It has been suggested that Two-Spirit Identity Theory be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2009.

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Third gender. (Discuss) Proposed since April 2012.

Sexual orientation
Orientations
Asexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual
Gender-based alternative concepts
Androphilia and gynephilia Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Intersexuality Third gender Two-Spirit
Research
Biology Demographics Environment Kinsey scale Klein Grid Neuroscience Non-heterosexual Psychology Queer studies Sexology Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine Non-human animals Homosexual behavior in animals (List)
Category
v t e

Two-Spirit People (also Two Spirit or Twospirit), is an umbrella term sometimes used for what was formerly known as berdaches^{[pronunciation?]}, i.e. Indigenous North Americans who fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native Americans and Canadian First Nations communities.

Third gender roles historically embodied by Two-Spirit people include performing work and wearing clothing associated with both men and women. The presence of male two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples."^[1] Male and female two-spirits have been "documented in over 130 tribes, in every region of North America, among every type of native culture."^[2]

Terminology[link]

Before the late twentieth century, the term berdache was widely used by anthropologists as a generic term to indicate "two-spirit" individuals; however, this term has become considered increasingly outdated and inappropriate. (Based on the French bardache implying a male prostitute or catamite, the word originates in Arabic bardaj: البَرْدَجُ" meaning "captive, captured"^{[3][4][5][6][7]}.)

Use of the berdache term has widely been replaced with Two-Spirit, which itself gained widespread popularity in 1990 during the third annual intertribal Native American/First Nations gay and lesbian conference in Winnipeg. Two-Spirit is a term chosen to distinctly express Native/First Nations gender identity and gender variance, in addition to replacing the otherwise imposed terms of berdache and gay.^[8][9][10]

"Two-spirited" or "two-spirit" usually indicates a person whose body simultaneously manifests both a masculine and a feminine spirit. The term can also be used more abstractly, to indicate presence of two contrasting human spirits (such as Warrior and Clan Mother) or two contrasting animal spirits (which, depending on the culture, might be Eagle and Coyote). However, these uses, while descriptive of some aboriginal cultural practices and beliefs, depart somewhat from the 1990 purposes of promoting the term.^{[citation needed]}

There are many indigenous terms for Two-Spirit individuals in the various Native American languages — including Lakota: wíŋkte, Navajo: nádleehé,^[11] and Mohave: hwame.^[12]

Definition and historic societal role[link]

These individuals were sometimes viewed in certain tribes as having two spirits occupying one body. Their dress is usually a mixture of traditionally male and traditionally female articles. According to Sabine Lang they have distinct gender and social roles in their tribes.^[13] In some tribes, male-bodied two-spirits held specific active roles which, varying by tribe, may include:

Detail of Dance to the Berdashe, painted by George Catlin

• healers or medicine persons
• conveyors of oral traditions and songs (Yuki)
• foretellers of the future (Winnebago, Oglala Lakota)
• conferrers of lucky names on children or adults (Oglala Lakota, Tohono O'odham)
• nurses during war expeditions
• potters (Zuni, Navajo, Tohono O'odham)
• matchmakers (Cheyenne, Omaha, Oglala Lakota)
• makers of feather regalia for dances (Maidu)
• special role players in the Sun Dance (Crow, Hidatsa, Oglala Lakota)

Some feel the two spirit identity may be explained as a “form of social failure, women-men are seen as individuals who are not in a position to adapt themselves to the masculine role prescribed by their culture” (Lang, 28). Lang goes on to suggest that two-spirit people lost masculine power socially, so they took on female social roles to climb back up the social ladder within the tribe. Others feel that the two spirit identity is very natural within certain individuals.^{[citation needed]}

Cross dressing of two-spirit people was not always an indicator of cross acting (taking on other gender roles and social status within the tribe). Lang explains “the mere fact that a male wears women's clothing does not say something about his role behavior, his gender status, or even his choice of partner...” (62). Often within tribes, a child’s gender was decided by depending on their inclination toward either masculine or feminine activities, or their intersex status. Around puberty clothing choices were made to physically display their gender choice.^{[citation needed]}

Two-spirit people, specifically male-bodied (biologically male, gender female), could go to war and have access to male activities such as sweat lodges.^[14] However, they also took on female roles such as cooking and other domestic responsibilities. Today’s societal standards look down upon feminine males, and this perception of that identity has trickled into Native society.

Two-spirits might have relationships with people of either sex.^[15] Female-bodied two-spirits usually had sexual relations or marriages with only females.^[16] In the Lakota tribe, two-spirits commonly married widowers; a male-bodied two-spirit could perform the function of parenting the children of her husband's late wife without any risk of bearing new children to whom she might give priority.^[17]

Partners of two-spirits did not receive any special recognition, although some believed that after having sexual relations with a two-spirit they would obtain magical abilities, be given obscene nicknames by the two-spirited person which they believed held "good luck," or in the case of male partners, receive a boost to their masculinity. Relationships between two "two-spirited" individuals is absent in the literature (with the sole exception of the Tewa tribe).^[18] As male-bodied two-spirits regarded each other as "sisters", it is speculated that it may have been seen as incestuous to have a relationship with another two-spirit.^[19]

It is known that in certain tribes a relationship between a two-spirit and non-two-spirit was seen for the most part as neither heterosexual nor homosexual (in modern day terms) but more "hetero-gender," Europeans however saw them as being homosexual. Partners of two-spirits did not experience themselves as "homosexual," and moreover drew a sharp conceptual line between themselves and two-spirits.^[20]

Although two-spirits were both respected and feared in many tribes, the two-spirit was not beyond reproach or even being killed for bad deeds. In the Mohave tribe, for instance, they frequently became medicine persons and were likely to be suspected of witchcraft in cases of failed harvest or of death. They were, like any other medicine person, frequently killed over these suspicions (such as the female-bodied two-spirit named Sahaykwisā).^[21] Another instance in the late 1840s was of a Crow male-bodied two-spirit who was caught, possibly raiding horses, by the Lakota and was killed.^[22]

According to certain reports there had never been an alternative gender among the Comanche.^[23] This is true of some Apache bands as well, except for the Lipan, Chiricahua, Mescalero, and southern Dilzhe'e.^[24][25] One tribe in particular, the Eyak, has a single report from 1938 that they did not have an alternative gender and they held such individuals in low esteem, although whether this sentiment is the result of acculturation or not is unknown.^[26][27]

It has been claimed that the Iroquois did not either,^[23] although there is a single report from Bacqueville de la Potherie in his book published in 1722, Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale, that indicates that an alternative gender existed among them (vol. 3, pg. 41).^[28] Many, if not all, tribes have been influenced by European homophobia/transphobia.^{[29][30][31][32][33][34]}

It has been claimed that the Aztecs and Incas had laws against such individuals,^[35][36][37] though there are some authors who feel that this was exaggerated or the result of acculturation, because all of the documents indicating this are post-conquest and any that existed before had been destroyed by the Spanish.^[33][38] The belief that these laws existed, at least for the Aztecs, comes from the Florentine Codex. According to Dr Nancy Fitch, Professor of History at California State University, Fullerton,

There is evidence that indigenous peoples authored many codices, but the Spaniards destroyed most of them in their attempt to eradicate ancient beliefs. ... The Florentine Codex is unquestionably a troubling primary source. Natives writing in Nahuatl under the supervision of the Spanish Fray Bernardino de Sahagún apparently produced the manuscript in the 1500s. The facts of its production raise serious questions about whether the manuscript represents the vision of the vanquished or of the colonizers ... colonization of the natives’ minds loomed large in the Spanish project ... To make matters worse, while it appears that the original manuscript was completed in Nahuatl some time around 1555, no evidence of it remains. Authorities in New Spain confiscated his manuscripts in 1575, and at various times, the Spanish monarchy ordered him to stop his work. The earliest known version of the manuscript is, thus, Sahagún’s summary of it written in Spanish. In 1585, he published a revised version of the codex, which, he argued, corrected some errors and integrated some things ignored in his earlier summary. Sahagún’s revised version is the manuscript commonly known as the Florentine Codex.^[39]

— Nancy Fitch, The Conquest of Mexico Annotated Bibliography

Self-identified Two-Spirits[link]

• Alec Butler^[40]
• Chrystos^[41]

See also[link]

	Indigenous peoples of North America portal
	Transgender portal

• Gender roles in First Nations and Native American tribes
• Two-Spirit Identity Theory

• The red road
• List of transgender-related topics
• Hijra (South Asia)
• Anima and animus
• Cogender

References[link]

Sources and further reading[link]

• Cameron, Michelle. (2005). Two-spirited Aboriginal people: Continuing cultural appropriation by non-Aboriginal society. Canadian Women Studies, 24 (2/3), 123–127.
• Conley, Craig. Oracle of the twofold deities.
• Hawkins, Philip Colin. (2012). New World Sodom: Biblical Tales of Conquest and Acculturation. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 15. http://ejhs.org/volume15/NewWorld.html
• Jacobs, Sue-Ellen; Wesley Thomas, and Sabine Lang (Eds.). (1997). Two-spirit people: Native American gender identity, sexuality, and spirituality. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02344-7, ISBN 0-252-06645-6.
• Lang, Sabine. (1998). Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74700-4, ISBN 0-292-74701-2.
• Medicine, Beatrice. (1997). Changing Native American roles in an urban context and changing Native American sex roles in an urban context. In S.-E. Jacobs, W. Thomas, & S. Lang (Eds.) (pp. 145–148).
• Roscoe, Will. (1991). The Zuni man-woman. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1253-5.
• Roscoe, Will. (1998). Changing ones: Third and fourth genders in native North America. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17539-6.
• Roscoe, Will; & Gay American Indians. (1988). Living the spirit: A gay American Indian anthology. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-01899-1.
• Schaeffer, Claude E. (1965). The Kutenai female berdache. Ethnohistory, 12 (3), 193–236.
• Schultz, James W. (1916). Blackfeet tales of Glacier National Park. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
• Schultz, James W. (1919). Running Eagle, the warrior girl. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Spanbauer, Tom. (1991). The man who fell in love with the moon: A novel. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-468-3.
• Trexler, Richard C. (1995). Sex and conquest: Gendered violence, political order, and the European conquest of the Americas. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3224-3.
• Williams, Walter L. (1986). The spirit and the flesh: Sexual diversity in American Indian cultures. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-4602-7.
• Williams, Walter L. & Toby Johnson. (2006) Two Spirits: A Story of Life With the Navajo. Maple Shade, NJ: Lethe Press. ISBN 1-59021-060-3
• Qwo-Li Driskill, Chris Finley, Brian Joseph Gilley, and Scott Lauria Morgensen, Eds. (2011) Queer Indigenous Studies: Critical Interventions in Theory, Politics, and Literature. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Wolf, Rope. Two-spirit: Belonging (Film)

External links[link]

Look up two-spirit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Organizations and meetings[link]

• International Two-Spirit Gathering
• Two-spirited people of the First nations, based in Toronto
• NativeOUT, based in Phoenix
• Two-Spirit Society of Denver
• Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirits, based in San Francisco
• NorthEast Two-Spirit Society, based in New York City

Resources and readings[link]

• Momentum Mounts to Again Embrace Two-Spirits
• Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories by Beatrice Medicine
• Berdache on glbtq.com
• Indigenous Literature with a Queer/LGBT/Two-Spirit Sensibility
• The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture by Walter L. Williams
• Two Spirits: A Story of Life With the Navajo by Walter L. Williams & Toby Johnson
• The Two-Spirit Tradition, collection of articles at Androgyne Online
• The Two-Spirit Tradition, article at Androphile Project
• In Search of "Berdache": Multiple Genders and Other Myths
• Berdache Origin Myth of the Winnebago
• Beyond Beads and Feathers on YouTube
• Two Spirits, documentary about Fred Martinez, a nádleehí, who was murdered at age 16

v t e Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) topics   Academic fields Discourse LGBT topics in education Gender studies Lavender linguistics Lesbian feminism LGBT literature LGBT/Queer studies Queer theory Transfeminism   Community Culture Anthems Bars Bisexual community Coming out Community center Drag king Drag queen Gay friendly Icons Lesbian utopia Literature Music Neighborhoods Organizations Periodicals Pride Pride parade Religious groups Rodeos Same-sex relationships Slang List of slang Slogans Symbols Tourism Category:LGBT culture   Gender identities Sexual identities Gender identities Male Female Androgyne Bigender Boi Cisgender Genderqueer Girlfag and guydyke Intersex Pangender Transgender Womyn Third sex / Third gender Akava'ine Eunuch Fa'afafine Fakaleiti Femminiello Hijra Kathoey Khanith Mahu Mukhannathun Muxe Bissu Two-Spirit Hermaphrodite Sexual orientation identities Sexual orientations Asexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay Pansexual Polyamorous Banjee Gay Lesbian Queer Same gender loving Non-heterosexual Object sexuality Questioning Related Gender roles Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures   History LGBT history History of lesbianism LGBT History Timeline Social movements History of Christianity and homosexuality History of same-sex unions Pederasty Category:LGBT history Pre-modern era Adelphopoiesis Homosexuality in ancient Greece Homosexuality in ancient Rome Homosexuality in ancient Egypt Homosexuality in ancient Peru Homosexuality in medieval Europe 16th to 19th century Mollies Urnings 20th century Gay Liberation Homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust Inversion Sea queens Stonewall riots Festival of Light action White Night riots Queer theory 21st century Same-sex marriage Post-Queer Theory   Rights Legal issues LGBT rights by country or territory Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania List of LGBT rights articles by region LGBT rights topics Adoption Civil unions and partnerships Hate crime laws Legal aspects of transsexualism Military service Parenting Same-sex marriage (Status Timeline) Socialism Sodomy laws United Nations/Yogyakarta Principles LGBT rights movements Gay Liberation LGBT rights groups LGBT rights activists   Sexual orientations – Medicine, science and sexology Biology Birth order Demographics Environment Heterosexual–homosexual continuum Homosexuality and psychology Kinsey scale Klein Grid Mental roots Neuroscience Prenatal hormones Sexual orientation change efforts Sexual orientation identity Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine   Social attitudes Prejudice Violence Social attitudes Anti-LGBT slogans Heteronormativity Gay panic LGBT rights opposition LGBT stereotypes Religion and homosexuality Transgenderism and religion Prejudice & Discrimination AIDS stigma Biphobia Heterosexism Homophobia Internalized homophobia Lesbophobia Riddle scale Transphobia Violence against LGBT people Corrective rape Gay bashing History of violence in the UK History of violence in the US Significant acts of violence against LGBT people Trans-bashing Unlawfully killed transgender people LGBT suicides Category:LGBT LGBT portal

Southeastern turtleshell shackles, c. 1920, Oklahoma History Center

The Stomp Dance (Caddo: Kaki?tihánnakah^[1]) is performed by various Eastern Woodland tribes and Native American communities, including the Muscogee, Yuchi, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Delaware, Miami, Caddo, Ottawa, Peoria, Shawnee, Seminole,^[2] Natchez, ^[3] and Seneca-Cayuga tribes. Stomp Dance communities are active in North Carolina, Oklahoma, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida.

Structure and function of a Stomp Dance Society[link]

The Stomp Dance is a ceremony that contains both religious and social meaning. To the Muscogee Creeks, Cherokees, and other Southeastern Indians the Stomp Dance is affiliated with the Green Corn Ceremony.

The term "Stomp Dance" is an English term, which refers to the "shuffle and stomp" movements of the dance. In the native Muskogee language the dance is called Opvnkv Haco, which can mean "drunken," "crazy," or "inspirited" dance.^[4] This usually refers to the exciting, yet meditative effect the dance and the medicine have on the participants. In the native Shawnee language, the dance is called Nikanikawe which refers to a dance involving friends or nikane. It is also called the Leading Dance by many Shawnees, but most simply call it the "Stomp Dance."

Among Muscogee Creeks and Four Mothers Society members, the Stomp Dance Grounds contain an elevated square platform with the flat edges of the square facing the cardinal directions. Arbors are constructed upon the flat edges of the square in which the men sit facing one of the four directions. This is formally referred to as the Square Ground, which is encircled by a ring-mound of earth. In the center of this is the ceremonial fire, which is referred to by many names including "Mother" fire. Ceremonially, this fire is the focus of the songs and prayers of the people and is considered to be a living sacred being.

Outside of the circle of earth, surrounding the Square Ground are the community's clan-houses. These houses are casually referred to as 'camps' and depending on the traditional level and financial situation of the community may be relatively nice cottages, shanties or in between. Prior to the dance dinner is prepared in these family camps. Throughout the night guests that arrive are welcomed to help eat up the leftovers. The foods eaten at Stomp Dances are typical southern delicacies such as corn bread, mashed potatoes as well as certain specialized Indian dishes such as sofkee, dumplings, hominy, frybread, and numerous traditional dishes.

Kituwah stomp dance grounds are encircled by seven clan arbors. These are influenced by the traditionalist revival among Cherokees during the late 19th century, inspired by Redbird Smith.^[5] In 1907, 22 ceremonial grounds were active on Cherokee lands in Oklahoma.^[6]

Stickball games are often played at stomp dance grounds.^[7] Yuchi stomp dances are held in conjunction with their ritual football games.^[8] Especially in Oklahoma, different tribes will participate in each other's dances.^[9]

Leadership[link]

Turtleshell rattle made by Tommy Wildcat

A traditional Stomp Dance grounds is often headed by a male elder. In the Creek and Seminole traditions the Meko or "king" is the primary ceremonial authority. The Meko is assisted by his second in charge called a Heniha, the chief medicine man called a Hillis Hiya and speaker called Meko Tvlvswv or Meko's tongue/speaker. It is important to note that Mekos are not supposed to publicly address the entire grounds and as such that responsibility falls often on Meko Tvlvswsv. A traditional Creek grounds also employs four Tvstvnvkes (warchiefs/generals/police), four head ladies and four alternate head ladies.

Ceremony[link]

A night of dancing typically starts well after dark and continues until dawn of the next day, with many rounds of dancing throughout the night. Participants who are making a religious commitment to the ceremony will begin fasting after midnight, "touch medicine" at four different times during night, and are obligated to stay awake the whole night. The medicine is made from specific roots and plants which have been ceremonially gathered by selected "medicine helpers" and prepared by the Heles Haya at dawn of the morning of the Dance. This medicine is intended for the physical and spiritual benefit of the members of the dance at the ceremonial ground.

One of the male members of the community is given the job of calling out each song leader and all other participants to dance for each round. Each round is led by a selected man who has developed his own sequence of songs from the multitude of variations on traditional rhythms, melodies and lyrics, sometimes with personalized content in the mix. The songs are typically performed in call and response form, in the native language. Every dance must have at least one woman with shakers, who falls into step immediately behind the song leader, to carry the rhythm. The remaining dancers follow, alternating male-female in a continuous spiral around the central fire, with visitors, then young children, and the odd numbers trailing at the end. The dancers circle the fire in counterclockwise direction with deliberate stomping steps set to the rhythm created by the women with their shell shakers.^[2] Depending on the size of the community and the number of visitors in attendance, the number of people joining the circle may range from less than ten up to several hundred. Usually a round of dancing continues until at least four songs are completed by the dance leader, and then everyone returns to their seats until another singer is called on to "lead out." There is usually a few minutes of rest between each leader, but the breaks may stretch longer if there are fewer people present to participate. The Stomp Dance is not meant to be a grueling and physically challenging event, but almost every participant on the grounds will dance most of the night.

Dance grounds[link]

Although not as widespread as they were in the past, there are still many Ceremonial Grounds, or Stomp Grounds, located in what is now the southeastern United States and Oklahoma, where so many of the southeastern peoples were forced to move during the 1800s. Stokes Smith Stomp Dance Ground, which is located in an isolated area of the Cherokee Nation tribal lands, is one of approximately seven active Cherokee grounds. The Eastern Band Cherokee stomp grounds is currently located in Raven's Roost, North Carolina, on the Qualla Boundary. The Creek tribe today has 16 active ceremonial grounds located throughout northeast Oklahoma. One of which is Flat Rock, located west of Eufaula and south of Mill Creek. Other active communities include Hossossv Tvlvhvse Ceremonial Ground on the Poarch Creek Indian Reservation near Atmore, Alabama, Kvnfvske Etvlwv in Fountain, Florida, and the White Oak Shawnee Tribe's grounds.

Music[link]

Men sing stomp dance songs in a call-and-answer format. A leader is chosen for a song and the other men provided a chorus.^[2] For some dances, the male dance leader carries a handheld rattle – commonly made from box turtle shells, gourds or coconuts. Women provide the primary rhythm accompaniment with shakers worn on their legs, which are traditionally made from turtle shells as well, but may also be made from condensed milk cans. During certain dances, a water drum can be used.^[2] Ethnomusicologist Victoria Lindsay Levine writes that, "Stomp dance songs are among the most exhilarating and dramatic musical genres in Native America."^[10]

Attire[link]

detail of a stompdance skirt made by Ardina Moore (Osage-Quapaw), featuring rattlesnake-patterned ribbon work

The dress of most Stomp Dancers is casual but nice. Most Stomp Dancers keep special attire for ceremonial occasions, but the physical nature of the dance and summery, outdoor conditions of the dance make comfort more important than flair. Women wear skirts and blouses that usually incorporate traditional patterns. The men wear blue jeans or slacks and hats, which are usually cowboy or ballcap styles, usually with a single eagle, hawk or crane feather in the hatband. The ribbon shirt is the standard ceremonial attire for both men and women, which consists of a loose-fitted tunic decorated with ribbons. Cherokee women typically wear full cotton skirts featuring ribbonwork in a rattlesnake pattern.

The women wear turtle shell shakers, or shackles, on both legs^[2] (typically 6 to 12 on each leg).^[11] The shakers are hollowed out shells which have holes drilled in them and are filled with rocks, shot, soda can lids or anything else that will make them rattle. The traditional Creek and Seminole shell shakers are made of terrapin or box turtle shells. Lydia Sam, a Natchez-Cherokee traditionalist, was the first to dance with tin, condensed milk can leg shackles in the 1920s. Some ground leaders insist on the use of the terrapin by head lady shell shakers. This tradition continues today and most women start out with a set of "cans" before moving up to having their own set of shells. Women stomp dancers are called "Shell Shakers" or "Turtles."

Etiquette[link]

Participants and visitors to a stomp dance ground cannot be under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Depending upon the grounds, they cannot have partaken of either for a prescribed period of time before or after the dance. Photography is not allowed at ceremonial dances. The ceremonies are religious, and many participants do not feel comfortable discussing details with non-Indians, particularly in regards to medicine.^[12] Pregnant or menstruating women do not enter the dance circle at ceremonial grounds. Depending on the ground, they may or may not touch medicine.

Secular stomp dances[link]

During the off-season, Stomp Dances are sometimes performed indoors to avoid the winter cold. Some societies incorporate Stomp Dance into pow wows or as educational demonstrations. Caddos,^[13] Delaware, and other Woodland and Southern tribes have a secular or social stomp dance tradition. The Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma currently maintain non-ceremonial grounds for stomp dances and stickball.

See also[link]

• Native American music
• Turkey dance

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Howard, James H. and Willie Lena. Oklahoma Seminoles, Medicines, Magic and Religion. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1984. ISBN 978-0-8061-2238-0.
• Hudson, Charles M. The Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee, 1976. ISBN 978-0-87049-248-8.
• Lewis, Jr., David and Ann T. Jordan. Creek Indian Medicine Ways. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8263-2368-2.
• Maudlin, Margaret McKane and Jack B. Martin. A Dictionary of Creek/Muskogee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000 (retrieved through Google Books, 6 July 2009). ISBN 978-0-8032-8302-2.
• Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
• Thomas, Robert K. "The Origins of the Redbird Smith Movement." Graduate thesis.
• Weisman, Brent Richards. Unconquered People: Florida’s Seminole and Miccosukee Indians. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. ISBN 978-0-8130-1663-4.
• Wright, Jr., J. Leitch. Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1990. ISBN 978-0-8032-9728-9.