Roger Cotes FRS (10 July 1682 — 5 June 1716) was an English mathematician, known for working closely with Isaac Newton by proofreading the second edition of his famous book, the Principia, before publication. He also invented the quadrature formulas known as Newton–Cotes formulas and first introduced what is known today as Euler's formula. He was the first Plumian Professor at Cambridge University from 1707 until his death.

Early life[link]

Cotes was born in Burbage, Leicestershire. His parents were Robert, the rector of Burbage, and his wife Grace née Farmer. Roger had an elder brother, Anthony (born 1681) and a younger sister, Susanna (born 1683). At first Roger attended Leicester School where his mathematical talent was recognised. His aunt Hannah had married Rev. John Smith, and Smith took on the role of tutor to encourage Roger's talent. The Smiths' son, Robert Smith, would become a close associate of Roger Cotes throughout his life. Cotes later studied at St Paul's School in London and entered Trinity College, Cambridge in 1699.^[4] He graduated BA in 1702 and MA in 1706.^[1]

Astronomy[link]

Roger Cotes's contributions to modern computational methods lie heavily in the fields of astronomy and mathematics. Cotes began his educational career with a focus on astronomy. He became a fellow of Trinity College in 1707, and at age 26 he became the first Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy. On his appointment to professor, he opened a subscription list in an effort to provide an observatory for Trinity. Unfortunately, the observatory still was unfinished when Cotes died, and was demolished in 1797.^[1]

In correspondence with Isaac Newton, Cotes designed a heliostat telescope with a mirror revolving by clockwork.^{[citation needed]} He recomputed the solar and planetary tables of Giovanni Domenico Cassini and John Flamsteed, and he intended to create tables of the moon's motion, based on Newtonian principles.^{[citation needed]} Finally, in 1707 he formed a school of physical sciences at Trinity in partnership with William Whiston.^[1]

[edit] The Principia

From 1709 to 1713, Cotes became heavily involved with the second edition of Newton's Principia, a book that explained Newton's theory of universal gravitation. The first edition of Principia had only a few copies printed and was in need of revision to include Newton's works and principles of lunar and planetary theory.^[1] Newton at first had a casual approach to the revision, since he had all but given up scientific work.^{[citation needed]} However, through the vigorous passion displayed by Cotes, Newton's scientific hunger was once again reignited.^{[citation needed]} The two spent nearly three and half years collaborating on the work, in which they fully deduce, from Newton's laws of motion, the theory of the moon, the equinoxes, and the orbits of comets. Only 750 copies of the second edition were printed.^[1] However, a pirate copy from Amsterdam met all other demand.^{[citation needed]} As reward to Cotes, he was given a share of the profits and 12 copies of his own.^{[citation needed]} Cotes's original contribution to the work was a preface which supported the scientific superiority of Newton's principles over the then popular vortex theory of gravity advocated by René Descartes. Cotes concluded that the Newton's law of gravitation was confirmed by observation of celestial phenomenon that were inconsistent with the vortex phenomena that Cartesian critics alleged.^[1]

Mathematics[link]

Cotes's major original work was in mathematics, especially in the fields of integral calculus, logarithms, and numerical analysis. He published only one scientific paper in his lifetime, entitled Logometrica, in which he successfully constructs the logarithmic spiral.^[5] After his death, many of Cotes's mathematical papers were hastily edited by Robert Smith and published in a book, Harmonia mensurarum.^[1] Cotes's additional works were later published in Thomas Simpson's The Doctrine and Application of Fluxions.^[5] Although Cotes's style was somewhat obscure, his systematic approach to integration and mathematical theory was highly regarded by his peers.^{[citation needed]} Cotes discovered an important theorem on the nth roots of unity, foresaw the method of least squares, and he discovered a method for integrating rational fractions with binomial denominators.^[5] He was also praised for his efforts in numerical methods, especially in interpolation methods and his table construction techniques.^[5] He was regarded as one of the few British mathematicians capable of following the powerful work of Sir Isaac Newton.^{[citation needed]}

Death and assessment[link]

Cotes died from a violent fever in Cambridge in 1716 at the early age of 33. Isaac Newton remarked, "If he had lived we would have known something."^[1]

See also[link]

• Newton–Cotes formulas

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• [Anon.] (1911) "Roger Cotes, Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Cohen, I. B. (1971). Introduction to Newton’s "Principia". Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-46193-2. 
• Edleston, J. (ed.) (1850). Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes. 
• Gowing, R. (2002). Roger Cotes: Natural Philosopher. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52649-3. 
• Koyré, A. (1965). Newtonian Studies. London: Chapman & Hall. pp. 273–82. ISBN 0-412-42300-6. 
• Meli, D. B. (2004) "Cotes, Roger (1682–1716)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 7 September 2007 subscription or UK public library membership required
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Roger Cotes", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Cotes.html . (2005)
• Price, D. J. (1952). "The early observatory instruments of Trinity College, Cambridge". Annals of Science 8: 1–12. DOI:10.1080/00033795200200012. 
• Turnbull, H. W. et al. (1975–6). The Correspondence of Isaac Newton (7 vols ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. vols.5–6. 
• Whitman, A. et al. (eds) (1972). Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica: The Third Edition (1726) with Variant Readings. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 817–26. ISBN 0-521-07960-8. 

External links[link]

• "Harmonia Mensurarum". MathPages. http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath192/kmath192.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-07. - A more complete account of Cotes's involvement with Principia, followed by an even more thorough discussion of his mathematical work.

Jonas Steur (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈjoːnɐs ˈstʏːr]) is a Belgian Trance DJ and producer. He is known under several additional aliases, most notably Estuera, the name under which he released most of his music until 2005 when he began DJing and releasing music under his birth name Jonas Steur.^[1] His music has also been featured several different times on the popular In Search of Sunrise (series).

Discography[link]

Singles[link]

^[2]

Remixes[link]

^[3]

Albums[link]

^[4]:

Jonas Steur's debut album Born for the Night was released on the September 17, 2007.

Tracklist:

• 1. Fall To Pieces (vocals written and performed by Jennifer Rene)
• 2. Nightwalker
• 3. Level Up
• 4. Seven Moons And A Bit
• 5. Pure Bliss (vocals written and performed by Jennifer Rene)
• 6. Rise And Shine
• 7. Born For The Night
• 8. Left In A Daze
• 9. I Know
• 10. La Nuit Noire (feat. Re:Locate)

The album also included a bonus second CD, featuring a mix of some of Jonas' older tunes:

• 1. Tales From The South (Album Version)
• 2. Flow
• 3. City Lights
• 4. Silent Waves
• 5. 7 Clouds
• 6. Palma Solane (feat. Re:Locate)
• 7. Red Shores
• 8. Second Turn
• 9. Castamara

The second album Tales is a 4 part series of mini albums. Part 1 Courage was released on 16 November 2010.^[5] The other 3 parts will be released in 2011.^{[dated info]}

Tales Part 1 tracklist:

• 1. The road goes on
• 2. Resist
• 3. Embrace
• 4. Traverse
• 5. Hazy days

Trivia[link]

• His song "So Deep" was used in the game Dance Dance Revolution specifically for Dance Dance Revolution 6th mix. It is remixed and called "Perfect Sphere Mix" and credited as Silvertear.^[6]

See also[link]

• Black Hole Recordings

References[link]

External links[link]

• Jonas Steur Official Website
• Black Hole Recordings
• Spinnin Records
• Intuition Recordings
• Discogs - Jonas Steur

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012)

Roger Vercel (born Roger Cretin) (8 January 1894 Le Mans – 26 February 1957 Dinan) was a French writer.

Biography[link]

Vercel was fascinated by the sea and marine life. Although he virtually never went to sea, most of his novels featured a maritime setting.

World War I interrupted his studies of letters. Early in the war his poor eyesight left him a stretcher-bearer on the battlefields of northern and eastern France. Because of a shortage of army officers, he returned to Saint-Cyr. He ended the war on the eastern front, and was discharged a year after the Armistice.

He returned to Dinan, where in 1921 he was appointed professor at the College of Letters. He earned a doctorate in letters in 1927, with a thesis entitled: "The images in the work of Corneille". The Académie Française awarded it the Saintour prize of literary history. Dinan extinguished it in 1957.^{[clarification needed]}

His war memories inspired some of his earlier books: Our Father Trajan, Captain Conan, Lena, but the maritime world makes up the heart of his work. Off Eden earned him the Prix Femina from the France-America Committee in 1932. He won the Prix Goncourt in 1934 for Capitaine Conan.

Several of his works were brought to the screen:

• Trailers, 1941 (dir. Jean Gremillion, with Jean Gabin, Michèle Morgan, Madeleine Renaud, Fernand Ledoux)
• Duguesclin, 1949 (dir. Bernard de Latour, with Gisele Casadesus, Louis de Funès Gérard Oury)
• The murky waters, 1949 (dir. Henri Calef, with Jean Vilar, Ginette Leclerc, André Valmy, Mouloudji) is based on the new blades Deaf.
• The great bulwarks, 1954 (dir. Jacques Pinoteau Courcel Nicole Marie Mansard, Jean-Pierre Mocky)
• Capitaine Conan, 1996 (dir. Bertrand Tavernier, Philippe Torreton, Samuel Le Bihan, Bernard Le Coq)

Sources[link]

• Simone Vercel, "Roger Vercel, my father." in L'Humanite, September 19, 1996.
• Erwann Letilleul Roger Vercel, maritime writer, Chasse-tidal No. 142, p. 24-35, April 2001.
• Jacques Georgel, "Roger Vercel" biography. Apogee Publishing, 2006, 189 p.

Works[link]

Studies[link]

• Les images dans l'œuvre de Corneille, thèse pour le doctorat ès-lettres, A. Olivier, 1927.
• Lexique comparé des métaphores dans le théâtre de Corneille et de Racine, thèse complémentaire pour le doctorat ès-lettres, A. Olivier, 1927.
• Un programme d'éducation générale in Disciplines d'action, Vichy, Paris, Commissariat général à l'éducation générale et aux sports, 1942.

Novels[link]

• Notre père Trajan, Albin Michel, 1930.
• En Dérive, Albin Michel, 1931.
• Au Large de l'Eden, Albin Michel, 1932.
• Le maître du rêve, Albin Michel, 1933.
• Capitaine Conan, Albin Michel, 1934.
• Remorques, Albin Michel, 1935. Les Bibliophiles de France, 1957
• Léna, Albin Michel, 1936.
• Sous le pied de l'archange, Albin Michel, 1937.
• Jean Villemeur, Albin Michel, 1939.
• La Hourie, Albin Michel, 1942.
• Aurore boréale, Albin Michel, 1947.
• La caravane de Pâques, Albin Michel, 1948. (illustrations par Frédéric Back)
• La fosse aux vents :
  • I.- Ceux de la Galatée, Albin Michel, 1949.
  • II.- La peau du Diable, Albin Michel, 1950.
  • II.- Atalante, Albin Michel, 1951.
• Visage perdu, Albin Michel, 1953.
• L'Île des revenants, Albin Michel, 1954.
• Été indien, Albin Michel, 1956.

Biographies[link]

• Du Guesclin, Albin Michel, 1932; Éditions Arc-en-ciel, 1944 (illustrations by Frédéric Back); Editions de la Nouvelle France, 1944 (illustration by Jacques Lechantre).
• Le Bienheureux Charles de Blois, Albin Michel, 1942.
• Nos vaillants capitaines, Impr. de Curial-Archereau, 1945.

This article incorporates information from the revision as of 2009-11-15 of the equivalent article on the French Wikipedia.

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (December 2008)

Roger Lumbala is an MP in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, representing the Rally of Congolese Democrats and Nationalists.^[1] He is a former rebel leader who was backed by Uganda during the 1998-2002 Congolese civil war.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

v t e Candidates in the 2006 Democratic Republic of the Congo presidential election Jean-Pierre Bemba Antoine Gizenga Joseph Kabila Nzanga Mobutu Oscar Kashala Azarias Ruberwa Pierre Pay-Pay wa Syakasighe Vincent de Paul Lunda-Bululu Joseph Olenghankoy Mukundji Pierre Anatole Matusila Malungenine Kongo Antipas Mbusa Bernard Emmanuel Kabatu Suila Eugène Diomi Ndongala Banyingela Kasonga Jean Marinaque Alou Bonioma Kalokola Gérard Kamanda wa Kamanda Norbert Likulia Bolongo Roger Lumbala Guy-Patrice Lumumba Christophe Mboso N'Kodia Pwanga Alafuele Mbuyi Kalala Hassan Thassinda Uba Thassinda Florentin Mokonda Bonza Timothée Moleka Nzulama Justine Mpoyo Kasa-Vubu Jonas Mukamba Kadiata Nzemba Paul Joseph Mukungubila Mutombo Osée Muyima Ndjoko Arthur Z'ahidi Ngoma Jacob Niemba Souga Marie-Thérèse Nlandu Mpolo Nene Wivine N'Landu Kavidi Cathérine Marthe Nzuzi wa Mbombo

This article about a politician of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (June 2010)

Paul Kagame
President of Rwanda
Incumbent
Assumed office 24 March 2000
Prime Minister	Bernard Makuza Pierre Habumuremyi
Preceded by	Pasteur Bizimungu
Personal details
Born	(1957-10-23) 23 October 1957 (age 54) Tambwe, Ruanda-Urundi (now Nyarutovu Village, Buhoro Cell, Ruhango Sector, Ruhango District, Southern Province, Rwanda)
Political party	Rwandan Patriotic Front
Spouse(s)	Jeannette Nyiramongi
Religion	Roman Catholicism[1]

Paul Kagame ( /kəˈɡɑːmeɪ/ kə-GAH-may; born 23 October 1957) is the sixth and current President of the Republic of Rwanda. He rose to prominence as the leader of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), whose military victory over the incumbent government in July 1994 effectively ended the Rwandan genocide. Under his leadership, Rwanda has been called Africa’s “biggest success story”^[2] and Kagame has become a public advocate of new models for foreign aid designed to help recipients become self-reliant.^[3] However, President Kagame's rule has been criticized for his domestic policies, which have been described as authoritarian. In addition Kagame has been accused of war crimes during Rwanda's invasion of the DR Congo in 1996, and of having led a subsequent proxy war against the DR Congo by arming the CNDP until January 20, 2009.^[4]

Early life[link]

Kagame was born to a Tutsi family in Tambwe, Rwanda-Urundi in October 1957 to Deogratius and Asteria Rutagambwa.^[5] In November 1959, an increasingly restive Hutu population sparked a revolt, eventually resulting in the overthrow of Mwami Kigeri V Ndahindurwa in 1961.^[6] During the 1959 revolt and its aftermath, more than 150,000 people were killed in the fighting, with the Tutsis suffering the greatest losses. Several thousand fled to neighbouring countries including Burundi and Uganda.^[6] In all, some 20,000 Tutsis were killed. In 1960 Kagame left with his family at the age of two^[7] and moved to Uganda with many other Tutsis. In 1962 they settled in the Gahunge refugee camp, Toro, where Kagame spent the rest of his childhood years.^[8] He attended Ntare Secondary School in Uganda.^[9] During much of this time Kagame was a "motivated student" and bore an early fascination with revolutionaries such as Che Guevara.^[7]

Military service[link]

His military career started when he joined Yoweri Museveni's National Resistance Army (NRA) and spent years fighting as a guerrilla against the government of Milton Obote in what is commonly known in Uganda as the bush war.^[5]

On 27 July 1985, Milton Obote was ousted in a military coup led by Tito Okello. In 1986 the NRA succeeded in overthrowing Okello and the NRA leader Yoweri Museveni became President of Uganda.

Paul Kagame and U.S. President George W. Bush in the White House.

This same year, Kagame as a Tutsi was instrumental in forming, along with his close friend Fred Rwigema, the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), which was composed mainly of expatriate Rwandan Tutsi soldiers that had also fought with the NRA; the RPF was also based in Uganda.^[10]

In 1986, Kagame became the head of military intelligence in the NRA, and was regarded as one of Museveni's closest allies.^[10] He also joined the official Ugandan military.^[10]

During 1990, Kagame went to Fort Leavenworth where the U.S. Army gave him military training. When the RPF started an invasion of Rwanda and his close friend and RPF co-founder Fred Rwigema was killed under disputed circumstances, the U.S. arranged the return of Kagame to Uganda and thence to take the leadership of the invasion, thus signaling that the U.S. was siding with the RPF against the incumbent Rwandan government.^[10] Broadening this connection, the U.S. and U.K. militaries provided further training and active logistical support to the RPF, which it used to take over power in Rwanda after 1994. After coming to power, Kagame arranged for the RPA to receive further counterinsurgency and combat training from U.S. Special Forces, which was put to use in the 1996–1997 Rwandan-backed military campaign to overthrow the government of neighboring Zaire.^[11][12]

Invasions and assassinations[link]

Kagame with US President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama in 2009.

In October 1990, while Kagame was undergoing military training in the U.S., the RPF invaded Rwanda in the struggle for the interests of Rwanda's Tutsi minority group. Only two days into the invasion, Rwigema was murdered, making Kagame the military commander of the RPF.^[10] Despite initial successes, a force of French, Belgian, Rwandan, and Zairean soldiers forced the RPF to retreat. A renewed invasion was attempted in late 1991, but also had limited success.^{[citation needed]}

The invasion increased ethnic tension throughout the region, including in neighbouring Burundi where similar tensions existed. Peace talks between the RPF and the Rwandan government resulted in the Arusha accords, including political participation of the RPF in Rwanda. Despite the agreement, ethnic tensions still flared dangerously.^{[citation needed]}

On 6 April 1994, a plane carrying both the Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down by a surface-to-air missile as it approached the airport at Kanombe. All on board were killed. The deaths immediately sparked the Rwandan Genocide and an estimated 800,000 to 1,000,000 Rwandans were killed. The outbreak of genocide ended what vestiges remained of the cease fire. The RPF, under the leadership of Kagame, proceeded to take control of the whole country. Kigali was captured 4 July 1994, bringing the collapse of the government of Jean Kambanda.^[13]

French indictment[link]

Because three French citizens, crew members of the aircraft, died during the crash, an investigation was carried out by French judge Jean-Louis Bruguière, who controversially concluded that the shooting of the plane was ordered by Kagame. In November 2006, Judge Bruguière signed international indictments against nine of President Kagame's senior aides, and accused Kagame of ordering the assassination of the two African presidents. Kagame could not be indicted under French law, because as a head-of-state he had immunity from prosecution. The indictments have not produced any arrests, due to non-cooperation from the Rwandan government, which accused the judge of partiality. The Kagame government countered that the indictment was based on declarations by fugitives and disgruntled former lower-rank RPF members who testified that the RPF was the only organization with the type of missiles that were used in the assassination. It also pointed out that, at the time of the shooting of the plane, the French military was in control of Kigali Airport;^[14] however that point is irrelevant because the plane was shot down on approach to the airport and not from the zone controlled by French forces. The former chief prosecutor for Yugoslavia and Rwanda, Judge Richard Goldstone, argued in the interview that political motivations were at play in the indictment, though this did not negate the potential veracity of the accusations by Judge Bruguière. Judge Goldstone stated that: "Well I don't think that case has been made at all. It's a very political judgement and I don't believe that it's borne out by the evidence. Certainly the witnesses who spoke to Bruguiere allege that those were statements made by President Kagame himself. He is a type of guy that knows how to play with people's emotions. Whether he did or not obviously is a matter in dispute, in hot dispute, but the political judgment it seems to me is another matter."^[15]

The accusations against Kagame were corroborated by several witnesses, including former intelligence RPF members, the most publicly known being Commando Lieutenant Abdul Ruzibiza.^[16] Ruzibiza published a book (Rwanda: L'histoire secrete) and released testimony pertaining to Kagame and the RPF's involvement in the plane downing and massacres;^{[better source needed][17]} however, Ruzibiza subsequently retracted part of his testimony, especially as pertains to Kagame senior aide Rose Kabuye after she was arrested in Germany and extradited to France.^[18] The Association des Avocats de la Defence released a statement backing Judge Bruguière's allegations.^[19][20] Paul Rusesabagina, a Rwandan of mixed Hutu and Tutsi origin, whose role in saving 1,268 civilians was the basis of the Academy Award nominated film Hotel Rwanda (2004), has supported the allegation that Kagame and the RPF were behind the plane downing, and stated that:^[21]

It defies logic why the UN Security Council has never mandated an investigation of this airplane missile attack to establish who was responsible, especially since everyone agrees it was the one incident that touched off the mass killings commonly referred to as the “Rwandan genocide of 1994”.

In a political countereffort, Kagame broke diplomatic relations with France in November 2006 and ordered the formation of a commission of loyal Rwandans that was officially "charged with assembling proof of the involvement of France in the genocide".^[22] The political character of that investigation was further averred when the commission issued its report solely to Kagame in November 2007 and its head, Jean de Dieu Mucyo, stated that the commission would now "wait for President Kagame to declare whether the inquiry was valid."^[22]

In a 2007, interview with BBC, President Kagame said he would co-operate with an impartial inquiry. The BBC concluded that "Whether any judge would want to take on such a task is quite another matter."^[15]

As of 2009, a report commissioned by the Rwandan government concluded the RPF and Kagame were not responsible for the crash of the president's plane. ^[23]

In October 2011 Dr Théogène Rudasingwa, former Secretary General of the RPF stated in a public "confession" that Kagame had personally ordered the assassination and that this remains an "open secret" in RPF veteran circles.

Spanish indictment[link]

In February 2008, Fernando Andreu, a Spanish judge, indicted 40 current or former Rwandan military officers for several counts of genocide and human rights abuses during the Rwandan Genocide.

The judge issued international arrest warrants against the 40, including Gen. James Kabarebe, whom the judge believed to be the chief of staff of Rwanda's military; Gen. Kayumba Nyamwasa, Rwanda's ex-ambassador to India; and Lt. Col. Rugumya Gacinya, military attaché at Rwanda's embassy in Washington.

Evidence was presented of crimes allegedly perpetrated by the RPA/RPF in Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo in the period 1990–2000, primarily. This revealed that the RPA/RPF’s hierarchical chain of command headed by Kagame, is responsible for three major and closely interrelated blocks of crime:

1. crimes perpetrated against 9 Spanish victims – missionaries and aid workers - observers of the killings of Hutu inhabitants in both countries
2. crimes against Rwandans and Congolese, against various specific leaders, or systematically carried out as mass murders of civilians
3. crimes of war pillage - the systematic, large-scale plundering of natural resources, especially strategically valuable minerals.^[24][25]

First and Second Congo Wars[link]

This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2007)

Kagame was part of the cabinet of President Pasteur Bizimungu (who took the office in the aftermath of the genocide) and was made Vice President of Rwanda and Defense Minister. Bizimungu was also a member of the RPF, and as its military leader, Kagame was widely viewed as the power behind a figurehead, and eventually became President in March 2000.^{[citation needed]}

According to the United Nations Mapping Report, Rwanda attacked Zaïre, masking its invasion with proxy militias. It did so to wipe out Hutu militants and cause a mass return of refugees, and committed acts allegedly tantamount to genocide from July 1996. Tutsi/Banyamulenge armed units, who had left Zaïre for military training with the Rwandan Patriotic Army, along with RPA soldiers, began their operations to infiltrate the Congolese province of South Kivu via Burundi and to destabilize North Kivu via Uganda. The first serious clashes between the FAZ and these infiltrés took place on 31 August 1996 near Uvira in the province of South Kivu. On 18 October, the conflict took on a new turn when an armed movement, the AFDL (Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo), was officially formed in Kigali, asserting its intention to topple Mobutu Sese Seko. Under the cover the AFDL, whose own troops, weapons, and logistics were supplied by Rwanda, soldiers from the RPA, the UPDF (Uganda People’s Defense Force) and the FAB (Forces Armées Burundaises) entered Zaïre en masse and set about capturing the provinces of North and South Kivu and the Ituri District. During this lightning offensive, units of the AFDL, RPA and FAB attacked and destroyed all the Rwandan and Burundian Hutu refugee camps set up around the towns of Uvira, Bukavu, and Goma. Several hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees returned to Rwanda, but hundreds of thousands of others, like the ex-FAR/Interahamwe, fled towards the territories of Walikale (North Kivu) and Shabunda (South Kivu). For several months, they were pursued by AFDL/RPA soldiers, who are alleged to have gone about systematically destroying the makeshift refugee camps and persecuting anyone who came to their aid.”^[26]

In 2001, another United Nations report, on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, specifically pointed to the responsibility and profiteering of Kagame and his associates in the illegal exploitation of natural resources that was facilitated by these exactions, and may have motivated them:

• "On the Rwandan side, most companies with important activities related to the natural resources of the Democratic Republic of the Congo are owned either by the Government or by individuals very close to the inner circle of President Kagame. Rwanda Metals, for example, is a company involved in coltan dealing. It purchases coltan and exports it out of the continent. The Panel has strong indications that RPF controls Rwanda Metals. In mid-January 2001, some very reliable sources met with the senior management of Rwanda Metals in Kigali. During these discussions, the Director told them that Rwanda Metals was a private company with no relation to the army. He further explained that he was expecting key partners that very morning for discussions. As discussions continued, the so-called partners arrived as planned; however, they were in Rwandan army uniforms and were top officers. This incident confirms accounts from various sources indicating that Rwanda Metals is controlled by RPF. Meanwhile there are also indications that RPA is a shareholder of Grands Lacs Metals, a company also dealing in coltan."^[27]
• "[Kagame']s position in the State apparatus with regard to the exploitation of the natural resources of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the continuation of the war has evolved, yet his role has remained pivotal. This role can be situated on three levels: his relations with the Rwandan business community operating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, control over the army, and the structures involved in the illegal activities."^[27]
• As a result, the UN report concluded that: "Presidents Kagame and Museveni are on the verge of becoming the godfathers of the illegal exploitation of natural resources and the continuation of the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. They have indirectly given criminal cartels a unique opportunity to organize and operate in this fragile and sensitive region."^[27]

Presidency[link]

Kagame (right) with left-to-right Joseph Kabila, Thabo Mbeki, and George W. Bush

Paul Kagame became President of Rwanda in March 2000,^[28] after his predecessor, Bizimungu, resigned. Three and a half years later, on 25 August 2003, he won a landslide victory in the first national elections since his government took power in 1994 winning 95.5% of the votes.^[28]

Kagame is highly critical of the United Nations and its role in the 1994 genocide. In March 2004, his public criticism of France for its role in the genocide and its lack of preventative actions caused a diplomatic row.^[29] In November 2006, Rwanda severed all diplomatic ties with France and ordered all its diplomatic staff out of Rwanda within 24 hours following Judge Bruguière issuing warrants accusing nine high-ranking Rwandans of plotting the downing of President Juvénal Habyarimana's airplane in 1994 and also accusing Kagame of having personally ordered the assassination.^[29]

As president, Kagame has also been critical of the West's lack of development aid in Africa. Kagame believes that Western countries keep African products out of the world marketplace. In contrast, he has praised China, saying in a 2009 interview that "the Chinese bring what Africa needs: investment and money for governments and companies."^[30]

Human rights[link]

In June 2006, the International Federation of Human Rights and Human Rights Watch described what they called "serious violations of international humanitarian law committed by the Rwanda Patriotic Army".^[31]

Kagame at the Tribeca Film Festival premiere of Earth Made of Glass, a documentary he appeared in about the Rwandan genocide.

According to The Economist, Kagame "allows less political space and press freedom at home than Robert Mugabe does in Zimbabwe", and "[a]nyone who poses the slightest political threat to the regime is dealt with ruthlessly".^[32] In spite of intimidation against opposition journalists, publications - both domestic and foreign - fiercely critical of Kagame are often sold freely in Kigali. Adam Hochschild, in a New York Times book review of Jason Stearns' book "Dancing in the Glory of Monsters," wrote, "[h]ow this media-savvy autocrat has managed to convince so many American journalists, diplomats, and political leaders that he is a great statesman is worth a book in itself."^[33]

The United States government in 2006 described the human rights record of the Kagame government as "mediocre", citing the "disappearances" of political dissidents, as well as arbitrary arrests and acts of violence, torture and murders committed by police. US authorities listed human rights problems including the existence of political prisoners and limited freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and freedom of religion.^[34]

Reporters Without Borders listed Rwanda in 147th place out of 169 for freedom of the press in 2007,^[35] and reported that "Rwandan journalists suffer permanent hostility from their government and surveillance by the security services". It cited cases of journalists being threatened, harassed and arrested for criticising the government. According to Reporters Without Borders, "President Paul Kagame and his government have never accepted that the press should be guaranteed genuine freedom."^[36] In 2010, the BBC reported that a Rwandan website, Umuvugizi (Kinyarwanda for 'the Spokesperson'), was shut down by the government.^[37] In 2011, Kagame took issue with a British journalist on Twitter after the journalist's tweets asserted that Kagame is "despotic."^[38]

Honors and accolades[link]

This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (September 2007)

• Kagame was in March 2003 awarded the 2003 Global Leadership Award by the Young Presidents' Organization (YPO). He received the award in recognition of his "commitment and tireless work to address crises, to foster understanding, unity, and peace to benefit all people." YPO regard his role in reconciling the Tutsi and the Hutu differences in Rwanda and in developing a peaceful solution to the conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo as a benchmark of great leadership, uncommon inspiration and remarkable achievement.

• In April 2005, Kagame was awarded an Honorary Degree of Doctor Laws by the University of the Pacific in the United States.
• In September 2005, Kagame was awarded the Andrew Young Medal for Capitalism and Social Progress by Georgia State University in the United States.
• In September 2005, Kagame was awarded the African National Achievement Award by the Africa America Institute in the USA.
• In April 2006, Kagame was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Oklahoma Christian University in the USA.
• In May 2006, Kagame was given the 2006 ICT Africa Award, an award that is designed to recognize and reward organizations and individuals that have demonstrated excellence in promoting the use of ICTs for the overall development of the African continent.
• In September 2006, Rwanda was listed as a Top-10 reformer on the Ease of doing business index by the World Bank.
• July 2007, Kagame won the Best Head Of State in Africa in Support of ICT Award. Kagame won the same award in May 2006, in an event that took place in Kigal.
• In August 2007, Kagame was given the Hands Off Cain Award for his role in ending the death penalty in his country.
• In November 2007, Kagame was awarded an Honorary Degree of Doctor in Law by the University of Glasgow in Scotland.
• In December 2007, Kagame was given the African Gender Award in Dakar, Senegal for his role in promoting gender equality in Rwanda.
• March 2009, Kagame was awarded with “The Distinction of the Grand Cordon in the Most Venerable Order of the Knighthood of Pioneers” by Liberia’s President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf.The highest honour in Liberian was given to Kagame in recognition of his exemplary leadership and exceptional contribution to the promotion of women’s rights.
• In June 2009, Kagame was awarded the Children's Champion Award by the US Fund for UNICEF for Promoting Children's Rights
• In September 2009, Kagame was awarded the International Peace Medal from Saddleback Church for his support and role in the P.E.A.C.E. plan.
• In September 2009, Kagame honoured with the Clinton Global Citizen Award in recognition of his leadership in public service that has improved the lives of people of Rwanda.
• November 2009, Kagame was presented with the ‘Most Innovative People Award for Economic Innovation’ at the Lebanon2020 Summit.
• May 2010, Kagame was awarded 'Lifetime Leadership Award for Development and Equality' by Rwandan Women in recognition of his efforts in developing the nation and promoting equality amongst Rwandans.
• May 2010, Kagame was awarded the 2010 Rwanda Convention Association (RCA) Award of Excellence in recognition of his role in steering Rwanda towards a knowledge-based economy and promotion of the private sector.
• On 5 June 2010, Kagame was awarded the prestigious 'Energy Globe Award' on the occasion of World Environment Day celebrated in Kinigi, Rwanda.
• On 5 July 2010, Rwanda International Network Association (RINA) awarded Kagame for his continuous efforts in the promotion of Education.
• On 27 September 2010, British Magazine New Statesman included Paul Kagame in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010" on 49th place.^[39]
• On 19 November 2010, Kagame was presented the “Grand Croix – Ordre de merit du Benin” the country’s highest national award.

The decoration is awarded exclusively to personalities of the rank of Head of State in recognition of outstanding achievement or to express esteem.

• 1 June 2011: President Kagame was awarded the Chello Foundation Humanitarian Award 2011 for his “outstanding leadership of the Republic of Rwanda since 1994”
• 1 September 2011: THE International Olympic Committee (IOC) awarded President Paul Kagame with the 2010 IOC award for 'Inspiring Young People' around the world
• On 7 November 2011, AERG (Association des Etudiants Rescapes du Genocide) awarded Kagame "... in recognition of his efforts and courage to stop the Genocide as he led the Rwanda Patriotic Army,", at the cerebration of AERG 15th Anniversary

See also[link]

• Military of Rwanda
• History of Rwanda
• Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD-IV), 2008.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Paul Kagame

• Official website
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Paul Kagame on Charlie Rose
• Paul Kagame at the Internet Movie Database
• Works by or about Paul Kagame in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Paul Kagame collected news and commentary at The New York Times

v t e Presidents of Rwanda Dominique Mbonyumutwa Grégoire Kayibanda Juvénal Habyarimana Théodore Sindikubwabo (interim) Pasteur Bizimungu Paul Kagame