16]

Another important factor relating to roost suitability is tree condition. Indiana bats prefer dead or dying trees with exfoliating bark.^[11] The amount of exfoliating bark present on a tree seems to be insignificant.^[9] Indiana bats show an affinity for very large trees that receive lots of sunlight. Typically, Indiana bats roost in snags, but a few species of live trees are also utilized. Live roost trees are usually shagbark hickory, silver maple, and white oak.^[2][4] Shagbark hickories make excellent alternate roosts throughout the Indiana bats's range due to their naturally exfoliating bark.^[14] Although Indiana bats primarily roost under loose bark, a small fraction roost in tree cavities.^{[2][11][12][18]}

Primary roosts are generally larger than alternate roosts,^[12] but both show a lot of variability. Females typically use large roost trees averaging 10.8 inches (27.4 cm) to 25.7 inches (65.3 cm) as maternity roosts.^{[2][4][9][11][13][27][34]} Males are more flexible, roosting in trees as small as 3 inches (8 cm) dbh.^{[2][9][10][27]} In a review, Romme and others ^[26] determined that Indiana bats required tree roosts greater than 8 inches (22 cm) dbh, while Clawson ^[33] suggested that roosts of 12 inches (30 cm) dbh or larger were preferred. The heights of roost trees vary, but they tend to be tall, with average heights ranging from 62.7 feet (19.1 m) to 100 feet (30 m). The heights of the actual roosting sites are variable as well, ranging from 4.6 feet (1.4 m) to 59 feet (18 m).^[11][13][27]

In addition to day roosts, Indiana bats use temporary roosts throughout the night to rest between foraging bouts. Limited research has examined the use of night roosts by Indiana bats, and thus their use and importance are poorly understood. Males, lactating and postlactating females, and juveniles have been found roosting under bridges at night. Some Indiana bats were tracked to 3 different night roosts within the same night.^[20] Night roosts are often found within the bats's foraging area. Indiana bats using night roosts are thought to roost alone and only and for short periods, typically 10 minutes or less. Lactating bats may return to the day roost several times each night, presumably to nurse their young. Pregnant bats have not been tracked back to the day roost during the night except during heavy rain. Because Indiana bats are difficult to track during their nightly movements and usually rest for such short periods of time, the specific requirements that Indiana bats need in a night roost, and reasons why night roosts are needed, are still unknown.

During spring and fall, Indiana bats migrate between hibernacula and summer roosting sites. In New York and Vermont, bats traveled up to 25 miles (40 km) between hibernacula and summer roosting sites in spring. This is a considerably shorter distance than what is seen in the Midwest, where bats may travel up to 300 miles (500 km). Many males remain close to hibernacula during the spring and summer^[25] rather than migrating long distances like females. Occasionally, they even roost within hibernacula during the summer.^[25] Males also roost in caves and trees during fall swarming.^[25][33] Few data exist for the roosting requirements of Indiana bats during spring and fall migrations; data indicate that requirements during these times are similar to summer needs in that the bats chose large trees with direct sunlight and exfoliating bark.^[27]

The ability for Indiana bats to find suitable hibernating conditions is critical for their survival. A hibernaculum that remained too warm during one winter caused a 45% mortality rate in hibernating Indiana bats.^[35] Bats generally hibernate in warmer portions of the hibernacula in fall, then move to cooler areas as winter progresses. During October and November, temperatures at roosting sites within major hibernacula in 6 states averaged 43.5 °F to 53.2 °F (6.4–11.8 °C). Roost temperatures at the same hibernacula ranged from 34.5 °F to 48.6 °F (1.4–9.2 °C) from December to February. Temperatures in March and April were slightly lower than in autumn at 39.6 °F to 51.3 °F (4.2–10.7 °C). The Indiana Bat Recovery Team ^[14] discovered that Indiana bat populations increased over time in hibernacula that had stable mid-winter temperatures averaging 37.4 °F to 45.0 °F (3.0–7.2 °C), and declined in hibernacula with temperatures outside this range.^[14] Temperatures slightly above freezing during hibernation allow Indiana bats to slow their metabolic rates as much as possible without the risk of freezing to death or using up fat too quickly.^[35] Hibernating Indiana bats may also survive low temperatures by sharing body heat within the tight clusters they typically form.^[21] Bats awaken periodically throughout the hibernation period, presumably to eliminate waste or to move to more appropriate microclimates. This periodic waking does not seem to affect the survival of Indiana bats, but waking caused by disturbance can cause Indiana bats to use up large amounts of energy, which can cause them to run out of fat reserves before the end of winter, possibly leading to death.^[36]

One way in which caves retain low temperatures is through a constant input of cold air from outside the cave circulating in. Typically, the caves supporting the largest Indiana bat populations have multiple entrances that allow cool air from outside the cave to come in, creating a circulation of fresh cooled air. Gates that are meant to keep vandals out of caves have altered the temperature and airflow of hibernacula, resulting in population declines of Indiana bats at many major hibernacula throughout their range. Removing or modifying gates at some of these have given these populations a chance to rebound. Also, the bats seem to prefer a relative humidity of 74% to 100%, although it is uncommon for the air to be saturated.^[33] Relative humidities of only 50.4% have also been recorded.^[32]

Food habits[link]

Indiana bats feed exclusively on terrestrial and aquatic flying insects.^[31] The most common prey items taken by Indiana bats are moths (Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), and mosquitoes and midges (Diptera).^[15] Selection of prey depends largely on availability in the foraging habitat with diet varying seasonally, by reproductive status of females, and from night to night. In southern Michigan, Indiana bats primarily ate caddisflies (Trichoptera) and bees, wasps, and ants (Hymenoptera), in addition to the more common prey previously listed.^[31] In the Ozarks of southern Missouri, the bats also primarily ate bees, wasps, ants, moths, and beetles as well as leafhoppers (Homoptera), although diet did vary throughout the summer. Bats in Indiana were found to prefer beetles, moths, mosquitoes, midges, leafhoppers, and wasps.^[37] Other arthropod groups which are consumed by Indiana bats in very limited quantities are lacewings (Neuroptera), spiders (Araneae), stoneflies (Plecoptera), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), mites and ticks (Acari), and lice (Phthiraptera).^[9][31]

In addition to differences in diet, variation in foraging behaviors have been documented. For instance, the distance that an individual Indiana bat travels between a day roost and a nightly foraging range can vary. Garner and Gardner ^[6] discovered that Indiana bats traveled up to 1.6 miles (2.6 km) from their day roosts to their foraging sites in Illinois. Similarly, bats traveled up to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to forage in Kentucky.^[9] In Michigan, female bats traveled as far as 2.6 miles (4.2 km) to reach foraging areas with an average of 1.5 miles (2.4 km).^[20]

Several studies have documented similarities in how foraging habitats are actually utilized by Indiana bats. Humphrey and others ^[8] found Indiana bats in Indiana were foraging around the canopy, which was 7 to 98 feet (2–30 m) above ground. LaVal and others,^[30] whose study was also conducted in Missouri, found that a female bat foraged 7 to 33 feet (2–10 m) above a river. In the same study, a male Indiana bat was observed flying in an elliptical pattern among trees at 10 to 33 feet (3–10 m) above the ground under the canopy of dense forests.^[30] In addition, bats were observed foraging at canopy height in Virginia.^[27]

Differences in the extent of foraging ranges have also been noted. Bats from the same colony foraged in different areas at least some of the time.^[20] Humphrey and others ^[8] reported that the average foraging area for female bats in Indiana was 843 acres (341 ha), but the foraging area for males averaged 6,837 acres (2,767 ha). Hobson and Holland reported a male bat utilizing a foraging area of 1,544 acres (625 ha) in Virginia.^[27] In Illinois, however, the foraging ranges were much smaller at an average of 625 acres (253 ha) for adult females, 141 acres (57 ha) for adult males, 91 acres (37 ha) for juvenile females, and only 69 acres (28 ha) for juvenile males.^[2][6][9] Foraging areas utilized by Indiana bats in Indiana increased throughout the summer season, but only averaged 11.2 acres (4.54 ha) in mid-summer.^[8]

Predators[link]

During hibernation, predators of Indiana bats may include black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta) ^[38] and northern raccoons (Procyon lotor).^[34][38] During other times of the year northern raccoons have been observed trying to grab bats from the air when they attempt to fly away.^[34] Skunks (Mephitidae), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and feral cats (Felis catus) may pose a similar threat.^[38] If Indiana bats fly from their day roosts during the day, they may be susceptible to predation by hawks (Accipitridae).^[34][38] Indiana bats foraging at night may also be susceptible to predation by owls (Strigidae).^[8][38] While not a predator, woodpeckers (Picidae) may disturb roosting bats through their foraging activities by peeling away sections of bark being utilized by Indiana bats, causing Indiana bats to fly from the roost during the day and making the tree unsuitable for future habitation.^[11][34]

The impact of natural predators on Indiana bats is minimal compared to the damage to habitat and mortality caused by humans, especially during hibernation. The presence of people in caves can cause Indiana bats to come out of hibernation, leading to a large increase in the energy used by the bats. By causing Indiana bats to wake up and use greater amounts of energy stores, humans can cause high mortality in a cave population of hibernating Indiana bats.^[36] Human disturbance and the degradation of habitat are the primary causes for the decline of the Indiana bat.^[39]

Endangered status[link]

The Indiana bat was listed as "endangered throughout its range" in the Federal Register, March 11, 1967. Reasons for the bat's decline include disturbance of colonies by human beings, pesticide use and loss of summer habitat resulting from the clearing of forest cover. Populations throughout the species' range are also threatened by the spread of white nose syndrome.^[40] Additionally, Indiana bat mortality due to wind turbines has been confirmed, even resulting in a December 2009 injunction against a West Virginia wind farm ^[41]

References[link]

 This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document "Myotis sodalis".

External links[link]

• Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Fish and Wildlife: Indiana Bats
• Ohio Department of Natural Resources Life History Notes: Indiana Bat Myotis sodalis
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Indiana Bat, Myotis sodalis
• National Wildlife Federation: Indiana Bat
• Species Profile: Indiana Bat U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
• U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: Indiana bat images

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Myotis sodalis

Capture and release of Indiana bats:

• http://watertowndailytimes.com/section/multimedia?objdir=bats&objw=620&objh=503

State of Indiana
Flag Seal
Nickname(s): The Hoosier State
Motto(s): The Crossroads of America
Official language(s)	English
Spoken language(s)	General American English; Inland North American and Midland Dialects, Other Languages
Demonym	Hoosier[1]
Capital (and largest city)	Indianapolis
Largest metro area	Indianapolis metropolitan area
Area	Ranked 38th in the U.S.
- Total	36,418 sq mi (94,321 km2)
- Width	140 miles (225 km)
- Length	270 miles (435 km)
- % water	1.5
- Latitude	37° 46′ N to 41° 46′ N
- Longitude	84° 47′ W to 88° 6′ W
Population	Ranked 15th in the U.S.
- Total	6,516,922 (2011 est)[2]
- Density	182/sq mi  (70.2/km2) Ranked 16th in the U.S.
Elevation
- Highest point	Hoosier Hill[3][4] 1,257 ft (383 m)
- Mean	700 ft  (210 m)
- Lowest point	Confluence of Ohio River and Wabash River[3][4] 320 ft (97 m)
Before statehood	Indiana Territory
Admission to Union	December 11, 1816 (19th)
Governor	Mitchell E. Daniels, Jr. (R)
Lieutenant Governor	Becky Skillman (R)
Legislature	General Assembly
- Upper house	Senate
- Lower house	House of Representatives
U.S. Senators	Richard Lugar (R) Dan Coats (R)
U.S. House delegation	6 Republicans, 3 Democrats (list)
Time zones
- 80 counties	Eastern: UTC -5/-4
- 12 counties in Evansville and Gary Metro Areas For more information, see Time in Indiana	Central: UTC -6/-5
Abbreviations	IN US-IN
Website	www.in.gov

Indiana State symbols
The Flag of Indiana.
The Seal of Indiana.
Animate insignia
Bird(s)	Cardinal
Flower(s)	Peony
Tree	Tulip tree
Inanimate insignia
Beverage	Water
Poem	"Indiana"
Slogan(s)	Restart your Engines
Soil	Miami
Song(s)	"On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away"
Route marker(s)
State Quarter
Released in 2002
Lists of United States state insignia

Indiana (ⁱ/ɪndiˈænə/) is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 15th most populous of the 50 United States. Indiana is the least extensive state in the continental US west of the Appalachian Mountains. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis, the second largest of any state capital and largest state capital east of the Mississippi River.

Before it became a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Angel Mounds State Historic Site, one of the best preserved ancient earthwork mound sites in the United States, can be found in Southwestern Indiana near Evansville.^[5] Residents of Indiana are known as Hoosiers. The etymology of the word is disputed, but the leading theory as advanced by the Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society has "Hoosier" originating from the upland South region of the U.S. as a derogatory slang term for a rough countryman, a country bumpkin.^[6]

The state's name means "Land of the Indians," or simply "Indian Land." This name dates back to at least the 1760s but was first applied to the region by the United States Congress when the Indiana Territory was incorporated in 1800, separating it from the Northwest Territory.^[7][8] Since its founding as a territory, settlement patterns in Indiana have reflected regional cultural segmentation present in the Eastern United States; the state's northernmost tier was settled primarily by people from New England and New York, Central Indiana by migrants from the Mid-Atlantic states and from adjacent Ohio, and Southern Indiana by settlers from the Southern states, particularly Kentucky and Tennessee.^[9]

Indiana has a diverse economy with a gross state product of $214 billion in 2005.^[10] Indiana has several metropolitan areas with populations greater than 100,000 and a number of smaller industrial cities and towns. Indiana is home to several major sports teams and athletic events including the NFL's Indianapolis Colts, the NBA's Indiana Pacers, the WNBA’s Indiana Fever, and the Indianapolis 500 and Brickyard 400 motorsports races. The state has several universities ranked among the best in U.S. News & World Report's 2011 rankings. Purdue University, Indiana University, and the University of Notre Dame are ranked among the top 50 in the National Universities Rankings, while Butler University, Valparaiso University and the University of Evansville are ranked among the top 10 in the Regional University Midwest Rankings.^[11][12]

History[link]

The first residents in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, ingressing about 8000 BC after the melting of the glaciers at the conclusion of the Ice Age. Divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as Mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking.^[13] The subsequent phase of Indiana's Native American antiquity is called the Archaic period, which occurred between 5000 and 4000 BC. They differed from the Paleo-Indians in that they used new tools and techniques to prepare food. Such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They also used ground stone tools such as stone axes, woodworking tools and grinding stones. During the latter part of the period, mounds and middens were created, indicating that their settlements were becoming more permanent. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC.^[13] Afterwards, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, ceramics and pottery were created as well as the increase of usage in horticulture. An early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began exploration of long-range trade of goods. Nearing the end of the stage, an exhaustive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture to grow crops such as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD.^[13] The incoming period afterwards was known as the Mississippian period, which lasted from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly befoe the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, large settlements were created that had similarities to towns, such as the Angel Mounds. They had large public areas such as plazas and platform mounds, where instrumental individuals of the settlement lived or conducted rituals. Mississippian civilization collapsed in Indiana during the mid-1400s for reasons that remain unclear.^[13]

French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle was the first European to cross into Indiana after reaching present-day South Bend at the Saint Joseph River in 1679.^[14] He returned the following year to gain knowledge of northern Indiana. Canadian fur traders also came along and brought blankets, jewelry, tools, whiskey and weapons to trade for skins with the Native Americans. By 1702, the first trading post was established by Sieur Juchereau near Vincennes. In 1715, Sieur de Vincennes built Fort Miami at Kekionga, now Fort Wayne. In 1717, another Canadian, Picote de Beletre, built Fort Ouiatenon on the Wabash River, with the efforts to control Native American trade routes from Lake Erie to the Mississippi River. In 1732, Sieur de Vincennes built a second fur trading post at Vincennes. Canadian settlers, which had left the earlier post because of hostilities, came back in larger numbers. In a period of a few years however, the British arrived and contended against the Canadians for management of the fruitful fur trade. Fighting between the Canadians and British occurred throughout the 1750s as a result.

Iroquois conquests during the Beaver Wars (mid 1600's), which largely depopulated Ohio River valley.^[15]

The Native American tribes of Indiana sided with the Canadians during the French and Indian War. By the conclusion of the war in 1763, the French had lost all land west of the colonies, and control had been ceded to the British crown. Neighboring tribes in Indiana, however, did not give up and destroyed Fort Ouiatenon and Fort Miami during Pontiac's Rebellion. The royal proclamation of 1763 ceded the land west of the Appalachians for Indian use, and was thus labeled Indian territory. In 1775, the American Revolutionary War began as the colonists looked to free themselves from British rule. The majority of the fighting took place in the east, but military officer George Rogers Clark called for an army to help fight the British in the west.^[16] Clark's army won significant battles to overtake Vincennes and Fort Sackville on February 25, 1779.^[17] During the war, Clark managed to cut off British troops who were attacking the colonist from the west. His success is often credited for changing the course of the American Revolutionary War.^[18] At the end of the revolutionary war, through the treaty of Paris, the British crown ceded their claims to the land south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States.

Present-day Indiana became part of the Northwest Territory in 1787. In 1800, Ohio was separated from the Northwest Territory by Congress, designating the rest of the land as the Indiana Territory.^[19] President Thomas Jefferson chose William Henry Harrison as the governor of the territory and Vincennes was established as the capital.^[20] After Michigan was separated and the Illinois Territory was formed, the size of Indiana was reduced to its current state.^[19] In 1810, Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa encouraged other tribes to resist European settlement into the territory. Tensions rose and Harrison was authorized to launch a preemptive expedition against Tecumseh's Confederacy resulting in a US victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811. Tecumseh was killed in 1813 during the Battle of Thames. After his death, armed resistance to United States control ended in the region. Most Native Americans in the state were later removed through negotiations to purchase their lands in the 1820s and 1830s.^[21]

In December 1813, Corydon became the second capital of the Indiana Territory.^[19] Two years later, a petition for statehood was approved by the territorial general assembly and sent to Congress. Afterwards, an Enabling Act was passed to provide an election of delegates to write a constitution for Indiana. On June 10, 1816, delegates assembled at Corydon to write the constitution, which was completed in nineteen days. President James Madison approved Indiana's admission into the union as the nineteenth state on December 11, 1816.^[17] In 1825, the state capital was moved from Corydon to Indianapolis and 26 years later, a second constitution was adopted.^[19] Following statehood, the new government set out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a wilderness frontier into a developed, well-populated, and thriving state, beginning significant demographic and economic changes. The state's founders initiated a program that led to the construction of roads, canals, railroads and state-funded public schools. The plans bankrupted the state and were a financial disaster, but increased land and produce value more than fourfold.^[22] The early nineteenth century saw much immigration to Indiana. The largest immigrant group to settle in Indiana were Germans, though there were also substantial numbers of immigrants from Ireland and England as well as Americans who were ethnically English from regions such as New York, New England and Pennsylvania.^[23][24]

Child laborers in glassworks, by Lewis Hine. Indiana, August 1908.

During the American Civil War, Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the affairs of the nation. As the first western state to mobilize for the war, Indiana's soldiers were present in all of the major engagements during the war. Indiana residents were present in both the first and last battles and the state provided 126 infantry regiments, 26 batteries of artillery and 13 regiments of cavalry to the cause of the Union.^[25] In 1861, Indiana was assigned a quota of 7,500 men to join the Union Army.^[26] So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away. Before the war ended, Indiana contributed 208,367 men to fight and serve in the war. Casualties were over 35% among these men: 24,416 lost their lives in the conflict and over 50,000 more were wounded.^[27] The only Civil War battle fought in Indiana was the Battle of Corydon, which occurred during Morgan's Raid. The battle left 15 dead, 40 wounded, and 355 captured.^[28]

Following the American Civil War, Indiana industry began to grow at an accelerated rate across the northern part of the state leading to the formation of labor unions and suffrage movements.^[29] The Indiana Gas Boom led to rapid industrialization during the late 19th century by providing cheap fuel to the region.^[30] In the early 20th century, Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state with strong ties to the auto industry.^[23] Haynes-Apperson, the nation's first commercially successful auto company operated in Kokomo until 1925. The state also saw many developments with the construction of Indianapolis Motor Speedway and the start many other auto industries.^[31] During the 1930s, Indiana, like the rest of the nation, was affected by the Great Depression. The economic downturn had a wide-ranging negative impact on Indiana, such as the decline of urbanization. The situation was aggravated by the Dust Bowl, which caused an influx of migrants from the rural Midwestern United States. Governor Paul V. McNutt's administration struggled to build a state-funded welfare system to help the overwhelmed private charities. During his administration, spending and taxes were both cut drastically in response to the depression and the state government was completely reorganized. McNutt also ended Prohibition in the state and enacted the state's first income tax. On several occasions, he declared martial law to put an end to worker strikes.^[32] World War II helped lift the economy in Indiana, as the war required steel, food and other goods that were produced in Indiana.^[33] Roughly 10 percent of Indiana's population joined the armed forces while hundreds of industries earned war production contracts and began making war material.^[34] The effects of the war helped end the Great Depression.^[33]

With the conclusion of World War II, Indiana rebounded to levels of production prior to the Great Depression. Industry became the primary employer, a trend that continued into the 1960s. Urbanization during the 1950s and 1960s led to substantial growth in the state's urban centers. The auto, steel and pharmaceutical industries topped Indiana's major businesses. Indiana's population continued to grow during the years after the war, exceeding five million by the 1970 census.^[35] In the 1960s, the administration of Matthew E. Welsh adopted its first sales tax of two percent.^[36] Indiana schools had been desegregated in 1949. Welsh also worked with the General Assembly to pass the Indiana Civil Rights Bill, granting equal protection to minorities in seeking employment.^[37] Beginning in 1970, a series of amendments to the state constitution were proposed. With adoption, the Indiana Court of Appeals was created and the procedure of appointing justices on the courts was adjusted.^[38] The 1973 oil crisis created a recession that hurt the automotive industry in Indiana. Companies like Delco Electronics and Delphi began a long series of downsizing that contributed to high unemployment rates in manufacturing in Anderson, Muncie, and Kokomo. The deindustrialization trend continued until the 1980s when the national and state economy began to diversify and recover.^[39]

Geography[link]

Perfectly square quarter sections of farmland cover Central Indiana.

Monon Trail in Indiana

Epsilon II Archaeological Site, located at Ransburg Scout Reservation on a peninsula of Lake Monroe southeast of Bloomington

With a total area of 36,418 square miles (94,320 km²), Indiana ranks as the 38th largest state in size.^[40] The state has a maximum dimension north to south of 250 miles (400 km) and a maximum east to west dimension of 145 miles (233 km).^[41] The state is bordered on the north by Michigan, on the east by Ohio and on the west by Illinois.^[42] The Ohio River separates Indiana from Kentucky on the southern border.^[43] Indiana is one of eight states that make up the Great Lakes region.^[44] The state includes two natural regions of the United States, the Central Lowland and the Interior Low Plateau.^[45] The average altitude of Indiana is about 760 feet (230 m) above sea level.^[46] The highest point in the state is Hoosier Hill, which is 1,257 feet (383 m) above sea level.^[47] Only 2,850 square miles (7,400 km²) have an altitude greater than 1,000 feet (300 m) and this area is enclosed within 14 counties. About 4,700 square miles (12,000 km²) have an elevation of less than 500 feet (150 m).^[48]

The till plains make up the central allotment of Indiana. Much of its appearance is a result of elements left behind by glaciers. The area includes some low hills and the soil is composed of glacial sands, gravel and clay, which results to exceptional farmland in central Indiana.^[42] The unglaciated segment of the state carries a different and off-balance surface, characterized in places by profound valleys and expeditious streams. A limited area in the southeastern area of the state possesses these types of characteristics. The soil is fertile in the valleys of Indiana, most notably Whitewater Valley which is known for its prodigious farming. In northwest Indiana, there are various sand hills and dunes, due in some measure to a former extension of the lake and wind action. In the basin of the Kankakee River there is an extensive scope of lakes, marshes and prairies. In northeastern Indiana there is a region of tall moraines, one of which is 200 to 500 feet (61 to 150 m) deep, 25 miles (40 km) wide and stretching across a distance of 100 miles (160 km).^[49]

The Wabash River, which is the longest free-flowing river east of the Mississippi, is the official river of Indiana.^[50][51] At 475 miles (764 km) in length, the river bisects the state from northeast to southwest before flowing south, mostly along the Indiana-Illinois border. The river has been the subject of several songs, such as On the Banks of the Wabash, The Wabash Cannonball and Back Home Again, In Indiana.^[52][53]

The Kankakee River passes through northern Indiana before emptying into the Illinois River and serves as a demarcating line between suburban northwest Indiana and the rest of the state.^[54] There are over 1,000 lakes in Indiana.^[55] Indiana borders Lake Michigan where the Port of Indiana operates the state's largest shipping port. Tippecanoe Lake is the deepest lake in the state reaching depths at nearly 120 feet (37 m) while Lake Wawasee is the largest natural lake in Indiana.^[56]

Climate[link]

Indiana has a humid continental climate, with cool winters and warm, irriguous summers.^[57] The extreme southern portion of the state is within the humid subtropical climate area and receives more precipitation than other parts of Indiana.^[42] Temperatures generally diverge from the north and south sections of the state. In the middle of the winter, average high/low temperatures range from around 30 °F/15 °F (−1 °C/-10 °C) in the far north to 39 °F/22 °F (4 °C/-6 °C) in the far south. In the middle of summer there is generally a little less variation across the state, as average high/low temperatures range from around 84 °F/64 °F (29 °C/18 °C) in the far north to 90 °F/69 °F (32 °C/21 °C) in the far south.^[58] The record high temperature for the state was 116 °F (47 °C) set on July 14, 1936 at Collegeville. The record low was −36 °F (−38 °C) on January 19, 1994 at New Whiteland. The growing season typically spans from 155 days in the north and 185 days in the south. While droughts occasionally occur in the state, rainfall totals are administered relatively equally throughout the year. Precipitation totals range from 35 inches (89 cm) near Lake Michigan to 45 inches (110 cm) along the Ohio River, with the state average being 40 inches (100 cm). The annual snowfall in Indiana varies widely across the state, ranging from 80 inches (200 cm) in the northwest along Lake Michigan to 14 inches (36 cm) in the far south. Lake effect snow accounts for roughly half of the snowfall in northwest and northcentral Indiana, due to the effects of the moisture and relative warmth of Lake Michigan upwind. The mean wind speed is 8 miles per hour (13 km/h).^[59] Indiana is one of the most tornado-prone states in the country, ranking sixth in a list by VorTek, an Alabama company. The city of South Bend was ranked the 14th most tornado-prone city in the country, ahead of cities such as Houston and Wichita.^[60] The same company also published a list of the most tornado prone cities and states in April, with Indiana coming in first and South Bend ranking 16th.^[61] Despite its vulnerability, Indiana is not a part of tornado alley.^[60]

Time zones[link]

Map of U.S. time zones with new (2006) CST and EST areas displayed, showing Indiana largely in the Eastern zone

Indiana is one of thirteen U.S. states that is divided into more than one time zone. Indiana's time zones have fluctuated over the past century. At present most of the state observes Eastern Time; six counties near Chicago and six near Evansville observe Central Time. Debate continues on the matter.

Before 2006, most of Indiana did not observe daylight saving time (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties near Louisville, Kentucky, and Ohio and Dearborn counties near Cincinnati, Ohio, unofficially observed DST by local custom. Since April 2006 the entire state observes DST.

Geographic and statistical areas[link]

Indiana is divided into 92 counties. Only one, Marion, is a consolidated city-county.

Important cities and towns[link]

Indianapolis, the current capital of Indiana is the third capital in the history of the state. The territorial capitals were Vincennes and later Corydon which became the first state capital when Indiana became a state. The center of population in Indiana as well as the geographic center of Indiana are both located near Indianapolis.^{[citation needed]} Indiana has four large metropolitan areas anchored by in-state cities; Pictured below are the cities larger than 55,000 in order of population with their most current population estimates from the 2010 United States Census.^[63]