This article is about the chemical element. For the software testing framework, see
Selenium (software).
|
|
| Appearance |
Black and red allotropes
 |
| General properties |
| Name, symbol, number |
selenium, Se, 34 |
| Pronunciation |
/sɨˈliːniəm/ si-LEE-nee-əm |
| Element category |
nonmetal |
| Group, period, block |
16, 4, p |
| Standard atomic weight |
78.96 |
| Electron configuration |
[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4 |
| Electrons per shell |
2, 8, 18, 6 (Image) |
| Physical properties |
| Phase |
solid |
| Density (near r.t.) |
(gray) 4.81 g·cm−3 |
| Density (near r.t.) |
(alpha) 4.39 g·cm−3 |
| Density (near r.t.) |
(vitreous) 4.28 g·cm−3 |
| Liquid density at m.p. |
3.99 g·cm−3 |
| Melting point |
494 K, 221 °C, 430 °F |
| Boiling point |
958 K, 685 °C, 1265 °F |
| Critical point |
1766 K, 27.2 MPa |
| Heat of fusion |
(gray) 6.69 kJ·mol−1 |
| Heat of vaporization |
95.48 kJ·mol−1 |
| Molar heat capacity |
25.363 J·mol−1·K−1 |
| Vapor pressure |
| P (Pa) |
1 |
10 |
100 |
1 k |
10 k |
100 k |
| at T (K) |
500 |
552 |
617 |
704 |
813 |
958 |
|
| Atomic properties |
| Oxidation states |
6, 4, 2, 1,[1] -2
(strongly acidic oxide) |
| Electronegativity |
2.55 (Pauling scale) |
| Ionization energies |
1st: 941.0 kJ·mol−1 |
| 2nd: 2045 kJ·mol−1 |
| 3rd: 2973.7 kJ·mol−1 |
| Atomic radius |
120 pm |
| Covalent radius |
120±4 pm |
| Van der Waals radius |
190 pm |
| Miscellanea |
| Crystal structure |
hexagonal |
| Magnetic ordering |
diamagnetic[2] |
| Thermal conductivity |
(amorphous) 0.519 W·m−1·K−1 |
| Thermal expansion |
(25 °C) (amorphous) 37 µm·m−1·K−1 |
| Speed of sound (thin rod) |
(20 °C) 3350 m·s−1 |
| Young's modulus |
10 GPa |
| Shear modulus |
3.7 GPa |
| Bulk modulus |
8.3 GPa |
| Poisson ratio |
0.33 |
| Mohs hardness |
2.0 |
| Brinell hardness |
736 MPa |
| CAS registry number |
7782-49-2 |
| Most stable isotopes |
| Main article: Isotopes of selenium |
|
|
|
· r |
Selenium (/sɨˈliːniəm/ sə-LEE-nee-əm) is a chemical element with atomic number 34, chemical symbol Se, and an atomic mass of 78.96. It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between those of its periodic table column-adjacent chalcogen elements sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state in nature, or as pure ore compounds. Commercially, it is obtained as a by-product in the refining of sulfide minerals of metals. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously-known tellurium (named for the Earth).
Selenium is found impurely in sulfide ores, such as pyrite, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known, but are rare. The chief commercial uses for selenium today are in glassmaking and in pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor with the unusual property of conducting electricity better in the light than in the dark, and is used in photocells. Uses in electronics, once important, have been supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices. It has recently seen a resurgence in use in the synthesis of one type of fluorescent quantum dot.
Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with some plants apparently requiring none.[3]
The most stable allotrope of selenium is a dense reddish-gray solid. In terms of structure, it adopts a helical polymeric chain.[4] The Se-Se distance is 2.37 Å and the Se-Se-Se angle is 103°. It is a semiconductor with the unusual property of conducting electricity better in the light than in the dark, and is used in photocells. Gray selenium resists oxidation by air and is not attacked by non-oxidizing acids. With strong reducing agents, it forms polyselenides.
The second major allotrope of Se is red selenium. The solid consists of individual molecules of eight-membered ring molecules, like its lighter cousin sulfur. The Se-Se distance is 2.34 Å and the Se-Se-Se angle is 106°. Unlike sulfur, however, the red form converts to the gray polymeric allotrope with heat. Other rings with the formula Sen are also known.[5]
Elemental selenium produced in chemical reactions invariably appears as the amorphous red form: an insoluble, brick-red powder. When this form is rapidly melted, it forms the black, vitreous form, which is usually sold industrially as beads. The red allotrope crystallises in three habits.[6][7] Selenium does not exhibit the unusual changes in viscosity that sulfur undergoes when gradually heated.[7][8]
Selenium has six naturally occurring isotopes, five of which are stable: 74Se, 76Se, 77Se, 78Se, and 80Se. The last three also occur as fission products, along with 79Se, which has a half-life of 327,000 years.[9][10] The final naturally occurring isotope, 82Se, has a very long half-life (~1020 yr, decaying via double beta decay to 82Kr), which, for practical purposes, can be considered to be stable. Twenty-three other unstable isotopes have been characterized.[11]
See also Selenium-79 for more information on recent changes in the measured half-life of this long-lived fission product, important for the dose calculations performed in the frame of the geological disposal of long-lived radioactive waste.[11]
Native (i.e., elemental) selenium is a rare mineral, which does not usually form good crystals, but, when it does, they are steep rhombohedrons or tiny acicular (hair-like) crystals.[12] Isolation of selenium is often complicated by the presence of other compounds and elements.
Selenium occurs naturally in a number of inorganic forms, including selenide-, selenate-, and selenite-containing minerals, but these minerals are rare. The common mineral selenite is not a selenium mineral, and contains no selenite ion, but is rather a type of gypsum (calcium sulfate hydrate) named for the moon, like selenium. Selenium is most commonly found quite impurely, replacing a small part of the sulfur in sulfide ores of many metals.
In living systems, selenium is found in the amino acids selenomethionine, selenocysteine, and methylselenocysteine. In these compounds, selenium plays a role analogous to that of sulfur. Another naturally occurring organoselenium compound is dimethyl selenide.
Certain solids are selenium-rich, and selenium can be bioconcentrated by certain plants. In soils, selenium most often occurs in soluble forms such as selenate (analogous to sulfate), which are leached into rivers very easily by runoff.
Anthropogenic sources of selenium include coal burning and the mining and smelting of sulfide ores.[13]
Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb Gahn,[14]. Both chemists owned a chemistry plant near Gripsholm, Sweden producing sulfuric acid by the lead chamber process. The pyrite from the Falun mine created a red precipitate in the lead chambers which was presumed to be an arsenic compound, and so the pyrite's use to make acid was discontinued. Berzelius and Gahn wanted to use the pyrite and they also observed that the red precipitate gave off a horse radish-like smell if burned. This smell was not typical of arsenic, but a similar odor was known from tellurium compounds, and so Berzelius' first letter to Alexander Marcet stated that it was a tellurium compound. However, the lack of tellurium compounds in the Falun mine minerals eventually led Berzelius to re-analyze the red precipitate, and in 1818 he wrote a second letter to Marcet describing a new-found element similar to sulfur and tellurium. To honour the similarity to tellurium, named after the Earth, Berzelius named the new element after the Moon.[15][16]
In 1873 Willoughby Smith found that the electrical resistance of grey selenium is dependent on the ambient light. This led to its use as a light sensing cell. The first of commercial products were developed by Werner Siemens in the mid 1870s. The selenium cell was used in an optical telephone developed by Alexander Graham Bell in 1879. Selenium generates electric current proportional to the amount of light falling on its surface. This phenomenon was used in the design of light meters and other light sensing devices. Selenium semiconductor properties found numerous other applications in electronics.[17][18][19] The development of selenium rectifiers started in the early 1930s and replaced the also new copper oxide rectifiers due to the superior efficiency. [20][21][22]
Selenium came to medical notice later because of its toxicity to humans working in industry. It was also recognized as an important veterinary toxin, seen in animals eating high-selenium plants. In 1954, the first hints of specific biological functions of selenium were discovered in microorganisms.[23][24] Its essentiality for mammalian life was discovered in 1957.[25][26] In the 1970s, it was shown to be present in two independent sets of enzymes. This was followed by the discovery of selenocysteine in proteins. During the 1980s, it was shown that selenocysteine is encoded by the codon UGA. The recoding mechanism was worked out first in bacteria and then in mammals (see SECIS element).[27]
Selenium is most commonly produced from selenide in many sulfide ores, such as those of copper, silver, or lead. Electrolytic metal refining is particularly conducive to producing selenium as a byproduct, and it is obtained from the anode mud of copper refineries. Another source is the mud from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid plants. These muds can be processed by a number of means to obtain selenium. However, most elemental selenium comes as a byproduct of refining copper or producing sulfuric acid.[28][29]
Industrial production of selenium usually involves the extraction of selenium dioxide from residues obtained during the purification of copper. Common production from the residue then begins by oxidation with sodium carbonate to produce selenium dioxide. The selenium dioxide is then mixed with water and the solution is acidified to form selenous acid (oxidation step). Selenous acid is bubbled with sulfur dioxide (reduction step) to give elemental selenium.[30][31]
Selenium compounds commonly exist in oxidation states -II, +II, +IV, and +VI.
Selenium forms two stable oxides: selenium dioxide (SeO2) and selenium trioxide (SeO3). Selenium dioxide is formed by the reaction of elemental selenium with oxygen:[7]
- Se8 + 8 O2 → 8 SeO2
Structure of the polymer SeO
2. The (pyramidal) Se atoms are yellow.
It is a polymeric solid that forms monomeric SeO2 molecules in the gas phase. It dissolves in water to form selenous acid, H2SeO3. Selenous acid can also be made directly by oxidising elemental selenium with nitric acid:[32]
- 3 Se + 4 HNO3 → 3 H2SeO3 + 4 NO
Unlike sulfur, which forms a stable trioxide, selenium trioxide is unstable and decomposes to the dioxide above 185 °C:[7][32]
- 2 SeO3 → 2 SeO2 + O2 (ΔH = −54 kJ/mol)
Salts of selenous acid are called selenites. These include silver selenite (Ag2SeO3) and sodium selenite (Na2SeO3).
Hydrogen sulfide reacts with aqueous selenous acid to produce selenium disulfide:
- H2SeO3 + 2 H2S → SeS2 + 3 H2O
Selenium disulfide consists of 8-membered rings of a nearly statistical distribution of sulfur and selenium atoms. It has an approximate composition of SeS2, with individual rings varying in composition, such as Se4S4 and Se2S6. Selenium disulfide has been use in shampoo as an anti-dandruff agent, an inhibitor in polymer chemistry, a glass dye, and a reducing agent in fireworks.[32]
Selenium trioxide may be synthesized by dehydrating selenic acid, H2SeO4, which is itself produced by the oxidation of selenium dioxide with hydrogen peroxide:[33]
- SeO2 + H2O2 → H2SeO4
Hot, concentrated selenic acid is capable of dissolving gold, forming gold(III) selenate.[34]
Iodides of selenium are not well known. The only stable chloride is Se2Cl2; the corresponding bromide is also known. These species are structurally analogous to the corresponding disulfur dichloride. Selenium dichloride is an important reagent in the preparation of selenium compounds (e.g. the preparation of Se7). It is prepared by treating selenium with SO2Cl2.[35] Selenium reacts with fluorine to form selenium hexafluoride:
- Se8 + 24 F2 → 8 SeF6
In comparison with its sulfur counterpart (sulfur hexafluoride), SeF6 is more reactive and is a toxic pulmonary irritant.[36] Some of the selenium oxyhalides, such as SeOF2 and selenium oxychloride have been used as specialty solvents.[7]
Analogous to the behavior of other chalcogens, selenium forms a dihydride H2Se. It is a strongly odiferous, toxic, and colourless gas. It is more acidic than H2S. In solution it ionizes to HSe-. The selenide dianion Se2- forms a variety of compounds, including the minerals from which selenium is obtained commercially. Illustrative selenides include mercury selenide (HgSe), lead selenide (PbSe), zinc selenide (ZnSe), and copper indium gallium diselenide (Cu(Ga,In)Se2). These materials are semiconductors. With highly electropositive metals, such as aluminium, these selenides are prone to hydrolysis:[7]
- Al2Se3 + 6 H2O → 8 Al2O3 + H2Se
Alkali metal selenides react with selenium to form polyselenides, Sex2-, which exist as chains.
Tetraselenium tetranitride, Se4N4, is an explosive orange compound analogous to S4N4.[7][37][38] It can be synthesized by the reaction of SeCl4 with [((CH3)3Si)2N]2Se.[39]
Selenium reacts with cyanides to yield selenocyanates:[7]
- 8 KCN + Se8 → 8 KSeCN
Selenium, especially in the II oxidation state, forms stable bonds to carbon. Typical compounds include selenols with the formula RSeH (e.g., benzeneselenol), selenides with the formula RSeR (e.g., diphenylselenide), and diselenides, with the formula RSeSeR (e.g., diphenyldiselenide). Selenoxides, with the formula RSe(O)R, and selenyl chlorides, with the formula RSeCl, are useful intermediates in organic chemistry.
The demand for Se was around 2300 tonnes/y in the years 1989–1991.[40]
During the electro winning of manganese an addition of selenium dioxide decreases the power necessary to operate the electrolysis cells. China is the largest consumer of selenium dioxide for this purpose. For every ton of manganese an average of 2 kg selenium oxide is used.[41][42]
The largest commercial use of Se, accounting for about 50% of consumption, is for the production of glass. Se compounds confer a red colour to glass. This colour cancels out the green or yellow tints that arise from iron impurities that are typical for most glass. For this purpose various selenite and selenate salts are added. For other applications, the red colour may be desirable, in which case mixtures of CdSe and CdS are added.[40]
Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses to replace more toxic lead. The regulation of lead in drinking water applications with the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 made a reduction of lead in brass necessary. The new brass is marketed under the name EnviroBrass. [43] Like lead and sulfur, selenium improves the machinability of steel at concentrations of 0,15 %.[44][45] The same improvment is also observed in copper alloys and therefore selenium is also used in machinable copper alloys.[46]
Small amounts of organoselenium compounds are used to modify the vulcanization catalysts used in the production of rubber.
Selenium is a catalyst in some chemical reactions but it is not widely used because of issues with toxicity. In X-ray crystallography, incorporation of one or more Se atoms in place of sulfur helps with MAD and SAD phasing.
The demand for Se by the electronics industry is declining, despite a number of continuing applications.[47] Because of its photovoltaic and photoconductive properties, selenium is used in photocopying[48][49][50][51] , photocells, light meters and solar cells. Its use as a photoconductor in plain-paper copiers once was a leading application but in the 1980s, the photoconductor application declined (although it was still a large end-use) as more and more copiers switched to the use of organic photoconductors. It was once widely used in selenium rectifiers. These uses have mostly been replaced by silicon-based devices or are in the process of being replaced. The most notable exception is in power DC surge protection, where the superior energy capabilities of selenium suppressors make them more desirable than metal oxide varistors.
Copper indium gallium selenide is a material used in the production of solar cells.[52]
Sheets of amorphous selenium convert x-ray images to patterns of charge in xeroradiography and in solid-state, flat-panel x-ray cameras.
Zinc selenide was the first material for blue LEDs but galium nitride is dominating the market now.[53]
Cadmium selenide has recently played an important part in the fabrication of quantum dots.
Selenium is used in the toning of photographic prints, and it is sold as a toner by numerous photographic manufacturers. Its use intensifies and extends the tonal range of black-and-white photographic images and improves the permanence of prints.[54][55][56]
| NFPA 704 |
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| Fire diamond for elemental selenium |
Although it is toxic in large doses, selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals. In plants, it occurs as a bystander mineral, sometimes in toxic proportions in forage (some plants may accumulate selenium as a defense against being eaten by animals, but other plants such as locoweed require selenium, and their growth indicates the presence of selenium in soil).[3] See more on plant nutrition below.
Selenium is a component of the unusual amino acids selenocysteine and selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is a trace element nutrient that functions as cofactor for reduction of antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidases[57] and certain forms of thioredoxin reductase found in animals and some plants (this enzyme occurs in all living organisms, but not all forms of it in plants require selenium).
The glutathione peroxidase family of enzymes (GSH-Px) catalyze certain reactions that remove reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides:
- 2 GSH + H2O2----GSH-Px → GSSG + 2 H2O
Selenium also plays a role in the functioning of the thyroid gland and in every cell that uses thyroid hormone, by participating as a cofactor for the three of the four known types of thyroid hormone deiodinases, which activate and then deactivate various thyroid hormones and their metabolites: the iodothyronine deiodinases are the subfamily of deiodinase enzymes that use selenium as the otherwise rare amino acid selenocysteine. (Only the deiodinase iodotyrosine deiodinase, which works on the last break-down products of thyroid hormone, does not use selenium).[58]
Selenium may inhibit Hashimoto's disease, in which the body's own thyroid cells are attacked as alien. A reduction of 21% on TPO antibodies was reported with the dietary intake of 0.2 mg of selenium.[59]
From about three billion years ago, prokaryotic selenoprotein families drive the evolution of selenocysteine. Selenium is incorporated into several prokaryotic selenoprotein families in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes as selenocysteine,[60] where selenoprotein peroxiredoxins protect bacterial and eukaryotic cells against oxidative damage. Selenoprotein families of GSH-Px and the deiodinases of eukaryotic cells seem to have a bacterial phylogenetic origin. The selenocysteine-containing form occurs in species as diverse as green algae, diatoms, sea urchin, fish and chicken. Selenium enzymes are involved in utilization of the small reducing molecules glutathione and thioredoxin. One family of selenium-containing molecules (the glutathione peroxidases) destroy peroxide and repair damaged peroxidized cell membranes, using glutathione. Another selenium-containing enzyme in some plants and in animals (thioredoxin reductase) generates reduced thioredoxin, a dithiol that serves as an electron source for peroxidases and also the important reducing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase that makes DNA precursors from RNA precursors.[61]
At about 500 Mya, plants and animals began to transfer from the sea to rivers and land, the environmental deficiency of marine mineral antioxidants (as selenium, iodine, etc.) was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life.[62] Trace elements involved in GSH-Px and superoxide dismutase enzymes activities, i.e. selenium, vanadium, magnesium, copper, and zinc, may have been lacking in some terrestrial mineral-deficient areas.[60] Marine organisms retained and sometimes expanded their seleno-proteomes, whereas the seleno-proteomes of some terrestrial organisms were reduced or completely lost. These findings suggest that, with the exception of vertebrates, aquatic life supports selenium utilization, whereas terrestrial habitats lead to reduced use of this trace element.[63] Marine fishes and vertebrate thyroid glands have the highest concentration of selenium and iodine. From about 500 Mya, freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of “new” endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), polyphenols (including flavonoids), tocopherols, etc. A few of these appeared more recently, in the last 50–200 million years, in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants. In fact, the angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the late Jurassic period.
The deiodinase isoenzymes constitute another family of eukaryotic selenoproteins with identified enzyme function. Deiodinases are able to extract electrons from iodides, and iodides from iodothyronines. They are, thus, involved in thyroid-hormone regulation, participating in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H2O2 produced for thyroid-hormone biosynthesis.[64] About 200 Mya, new selenoproteins were developed as mammalian GSH-Px enzymes.[65][66][67][68]
Dietary selenium comes from nuts, cereals, meat, mushrooms, fish, and eggs. Brazil nuts are the richest ordinary dietary source (though this is soil-dependent, since the Brazil nut does not require high levels of the element for its own needs). In descending order of concentration, high levels are also found in kidney, tuna, crab, and lobster.[69][70]
The human body's content of selenium is believed to be in the 13–20 milligram range.[71]
Certain species of plants are considered indicators of high selenium content of the soil, since they require high levels of selenium to thrive. The main selenium indicator plants are Astragalus species (including some locoweeds), prince's plume (Stanleya sp.), woody asters (Xylorhiza sp.), and false goldenweed (Oonopsis sp.)[72]
The substance loosely called selenium sulfide (approximate formula SeS2) is the active ingredient in some anti-dandruff shampoos.[73] The selenium compound kills the scalp fungus Malassezia, which causes shedding of dry skin fragments. The ingredient is also used in body lotions to treat Tinea versicolor due to infection by a different species of Malassezia fungus.[74]
Selenium may be measured in blood, plasma, serum or urine to monitor excessive environmental or occupational exposure, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or to assist in a forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage. Some analytical techniques are capable of distinguishing organic from inorganic forms of the element. Both organic and inorganic forms of selenium are largely converted to monosaccharide conjugates (selenosugars) in the body prior to being eliminated in the urine. Cancer patients receiving daily oral doses of selenothionine may achieve very high plasma and urine selenium concentrations.[75]
Although selenium is an essential trace element, it is toxic if taken in excess. Exceeding the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 400 micrograms per day can lead to selenosis.[76] This 400 microgram (µg) Tolerable Upper Intake Level is based primarily on a 1986 study of five Chinese patients who exhibited overt signs of selenosis and a follow up study on the same five people in 1992.[77] The 1992 study actually found the maximum safe dietary Se intake to be approximately 800 micrograms per day (15 micrograms per kilogram body weight), but suggested 400 micrograms per day to not only avoid toxicity, but also to avoid creating an imbalance of nutrients in the diet and to account for data from other countries.[78] In China, people who ingested corn grown in extremely selenium-rich stony coal (carbonaceous shale) have suffered from selenium toxicity. This coal was shown to have selenium content as high as 9.1%, the highest concentration in coal ever recorded in literature.[79]
Symptoms of selenosis include a garlic odor on the breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss, sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage. Extreme cases of selenosis can result in cirrhosis of the liver, pulmonary edema, and death.[80] Elemental selenium and most metallic selenides have relatively low toxicities because of their low bioavailability. By contrast, selenates and selenites are very toxic, having an oxidant mode of action similar to that of arsenic trioxide. The chronic toxic dose of selenite for humans is about 2400 to 3000 micrograms of selenium per day for a long time.[81] Hydrogen selenide is an extremely toxic, corrosive gas.[82] Selenium also occurs in organic compounds, such as dimethyl selenide, selenomethionine, selenocysteine and methylselenocysteine, all of which have high bioavailability and are toxic in large doses.
On 19 April 2009, 21 polo ponies died shortly before a match in the United States Polo Open. Three days later, a pharmacy released a statement explaining that the horses had received an incorrect dose of one of the ingredients used in a vitamin/mineral supplement compound that had been incorrectly compounded by a compounding pharmacy. Analysis of blood levels of inorganic compounds in the supplement indicated the selenium concentrations were ten to fifteen times higher than normal in the horses' blood samples, and 15 to 20 times higher than normal in their liver samples. It was later confirmed that selenium was the ingredient in question.[83]
Selenium poisoning of water systems may result whenever new agricultural runoff courses through normally dry, undeveloped lands. This process leaches natural soluble selenium compounds (such as selenates) into the water, which may then be concentrated in new "wetlands" as the water evaporates. High selenium levels produced in this fashion have been found to have caused certain congenital disorders in wetland birds.[84]
Relationship between survival of juvenile salmon and concentration of selenium in their tissues after 90 days (Chinook salmon: Hamilton et al. 1990) or 45 days (Atlantic salmon: Poston et al. 1976) exposure to dietary selenium. The 10% lethality level (LC10=1.84 µg/g) was derived by applying the biphasic model of Brain and Cousens (1989) to only the Chinook salmon data. The Chinook salmon data comprise two series of dietary treatments, combined here because the effects on survival are indistinguishable.
In fish and other wildlife, low levels of selenium cause deficiency while high levels cause toxicity. For example, in salmon, the optimal concentration of selenium in the fish tissue (whole body) is about 1 microgram selenium per gram of tissue (dry weight). At levels much below that concentration, young salmon die from selenium deficiency;[85] much above that level they die from toxic excess.[86]
Selenium deficiency is rare in healthy, well-nourished individuals. It can occur in patients with severely compromised intestinal function, those undergoing total parenteral nutrition, and[87] in those of advanced age (over 90). Also, people dependent on food grown from selenium-deficient soil are at risk. Although New Zealand has low levels of selenium in its soil, adverse health effects have not been detected.[88]
Selenium deficiency as defined by low (<60% of normal) selenoenzyme activity levels in brain and endocrine tissues only occurs when a low selenium status is linked with an additional stress, such as high exposures to mercury[89] or as a result of increased oxidant stress due to vitamin E deficiency.[90]
There are interactions between selenium and other nutrients, such as iodine and vitamin E. The interaction is observed in the etiology of many deficiency diseases in animals and pure selenium deficiency is rare. The effect of selenium deficiency on health remains uncertain, particularly in relation to Kashin-Beck disease.[91]
A number of correlative epidemiological studies have implicated selenium deficiency in a number of serious or chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. In addition selenium has been found to a chemopreventive for some types of cance rin some types of rodents. However, in randomized, blinded, controlled prospective trials in humans, selenium supplementation has not succeeded in reducing the incidence of any disease. Nor has a meta analysis of all selenium supplementation studies detected a decrease in overall mortality, although there is a trend in that direction.
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- ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
- ^ a b Ruyle, George. "Poisonous Plants on Arizona Rangelands" (PDF). The University of Arizona. http://cals.arizona.edu/arec/pubs/rmg/1%20rangelandmanagement/2%20poisonousplants93.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ Kotkata M.F. et al. (1992). "Structural studies of glassy and crystalline selenium-sulphur compounds". J. Mater. Sci. 27 (7): 1785–1794. Bibcode 1992JMatS..27.1785K. DOI:10.1007/BF01107205.
- ^ R. Steudel, Chemie der Nichtmetalle, Von Struktur und Bindung zur Anwendung de Gruyter, 2008. ISBN 978-3-11-019448-7
- ^ Masters, Anthony F.. "Allotropes – Group 13, Group 14, Group 15, Group 16". Chemistry Explained. http://www.chemistryexplained.com/A-Ar/Allotropes.html. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
- ^ a b c d e f g h James E. House (2008). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 524. ISBN 0-12-356786-6.
- ^ Video of selenium heating http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDEfR2Nw50s
- ^ "The half-life of 79Se". Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt. 2010-09-23. http://www.ptb.de/en/org/6/nachrichten6/2010/60710_en.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ Jörg, Gerhard; Bühnemann, Rolf; Hollas, Simon; Kivel, Niko; Kossert, Karsten; Van Winckel, Stefaan; Gostomski, Christoph Lierse v. (2010). "Preparation of radiochemically pure 79Se and highly precise determination of its half-life". Applied Radiation and Isotopes 68 (12): 2339–51. DOI:10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.05.006. PMID 20627600.
- ^ a b Audi, Georges; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. Bibcode 2003NuPhA.729....3A. DOI:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
- ^ "Native Selenium". Webminerals. http://www.galleries.com/minerals/elements/selenium/selenium.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
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- ^ Oldfield, James E. (2006). "Selenium: A historical perspective". Selenium. pp. 1. DOI:10.1007/0-387-33827-6_1. ISBN 978-0-387-33826-2.
- ^ Hatfield, D. L.; Gladyshev, V. N. (2002). "How Selenium Has Altered Our Understanding of the Genetic Code". Molecular and Cellular Biology 22 (11): 3565–76. DOI:10.1128/MCB.22.11.3565-3576.2002. PMC 133838. PMID 11997494. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=133838.
- ^ "Public Health Statement: Selenium – Production, Import/Export, Use, and Disposal" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp92-c5.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
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- ^ Hyvärinen, Olli; Lindroos, Leo; Yllö, Erkki (1989). "Recovering selenium from copper refinery slimes". JOM 41 (7): 42. DOI:10.1007/BF03220271.
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- ^ Seppelt, K.; Desmarteau, Darryl D. (1980). "Selenoyl difluoride". Inorganic Syntheses. Inorganic Syntheses 20: 36–38. DOI:10.1002/9780470132517.ch9. ISBN 0-471-07715-1. The report describes the synthesis of selenic acid.
- ^ Lenher, V. (April 1902). "Action of selenic acid on gold". Journal of the American Chemical Society 24 (4): 354–355. DOI:10.1021/ja02018a005. edit
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- ^ Kelly, P.F., Slawin, A.M.Z. and Soriano-Rama, A. (1997). "Use of Se4N4 and Se(NSO)2 in the preparation of palladium adducts of diselenium dinitride, Se2N2; crystal structure of [PPh4]2[Pd2Br6(Se2N2)". Dalton Transactions (4): 559–562. DOI:10.1039/a606311j.
- ^ Jari Siivari; Tristram Chivers; Risto S. Laitinen (1993). "A simple, efficient synthesis of tetraselenium tetranitride". Inorganic Chemistry 32 (8): 1519–1520. DOI:10.1021/ic00060a031. edit
- ^ a b Bernd E. Langner "Selenium and Selenium Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_525.
- ^ George, Micheal W.. "Mineral yearbook 2010: Selenium and Tellurium". United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/selenium/myb1-2010-selen.pdf. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
- ^ Sun, Yan; Tian, Xike; He, Binbin; Yang, Chao; Pi, Zhenbang; Wang, Yanxin; Zhang, Suxin (2011). "Studies of the reduction mechanism of selenium dioxide and its impact on the microstructure of manganese electrodeposit". Electrochimica Acta 56 (24): 8305. DOI:10.1016/j.electacta.2011.06.111.
- ^ Davis, Joseph R (2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. p. 91. ISBN 9780871707260. http://books.google.de/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA91.
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- ^ Gol'Dshtein, Ya. E.; Mushtakova, T. L.; Komissarova, T. A. (1979). "Effect of selenium on the structure and properties of structural steel". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 21 (10): 741. DOI:10.1007/BF00708374.
- ^ Davis, Joseph R (2001). %7C page 278 Copper and Copper Alloys. ISBN 9780871707260. http://books.google.de/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA278 %7C page 278.
- ^ Brown, Jr., Robert D.. "Mineral Commodity Survey 1997: Selenium". United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/selenium/830398.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ Springett, B. E. (1988). "Application of Selenium-Tellurium Photoconductors to the Xerographic Copying and Printing Processes". Phosphorous and Sulfur and the Related Elements 38 (3–4): 341. DOI:10.1080/03086648808079729.
- ^ Williams, Rob (2006). Computer Systems Architecture: A Networking Approach. ISBN 9780321340795. http://books.google.de/books?id=y1BuoXpPX3kC&pg=PA547.
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- ^ Sonnenenergie, Deutsche Gesellschaft für (2008). "Copper indium diselenide (CIS) cell". Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems: A Guide for Installers, Architects and Engineers. p. 43–44. ISBN 9781844074426. http://books.google.de/books?id=fMo3jJZDkpUC&pg=PA43.
- ^ Normile, Dennis (2000-02). "The birth of the Blues". Popular Science. p. 57. http://books.google.de/books?id=D2zyNlMu7kkC&pg=PA57.
- ^ MacLean, Marion E. (1937). "A project for general chemistry students: Color toning of photographic prints". Journal of Chemical Education 14: 31. DOI:10.1021/ed014p31.
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- ^ Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University lpi.oregonstate.edu
- ^ "Selenium". Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/selenium/. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ Mazokopakis, EE; Papadakis, JA; Papadomanolaki, MG; Batistakis, AG; Giannakopoulos, TG; Protopapadakis, EE; Ganotakis, ES (2007). "Effects of 12 months treatment with L-selenomethionine on serum anti-TPO Levels in Patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis". Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association 17 (7): 609–12. DOI:10.1089/thy.2007.0040. PMID 17696828.
- ^ a b Gladyshev VN, Hatfield DL (1999). "Selenocysteine-containing proteins in mammals". Journal of Biomedical Science 6 (3): 151–60. DOI:10.1007/BF02255899. PMID 10343164.
- ^ Stadtman TC (1996). "Selenocysteine". Annual Review of Biochemistry 65: 83–100. DOI:10.1146/annurev.bi.65.070196.000503. PMID 8811175.
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- ^ Venturi S, Venturi M (2007). 11. pp. 1–11. http://www.icb-asbl.com/en/pdf/epimarker/epimarker_3_07.pdf %7C Evolution of Dietary Antioxidant Defences.
- ^ Castellano S, Novoselov SV, Kryukov GV, et al. (2004). "Reconsidering the evolution of eukaryotic selenoproteins: a novel nonmammalian family with scattered phylogenetic distribution". EMBO Reports 5 (1): 71–7. DOI:10.1038/sj.embor.7400036. PMC 1298953. PMID 14710190. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1298953.
- ^ Kryukov GV, Gladyshev VN (2004). "The prokaryotic selenoproteome". EMBO Reports 5 (5): 538–43. DOI:10.1038/sj.embor.7400126. PMC 1299047. PMID 15105824. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1299047.
- ^ Wilting R, Schorling S, Persson BC, Böck A (1997). "Selenoprotein synthesis in archaea: identification of an mRNA element of Methanococcus jannaschii probably directing selenocysteine insertion". Journal of Molecular Biology 266 (4): 637–41. DOI:10.1006/jmbi.1996.0812. PMID 9102456.
- ^ Zhang Y, Fomenko DE, Gladyshev VN (2005). "The microbial selenoproteome of the Sargasso Sea". Genome Biology 6 (4): R37. DOI:10.1186/gb-2005-6-4-r37. PMC 1088965. PMID 15833124. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1088965.
- ^ Barclay, Margaret N. I.; Allan MacPherson, James Dixon (1995). "Selenium content of a range of UK food". Journal of food composition and analysis 8 (4): 307–318. DOI:10.1006/jfca.1995.1025.
- ^ A list of selenium-rich foods can be found on The Office of Dietary Supplements Selenium Fact Sheet.
- ^ The most popular web reference for this is [1].
- ^ Zane Davis, T. (2008). "Selenium in Plants". p. 8. http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/54282000/PPClassPPSlides/3-27-08DavisSelenium.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ "Selenium(IV)_sulfide". Pharmacy Codes. http://pharmacycode.com/Selenium(IV)_sulfide.html. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
- ^ "Selenium sulfide". DermNet NZ. http://dermnetnz.org/treatments/selenium.html. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
- ^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 1416–1420.
- ^ "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Selenium". National Institutes of Health; Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/selenium.asp#h7. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ a report of the Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Leves of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. (August 15, 2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Institute of Medicine. pp. 314–315. ISBN 0-309-06949-1. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9810&page=315.
- ^ Yang, G.; Zhou, R. (1994). "Further Observations on the Human Maximum Safe Dietary Selenium Intake in a Seleniferous Area of China". Journal of trace elements and electrolytes in health and disease 8 (3–4): 159–165. PMID 7599506.
- ^ Yang, Guang-Qi; Xia, Yi-Ming (1995). "Studies on Human Dietary Requirements and Safe Range of Dietary Intakes of Selenium in China and Their Application in the Prevention of Related Endemic Diseases". Biomedical and Environmental Sciences 8 (3): 187–201. PMID 8561918.
- ^ "Public Health Statement: Health Effects" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp92-c3.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ Wilber, CG (1980). "Toxicology of selenium". Clinical Toxicology 17 (2): 171–230. DOI:10.3109/15563658008985076. PMID 6998645.
- ^ Olson, O.E. (1986). "Selenium Toxicity in Animals with Emphasis on Man". International Journal of Toxicology 5: 45. DOI:10.3109/10915818609140736.
- ^ "Polo pony selenium levels up to 20 times higher than normal". http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/news/2009/05/033.shtml. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ Ohlendorf, H. M. (2003). "Ecotoxicology of selenium". Handbook of ecotoxicology. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers. pp. 466–491. ISBN 978-1-56670-546-2. http://books.google.com/?id=qN0I3husm50C&pg=PA477.
- ^ Poston, H. A.; Combs, G. F. ; Leibovitz, L. (1976). "Vitamin E and selenium interrelations in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): gross, histological and biochemical signs". Journal of Nutrition 106: 892–904.
- ^ Hamilton, Steven J.; K. J. Buhl, N. L. Faerber, R. H. Wiedmeyer, and F. A. Bullard (1990). "Toxicity of organic selenium in the diet to chinook salmon". Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 9 (3): 347–358. DOI:10.1002/etc.5620090310.
- ^ Ravaglia et al.; Forti, P; Maioli, F; Bastagli, L; Facchini, A; Mariani, E; Savarino, L; Sassi, S et al. (1 February 2000). "Effect of micronutrient status on natural killer cell immune function in healthy free-living subjects aged >=90 y1". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (2): 590–598. PMID 10648276. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/71/2/590.
- ^ MedSafe Editorial Team. "Selenium". Prescriber Update Articles. New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority. http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/Profs/PUarticles/Sel.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
- ^ Ralston, N.V.C.; Raymond, L.J. (2010). "Dietary selenium's protective effects against methylmercury toxicity". Toxicology 278 (1): 112–123.. DOI:10.1016/j.tox.2010.06.004. PMID 20561558.
- ^ Mann, Jim; Truswell, A. Stewart (2002). Essentials of Human Nutrition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-262756-8.
- ^ Moreno-Reyes, Rodrigo; Mathieu, Jean; Vanderpas, Marleen; Begaux, Françoise; Suetens, Carl; Rivera, Maria T.; Nève, Jean; Perlmutter, Noémi et al. (2003). "Selenium and iodine supplementation of rural Tibetan children affected by Kashin-Beck osteoarthropathy". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (1): 137–144. PMID 12816783. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/78/1/137?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=selenium&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT.
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Chemical elements named after places
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vep:Selen
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